2


Nervous system
functioning
TOPIC CONTENT
2.1 Overview �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������166
2.2 Roles of different sub-divisions of the central and peripheral nervous systems ���������������������������������������170
2.2.1 Central nervous system ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������170
2.2.2 Peripheral nervous system ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������173
2.3 Conscious and unconscious responses to sensory stimuli �������������������������������������������������������������������������184
2.4 Role of neurotransmitters �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������189
2.4.1 Glutamate �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������191
2.4.2 Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������192
2.5 Role of neuromodulators ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������195
2.5.1 Dopamine �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������195
2.5.2 Serotonin ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������197
2.6 Neural mechanisms of memory formation and learning ������������������������������������������������������������������������������201
2.6.1 Synaptic plasticity and changes to connections between neurons ��������������������������������������������������������201
2.6.2 Sprouting, rerouting and pruning ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������203
2.6.3 Long-term potentiation and long-term depression ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������204
2.7 Review ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������209
2.1 Overview
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• the roles of different subdivisions of the central and peripheral nervous systems in responding to,
and processing and coordinating with, sensory stimuli received by the body to enable conscious and
unconscious responses, including spinal reflexes
• the role of neurotransmitters in the transmission of neural information across a neural synapse to produce
excitatory effects (as with glutamate) or inhibitory effects (as with gamma-amino butyric acid [GABA]) as
compared to neuromodulators (such as dopamine and serotonin) that have a range of effects on brain
activity
• synaptic plasticity – resulting from long-term potentiation and long-term depression, which together act to
modify connections between neurons (sprouting, rerouting and pruning) – as the fundamental mechanism of
memory formation that leads to learning
Source: © VCAA, VCE Psychology Study Design: 2023–2027. p.34.

The human nervous system is a complex, highly As shown in Figure 2.1, the two main divisions are
organised network of specialised cells that enables the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
the brain to receive information about what is going system. They are connected by the spinal cord and
on from both inside and outside the body and to constantly work together maintaining communication
respond appropriately. Everything you sense, feel, throughout the body, thereby enabling us to not only
think and do is controlled by your nervous system think, feel and act as we do, but also to keep us alive.
in some way. This includes not only your everyday
The brain is kept continually informed of the ever-
sensing, perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking,
changing external and internal environments of the
imagining, speaking, moving and the vast array
body through sensory information received by the
of other responses you voluntarily make, but also
many and varied receptor cells located at or near the
your involuntary responses such as your breathing,
surface of the body and also deep within the body.
heartbeat, squinting when someone turns on a bright
These sensory receptors specialise in detecting and
light in the middle of the night, and the ‘butterflies’
responding to different types of information.
you may feel in your stomach when anxious or
meeting someone special. Sensory information from the external environment
is received through sensory receptors that are
The nervous system achieves this by serving as a
sensitive to specific types of stimuli arising outside
communication system between the body’s internal
the body. For example, neurons that function as
cells and organs and the external world. Through its
sensory receptors at the back of the eye respond only
vast network of nerves distributed throughout the
to light for vision, the inner ear contains receptors
body, the nervous system enables the brain to obtain
for hearing, balance and body position, and the skin
information about what is going on inside and outside
has receptors that are responsive to touch, pressure,
the body and to respond appropriately. Its three main
temperature and pain.
roles are to:
The nervous system also receives information from
• receive information
within various parts of the body. For example, sensory
• process information, and
receptors located in the muscles, joints and tendons
• coordinate a response to information.
provide information about muscle tension, position
Although the nervous system is a single system and movement, and receptors located in internal
within the body, it is made up of different sub- organs such as the heart, lungs, liver and intestines
systems. These are commonly referred to as provide information about the body’s internal
‘divisions’ or ‘branches’. Each division also has sub- environment.
divisions. Although each division and sub-division
carries out identifiable roles, the nervous system
functions as a coordinated whole.

166 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
 Nervous system

Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system

(CNS) (PNS)
Carries messages to Carries messages to
and from the PNS and from the CNS

Somatic nervous system

Brain Spinal cord Autonomic nervous system Carries messages from
Responsible for Connects brain Connects CNS to sensory receptors in the
virtually everything and PNS; initiates internal organs and body to the CNS, and
we think, feel and do spinal reflexes glands; self-regulating motor messages from the
CNS to skeletal muscles

Enteric nervous
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
system
nervous system nervous system
Dedicated to the functioning
Prepares body Calms body
of the gastrointestinal
for action after action
(digestive) tract

Figure 2.1 The major divisions and sub-divisions of the human nervous system

When the sensory information is received at the different areas of the brain, and between the brain
brain it is processed. This enables perception — and the rest of the nervous system. Their work is
interpretation of the sensory information so meaning supported by glia cells. Glia outnumber neurons
can be assigned. Processing often involves integrating in some parts of the brain, but neurons are the key
incoming information with other information already players in the brain.
in the brain. For example, incoming auditory and
Neurons not only communicate with each other,
visual sensory information may be combined with
but also with muscles and glands. When even one
information stored in memory in order to recognise
part of the communication process breaks down, the
what was seen and heard. If required, the brain will
results can be devastating. Many brain disorders,
also coordinate a response by initiating appropriate
nervous system diseases and mental health disorders
action; for example, by sending neural messages to
have been linked to problems with neurons and
muscles, glands and internal organs. This, in turn,
communication within and between neurons.
enables muscles to move, causes glands to secrete
hormones and initiate the responses of internal Although the brain and nervous system cannot
organs, thereby enabling our body systems to recover from or repair all damage, they are
function effectively. remarkably adaptable. From the time our brain begins
to develop through to the end of life, neurons and
Neurons are the building blocks of the brain and
the connections between them change in response to
the rest of the nervous system. The entire nervous
our experiences. Their ability to make connections is
system is comprised of billions of neurons organised
what makes each of us unique in how we think, and
into networks that form neural pathways or circuits
feel, and act.
of varying complexity through which information
continually travels. Neurons specialise in the We start this topic with an examination of the roles
reception and transmission of information throughout of different sub-divisions of the nervous system in
the nervous system. They use electrical impulses and responding to internal and external stimuli to enable
chemical signals to transmit information between conscious and unconscious responses.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 167

(a)

(b)

Dendrites
Nucleus Terminal buttons
Axon

Axon collaterals

Axon terminals
Dendritic spines

Figure 2.2 (a) Neurons are the building blocks of the human nervous system. (b) Neurons have specialised
roles and vary in shape and size. However, most neurons typically have several structural features in common.
These include dendrites for receiving incoming information and an axon along which outgoing information is
transmitted. The red arrows show the direction of an outgoing neural message.

168 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
2.1 LEARNING ACTIVITY
Multiple-choice questions
1. The central nervous system may be sub-divided into which two parts?
A. brain and spinal cord
B. brain and peripheral nervous system
C. spinal cord and peripheral nervous system
D. sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
2. Which part of the nervous system coordinates the activity of the entire nervous system?
A. neurons
B. the brain
C. neural pathways
D. autonomic nervous system
3. What connects the brain to the rest of the nervous system?
A. spinal cord
B. enteric nervous system
C. peripheral nervous system
D. autonomic nervous system
4. The major roles of the human nervous system are to
A. receive and process incoming information.
B. create building blocks for communication of information.
C. receive, process and coordinate a response to incoming information.
D. build neural pathways for communication of internal and external information.
5. What are the sub-divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
A. brain and spinal cord
B. peripheral and somatic nervous systems
C. central and peripheral nervous systems
D. enteric, sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 169

2.2 R
 oles of different sub-divisions of the central
and peripheral nervous systems
2.2.1 Central nervous system network. Some pathways span short distances and
others extend from one side of the brain to the other.
The central nervous system (CNS) comprises the Neural pathways also connect the brain to other parts
brain and its extension, the spinal cord. Its primary or of the nervous system and the body.
overarching roles are to process information received
from the body’s internal and external environments Although much is known about the brain’s neural
and to activate appropriate responses. circuitry, chemistry, structures and functioning,
more remains unclear or unknown. For example,
although it is known that different types of memory
Brain
are associated with activity in distinctive parts of the
The brain is an intricate network of cells that plays a brain, it is not fully understood how the brain goes
vital role in processing information received through about locating and retrieving specific memories when
neural pathways from the body and in directing needed. Nor is it known exactly how different types
actions within the body. It continuously receives of memories are actually stored.
and analyses sensory information,
responding by controlling all bodily
actions and functions. Because of its
crucial role in almost everything we
think, feel and do, it is sometimes
called the ‘control centre’ or ‘master
regulator’.
The brain is more than a mass of
networked cells. Brain cells are
organised into many identifiable areas
(or ‘regions’) and structures that have
specialised roles. For example, some
parts are dedicated to sensory or motor
functions. Most parts, however, have
integrating and overlapping roles. The
apparently simple task of naming a
familiar object, such as a car or mobile
phone, will trigger activity in multiple
structures and areas throughout the
brain. These include areas at the back
and side to process visual information
received from the eyes, areas at the
front, at the sides and near the centre
to recover information from memory
and to identify the object, and areas
towards the front involved in language
and speech production to state the
name of the object.
Many brain functions involve the Figure 2.3 The human brain is responsible for virtually everything
activation of neural pathways that link we think, feel and do. The wrinkly looking outer surface is a sheet
different brain areas and structures. of neural tissue called the cerebral cortex. The largest and most
A neural pathway comprises one recently evolved part of this cortex is called neocortex. However,
or more circuits of interconnected the terms cerebral cortex, neocortex and cortex tend to be used
interchangeably.
neurons that form a communication

170 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
Spinal cord example, an itch on your big toe, the sensation
of heat as you step into a warm bath and the pain
The spinal cord is the long, thin bundle of nerve
of a sprained wrist are all carried via the spinal
fibres that extends from the base of the brain to the
cord to the brain area responsible for initially
lower back. It is encased in a series of bones called
processing this type of sensory information
the vertebrae that extend further than the actual cord.
• receive motor information from the brain and
As can be seen in Figure 2.4 below, the spinal cord
send it to relevant parts of the body (via the
links the brain and the parts of the body below the
peripheral nervous system) to control muscles,
neck.
glands and internal organs so that appropriate
Two major functions of the spinal cord are to: actions can be taken. For example, as shown in
Figure 2.5, to pick up a water bottle and bring
• receive sensory information from the body
it to your mouth for a drink, millions of neural
(via the peripheral nervous system) and send
messages are sent from the primary motor cortex
these messages to the brain for processing. For
(a) (b)

Brain Brain

Spinal cord

Spinal
cord

Figure 2.4 (a) The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. (b) Anatomically, the spinal cord links the brain and
peripheral nervous system.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 171

 to the muscles in your shoulder, upper arm, glands and/or organs. The tracts are actually nerves
forearm, wrist and fingers. This is complemented comprising nerve fibres that are bundled together. All
by other relevant information that has been nerve fibres in a given tract usually have a similar
processed by your brain such as the size, shape, origin, destination and roles.
texture, weight, distance and location of the
When the spinal cord is injured, the brain can lose
bottle in relation to your eyes, mouth and hand,
both sensory input from and control over the body.
so that you can successfully execute a highly
The severity of feeling loss and paralysis depends on
coordinated series of individual movements
where the spinal cord is injured and the severity of
performed in one, well-timed, smooth action
the injury. Generally, the higher up on the spine the
with just enough pressure to grasp the bottle and
injury is, the greater the number of nerve connections
hold it without squeezing it too hard.
between the brain and body that are disturbed.
The transmission of information along the spinal
The spinal cord has a relatively simple organisation
cord, to and from the brain, occurs through the
but does more than provide pathways for messages to
interconnected neurons that form neural pathways.
and from the brain. It can also initiate some simple
There are ascending tracts (pathways) that carry
motor reactions in the form of reflexes that occur
sensory information up to the brain and descending
extremely rapidly, independently of the brain. We
tracts for motor information, which leaves the brain
consider the role of these spinal reflexes and how
and travels down the spinal cord to exit via the
they occur in the next section.
spinal nerves to their destination in specific muscles,

1 Prefrontal cortex in the frontal lobe processes 8 Primary somatosensory cortex in the parietal
visual information received from elsewhere in lobe receives message that the bottle has
the brain so the target can be located. been grasped.

2 Premotor cortex in the frontal lobe plans the

reach and adjacent primary motor cortex 7 Basal ganglia structures at the base of the
commands the movement. forebrain judge grasp forces, and the
cerebellum at the rear corrects movement
errors to ensure well-timed execution.
3 Spinal cord carries outgoing motor
information to the hand (via an efferent,
descending tract).
Motor nerve 6 Spinal cord carries incoming sensory
information to the brain (via an afferent,
4 Motor neurons carry message to skeletal ascending tract).
muscles of the hand and forearm.

Sensory nerve

5 Sensory receptors on the fingers (within the skin) send

message to primary somatosensory cortex that the bottle has
been grasped.

Figure 2.5 This illustration shows some of the brain processes and information transmission via the spinal cord
that occur to pick up a water bottle in one, well-timed, smooth action with just enough pressure to grasp the
bottle and hold it without squeezing it too hard. Note that the right arm is picking up the bottle. This means that
motor information will be sent from the brain’s left hemisphere (because it controls voluntary movements on the
right side of the body) and somatosensory (‘body sense’) information will be sent to the brain’s left hemisphere.

learnMORE | Brain areas, structures and roles

Access learnON for a diagram showing the location and roles of various brain areas and structures.

172 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
2.2.2 Peripheral nervous system
The central nervous system does not have direct
contact with the outside world. It relies on the
peripheral nervous system to link it to the rest of the
body so that messages can be carried to and from the
brain via the spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the entire
network of nerves located outside the CNS. It extends
from the top of the head, throughout the body to the
tips of the fingers and toes and to all parts of the skin.
Its primary, overarching role is to carry information
to and from the CNS. More specifically, the PNS:
• carries information to the CNS from the body’s
muscles, organs and glands (about the internal
environment) and from the sensory organs
(about the external environment)
• carries information from the CNS to the body’s
muscles, organs and glands.
The peripheral nervous system does this through its
two divisions: the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system.

Figure 2.6 The peripheral nervous system (PNS)

consists of all nerves outside the central nervous
system (CNS). It carries information to and from the
CNS.

2.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

Review
1. A neural pathway is best described as a
A. neuron that can receive and send information.
B. collection of neurons that can receive and send information.
C. circuit of interconnected neurons along which information travels.
D. branch or sub-division of the entire nervous system.
2. The peripheral nervous system
A. is a sub-division of the central nervous system.
B. comprises the brain and autonomic nervous system.
C. includes all the nerves located within the central nervous system.
D. carries information to and from the central nervous system.
3. a. Describe the two crucial roles of the spinal cord in terms of the types of messages that travel up and down
its length, and the branch of the nervous system to which it connects.
b. What is a third role of the spinal cord?
4. Explain why spinal cord damage can result in loss of brain–body control.
5. Describe the relationship between the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system, with
reference to key roles of each of these branches.
To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 173

Somatic nervous system SNS is demonstrated whenever voluntary actions are
performed. For example, when you text, talk, chew,
The somatic nervous system (SNS) is a sub-division
shower, surf or dance, your somatic nervous system
of the peripheral nervous system comprising a
is active.
network of nerves that carries sensory information
to the CNS and motor information from the CNS. Thus, the somatic nervous system is involved in all
Sensory information is received at sensory receptor skeletal muscle activity that enables us to participate
sites in the body (skin, muscles, joints and tendons) in our relationship with the external environment. Its
and carried along sensory neural pathways by sensory nerves send information to the brain from the body’s
neurons. Motor information is carried along motor various sensory receptors. These nerves also enable
neural pathways by motor neurons to skeletal muscles us to respond to these stimuli by moving through the
to control their activity by causing them to contract environment.
or relax. Skeletal muscles are attached to our bones
and respond to messages from the CNS to initiate, Although motor pathways carry messages that initiate
change or stop movement. or stop movement, voluntary movement is controlled
through the coordinated actions of both motor and
The sensory information is called afferent and sensory information. For example, when you use
the motor information efferent. These terms refer a finger to scratch your nose, your brain sends
to the direction of the neural information flow. messages from the primary motor cortex via motor
More specifically, afferent information is sensory neurons to skeletal muscles in your arm, hands and
information coming into the CNS (incoming fingers to move in specific ways. Sensory receptors
information), whereas efferent information is motor in your skin and muscles send back messages
information leaving the CNS (outgoing information). through sensory neurons that help determine how
much pressure is needed to hold a pen. However,
The sensory function of the SNS is demonstrated
your somatic nervous system does not make your
when someone touches your hand. The SNS sends
heart beat faster when you are suddenly threatened,
the sensory signals about touch from the skin to
nor does it regulate your internal environment. For
your brain, resulting in the sensation of touch (or
these reactions, the other sub-division of the PNS is
pressure on the skin). The motor function of the
required — the autonomic nervous system.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.7 (a) Sensory receptors within the skin detect the nibbling bites in the fish spa and transmit the sensory
information along the SNS to the CNS. (b) Our SNS is also active when we voluntarily move, such as when
walking up a set of stairs.

174 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
2.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
Review
1. Describe the two main roles of the somatic nervous system.
2. Give an example of each of these roles, using examples not referred to in the text.
3. Distinguish between the afferent and efferent information with reference to the type of information and the
direction in which it is transmitted.
4. Whenever you reach to pick up a glass of water on a table, both the sensory and motor functions of the
somatic nervous system are involved. Explain both the sensory and motor roles in grasping the glass.
5. The tennis player shown below has restricted movement due to paraplegia caused by spinal cord damage.
Explain this athlete’s restricted movement with reference to the somatic nervous system.

To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

2.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 3

VCAA exam questions
Question 1 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2014 Psychology, Section A, Q.39 (adapted); ©VCAA
The sensory function of the somatic nervous system can be demonstrated by
A. all activity within the spinal cord.
B. moving your hand away from a hot stove reflexively.
C. the homeostatic response to an increase in body temperature.
D. experiencing the sensation of heat when holding a cup of coffee.

Question 2 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2010 Psychology 1, Section A, Q.9; ©VCAA
The motor function of the somatic nervous system can be demonstrated by
A. experiencing the cold sensation of ice on your skin.
B. reflexively moving your hand away from a hot stove.
C. feeling muscle soreness after playing sport.
D. scratching your head.

Question 3 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2009 Psychology 1, Section A, Q.8; ©VCAA
The peripheral nervous system contains
A. the skeletal muscles.
B. the brain and spinal cord.
C. all the nerves of the central nervous system.
D. all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 175

 Question 4 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2006 Psychology 1, Section A, Q.10; ©VCAA
The somatic nervous system carries information from _____ to the _____.
A. the peripheral nervous system; autonomic nervous system
B. the sympathetic nervous system; parasympathetic nervous system
C. skeletal muscles; sensory receptors
D. sensory receptors; CNS

Question 5 (5 marks)
Source: VCAA 2019 Psychology, Section B, Q.1; ©VCAA
Finn was standing near a camp fire with his friends when he noticed the fire becoming hotter against the skin of
his legs. To avoid getting burnt by the growing flames, he took a step away from the camp fire.
The human nervous system has two major divisions.
Identify the subdivision of one of these major divisions that activates Finn’s responses and outline how the
subdivision is involved in Finn’s responses.
To answer these and additional questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

Autonomic nervous system Unlike the somatic nervous system, which is

responsible for initiating skeletal muscle movement,
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a sub-
the ANS regulates the activity of the visceral
division of the peripheral nervous system that
muscles, organs and glands. This means that the
connects the CNS to the body’s internal organs (such
messages carried between the CNS and the visceral
as the heart, stomach and liver) and glands (such
muscles, organs and glands either increase or
as sweat, salivary and adrenal glands), providing
decrease their respective activities in response to
feedback to the brain about their activities.
the varying demands placed on the body throughout
The ANS is called ‘autonomous’ because many of each day.
the organs, glands and processes under its control are
You often become consciously aware of ANS
self-regulating and therefore occur without conscious
functions when you experience emotions such as
effort and are not usually under our voluntary control.
fear, anger and excitement at intense levels because
For example, your heartbeat, breathing, digestion and
this is when there is heightened ANS activity. For
perspiration occur without your conscious activation
example, think about how you can feel your heart
or control of them.
and breathing rates change when you suddenly
While skeletal muscles are completely inactive in the become very frightened, or during exhilarating
absence of motor neuron messages from the brain, moments on a roller-coaster ride. Recall also the
the muscles involved in the activity of internal organs physiological changes you can instantly feel when the
and glands (called visceral muscles) have built-in fear or exhilaration start to diminish. Your heart rate
mechanisms for generating and maintaining their noticeably slows and your breathing becomes more
activity and do not depend on voluntary control by regulated. Any goosebumps on your skin or feelings
the brain. of butterflies in your stomach will also eventually
disappear.
This is an important feature of the ANS, as it
functions continuously — whether we are awake, The ANS is not completely self-regulating. It is
active, asleep, under an anaesthetic or even in a linked to the brain’s cerebral cortex so we can
coma. Regardless of our level of awareness or voluntarily control a few autonomic responses at
alertness, the ANS keeps the vital organs and systems certain times. For example, with conscious effort, you
of our body functioning, thereby maintaining our could control your breathing rate right now.
survival.

176 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
 Figure 2.8 In outer space, the temperature is extremely cold and there is no oxygen. Astronauts wear
special space suits to restrict heat loss and to maintain adequate oxygen pressure for brain function.
On Earth, these functions occur automatically through the activity of the autonomic nervous system.

2.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 4

Review
1. a. Why is the autonomic nervous system described as autonomous?
b. Is ‘autonomous’ a truly accurate term for describing this division of the nervous system? Explain with
reference to an example.
2. Describe the relationship of the autonomic nervous system to the central nervous system with reference to a
physiological response.
3. How do skeletal and visceral muscles differ?
4. How do we manage to keep alive, breathing and with the heart beating, while we are asleep?
5. Which is more important in maintaining our survival without conscious awareness or effort: the autonomic
nervous system or the central nervous system? Explain with reference to an example.
6. Indicate whether each of the following responses is primarily a role of the somatic nervous system (S),
autonomic nervous system (A), or both (S & A). Answer in the spaces provided.
a. ____________ blinking
b. ____________ talking on the phone
c. ____________ pressing a key to send an email
d. ____________ laughing at a joke
e. ____________ sweating before having to give an important speech
f. ____________ feeling your heart race when startled by a loud noise
g. ____________ washing the dog
h. ____________ eating dinner
To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

Resources
Teacher digital document Practical activity — Testing conscious manipulation of autonomic activity through
biofeedback

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 177

The ANS consists of three sub-divisions which have Sympathetic nervous system
extensive connections to each other. These are: The sympathetic nervous system activates internal
• the sympathetic nervous system, which is muscles, organs and glands to prepare the body
responsible for increasing the activity of most for vigorous activity or to deal with a stressful or
visceral muscles, organs and glands in times of threatening situation. This is initiated by a stressor or
vigorous activity, stress or threat fear stimulus and enhances survival by providing an
• the parasympathetic nervous system, which immediate response, in a split second, to any kind of
is responsible for decreasing the activity of emergency.
most visceral muscles, organs and glands, and When you perceive an emergency or experience
restoring body functioning to its normal state a crisis, the sympathetic nervous system activates
• the enteric nervous system, which is dedicated specific organs and glands to respond. Glands that
to the gastrointestinal tract and therefore helps are activated include the adrenal glands, which
regulate digestion. are located just above your kidneys and release
hormones (such as adrenaline and cortisol) into the
The sympathetic and parasympathetic systems bloodstream. These circulate throughout your body,
counterbalance each other’s activities without enhancing the effects of the sympathetic system by
conscious effort. This is demonstrated when you activating and energising various muscles, organs
engage in an activity requiring physical exertion over and other glands in preparation for dealing with the
a period of time. For example, when playing tennis stressor or potential threat.
vigorously, your sympathetic nervous system speeds
up your heart rate to pump more blood and oxygen The result is that your heart rate and blood pressure
to your muscles. It causes your liver to release sugar increase, and your breathing rate increases so more
(glucose) into your bloodstream for energy, and oxygen can be taken in. Sugar and fat are released
induces sweating to keep your skin cool and prevent from storage to provide instant energy to the skeletal
you from overheating. Because the body is pumping muscles. Your pupils dilate (‘expand’) to allow more
more blood and oxygen to the muscles, these are light to enter the eye and enhance vision. Your sweat
diverted from non-essential functions such as glands increase production of sweat to cool the body.
digestion, so this is inhibited by signalling the enteric In addition, digestion is slowed down (via nerve
nervous system. fibres that enter the intestinal wall and connect the
sympathetic system to the enteric nervous system).
After the game, your parasympathetic nervous system The sympathetic system is also involved when you
takes over. Your heart rate slows, constricting the blush or get goosebumps, making the hairs on your
blood vessels in your muscles so the blood flow is body stand on end.
diverted to the internal organs. Your
sweat glands gradually slow down
the production of sweat as the body
returns to its normal state.
The sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems do not function in an ‘on/
off’ or ‘either/or’ way. They are both
active at the same time. However,
one system is usually dominant at
any given time. For example, the
sympathetic system dominates and
is more active during emotional
arousal, whereas the parasympathetic
system is dominant and more active
during rest and digestion. Figure 2.9 The sympathetic nervous system is dominant in both these
animals at this time.

178 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
Parasympathetic nervous system addition, when returning the body to a balanced
In times of minimal stress and in the absence of state (i.e. homeostasis), the parasympathetic system
threat, the parasympathetic nervous system helps reduces heart and breathing rates, and minimises the
to maintain the internal body environment in a release of sugar and fats into the bloodstream.
steady, balanced state of normal functioning. The If you had to jump out of the way of an oncoming
parasympathetic system generally has the effect of car, your sympathetic system would immediately
counterbalancing the activities of the sympathetic be activated. Once the danger had passed, your
system. It restores the body to a state of calm, once parasympathetic system would take over and the
the need for sympathetic nervous activation has various bodily systems and functions activated by the
passed. sympathetic system would gradually begin to return
The parasympathetic system dominates the to normal.
sympathetic system most of the time. It is involved The parasympathetic system takes longer to return
in routine, everyday activities. For example, when the body to its normal state compared with the
you eat, the parasympathetic system stimulates sympathetic system’s immediate activation. This is
the stomach and intestines to digest food (via its because of the lingering presence of the hormones
connections to the enteric nervous system). It is that are released when the sympathetic system is
also involved in the protection of the visual system activated. These hormones remain in the bloodstream
through the production of tears and through automatic for some time after the threat has passed.
pupil constriction in conditions of bright light. In

Figure 2.10 Some extreme sports activate the sympathetic nervous system. After the athlete has landed safely,
the parasympathetic nervous system restores the body to a state of calm.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 179

 Table 2.1 The activities of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

Sympathetic nervous Parasympathetic

Bodily organ Bodily function system action nervous system action
Pupils Regulate the amount of Dilate (expand) Contract
light entering the eye
Salivary glands Digestion Decrease salivation Increase salivation
Heart Pumps blood Accelerate heart rate Slow heart rate
Bronchioles of lungs Breathing Dilate (expand) Contract
Stomach Digestion Decrease contractions Increase contractions
Liver Produces bile to aid Increase the release of Decrease the release of
digestion glucose (sugar) glucose (sugar)

Maintains blood-sugar
(glucose) level
Gall bladder Stores bile Inhibit the release of bile Stimulate the release of
bile
Adrenal glands Secrete the hormones Stimulate hormone Inhibit hormone secretion
adrenaline (epinephrine) secretion resulting in
and noradrenaline increased heart rate,
(norepinephrine) from the blood pressure and
medulla breathing rate, and
relaxation of intestinal
muscles
Bladder Stores urine Relax Increase contractions
Intestines Digestion Relax Increase contractions
Genitals Reproduction Excite Relax
Sweat glands Regulate temperature Increase production of Decrease production of
perspiration perspiration

Resources
Teacher digital document Practical activity — Measuring heart rate restoration

Enteric nervous system oesophagus and the rectum. There are also neural
The gastrointestinal tract is the part of the digestive circuits connecting the ENS with other parts of the
system that comprises the hollow organs that food nervous system and the solid organs of the digestive
and liquids travel through when they are swallowed, system.
digested, absorbed, and leave the body as faeces. The total number of neurons in the ENS of humans
These organs include the mouth, oesophagus, is estimated at 400–600 million, which is greater
stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and than the total of all neurons in the sympathetic and
anus. The liver, pancreas and gallbladder are the solid parasympathetic nervous systems combined and
organs of the digestive system. similar to the number of neurons in the spinal cord.
The enteric nervous system (ENS) is embedded The ENS has multiple roles. Its neurons and
within the walls of the gastrointestinal tract and ganglia detect the physiological condition of the
is dedicated to its functioning. It is an integrated, gastrointestinal tract, integrate information about
mesh-like system composed of thousands of small its state, provide outputs to control gut movement
clusters of neurons (called ganglia) and nerve fibres (e.g. muscle contractions that move food and waste
that connect them. As shown on Figure 2.11, these along the gut), and perform many other functions
are located in most regions of the tract, between the such as nutrient management, regulating gastric acid

180 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
secretions, changing local blood flow and interacting The ENS can also function independently of the
with the parts of the immune and endocrine systems brain and carry out some of its functions in the
that are located in the gut. digestive process without communicating with the
brain (as has been demonstrated when the vagus
The ENS has extensive, two-way connections with
nerve that directly connects the brain and gut is
the CNS, and works together with the CNS to control
cut). It is also capable of acting independently
the digestive system in the context of local and whole
of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
body physiological demands. For example, the ENS
systems, although it may be influenced by them.
and brain interact in controlling stomach secretions
and voluntary bowel movements.

Oesophagus beneath
(connects the throat
and stomach)

Stomach

Duodenum
(first part of the
small intestine)

Large intestine
Small intestine

Rectum

Figure 2.11 The enteric nervous system is located within the walls of the gastrointestinal tract between the
oesophagus and rectum.
Source: Based on Furness, J. B. (2012). The enteric nervous system and neurogastroenterology. Nature Reviews.
Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 9, 286–294.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 181

ENS activity is also influenced by external factors Gut microbiota have been associated with various
that ordinarily affect hunger, eating and digestion, physical and psychological disorders. Examples
including diet, cognitions, mood, or when there are in the next topic which discusses stress as a
are disturbances to the gastrointestinal tract, such psychobiological process.
as the presence of foreign bacteria or viruses that
The ENS is sometimes referred to as a ‘second brain’
may cause illness. The ENS also regulates the
because of its degree of autonomy (including its own
response to the food and drink that are taken in. In
memory of prior gut action), and its reliance on the
the case of food poisoning, the ENS can respond by
same types of neurons and neurotransmitters that are
initiating vomiting and diarrhoea.
found in the CNS. However, the roles of the ENS are
The microbiota, comprising the bacteria and trillions much more restricted than the actual brain, so this
of other microscopic organisms that live in the analogy has limited usefulness (Furness, 2006; 2012;
gastrointestinal tract, may also influence how the 2016).
ENS functions to regulate digestive processes.

2.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 5

Review
1. Complete the following paragraph.
The _____ nervous system arouses the body for vigorous activity or to deal with a stressful or threatening
situation; whereas the _____ nervous system restores the body to a state of calm, once the need for nervous
system activation has passed. When the need for nervous system activation has passed, the _____ nervous
system will play a predominant role in restoring digestive processes to their normal level of functioning.

2. Which sub-division of the autonomic nervous system has its own network of neurons dedicated to its
functioning?
3. In which sub-division of the nervous system would gut microbiota be found?
4. a. Give three examples of bodily functions that increase their activity as a result of sympathetic system
activation.
b. Give three examples of bodily functions that decrease their activity as a result of sympathetic system
activation.
5. Give an example of a specific bodily function that is affected as a result of the action of the parasympathetic
nervous system. Briefly explain the purpose of the changes if resulting from parasympathetic nervous system
activation.
6. Explain why it can take longer for the parasympathetic nervous system to ‘slow down’ bodily functions than it
does for the sympathetic nervous system to ‘speed up’ bodily functions.
7. Which division of the autonomic nervous system is likely to be dominant if you are in each of the following
situations?
a. lying on the beach reading a book
b. waiting for the delivery of your VCE results
c. feeling anxious about a blind date
d. hearing an unexpected loud knock on the window at 2 am while watching TV alone
e. watching a terrifying scene in a movie
8. a. i. Where is the enteric nervous system located?
ii. Name three organs that are part of this system.
iii. Give an example of a digestive organ not considered a part of the system but with which it is
interconnected.
b. What is the primary role of this system?
c. Explain, with reference to an example, whether the enteric system is entirely autonomous.
d. Complete the following sentence.
In general, sympathetic nervous system stimulation of the enteric nervous system will _____
gastrointestinal activity; whereas, parasympathetic nervous system stimulation will _____ gastrointestinal
activity.
To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

182 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
2.2 LEARNING ACTIVITY 6
VCAA exam questions
Question 1 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2021 Psychology, Section A, Q.3 (adapted); ©VCAA
Vikki wakes up to the sound of something scratching at the bedroom window and becomes so frightened that
she cannot move.

Vikki is likely experiencing

A. an inability to move due to parasympathetic dominance.
B. a heightened heart rate with sympathetic nervous system activation.
C. stimulation of the autonomic nervous system in preparation for running away.
D. an inability of the muscular nervous system to function effectively.

Question 2 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2019 Psychology, Section A, Q.5; ©VCAA
Masako was anxious about and excited to be competing in the last baseball game before the finals. If her team
won, it would progress to the finals. Masako was new to the sport and doubted her abilities but had practised a
lot and carefully listened to her coach’s tips. She had also decided that this game would help increase her skills.
When it came time for Masako to bat, she was concentrating so closely on the ball that she blocked out the
crowd cheering her on.

Which of the following identifies the functioning of Masako’s autonomic nervous system and a resulting
physiological response when she was preparing to bat?

Autonomic nervous system functioning Physiological response

Parasympathetic nervous Sympathetic nervous
system system
A. active inactive decreased salivation
B. non-dominant dominant increased blood pressure
C. inactive dominant movement of skeletal muscles
D. inactive active constricted pupils

Question 3 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2018 Psychology, Section A, Q.6; ©VCAA
A psychologist wanted to investigate people’s responses to being pricked by a needle. Details of the investigation
were provided to a group of 10 participants prior to the investigation. The investigation involved blindfolding
participants and pricking each participant’s finger over several trials.

The main role of Nerissa’s autonomic nervous system when she saw the needle was to
A. notify the brain that a decision needs to be made.
B. modify the activity of internal muscles, organs and glands.
C. maintain homeostasis in internal muscles, organs and glands.
D. ensure that the brain activates internal muscles, organs and glands.

Question 4 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2014 Psychology, Section A, Q.11; ©VCAA
When Geoff feels excited, which parts of his nervous system are most likely to be activated?
A. the sympathetic branch of the somatic nervous system
B. the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system
C. the parasympathetic branch of the somatic nervous system
D. the parasympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 183

 Question 5 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2017 Psychology, Section A, Q.2; ©VCAA
Daniel ran quickly across a busy road to catch an approaching bus. When he got to the other side, he noticed
that his breathing rate had increased and his hands were shaking.

Which divisions of the nervous system most likely coordinated Daniel’s running, increased breathing and shaking
hands?

Running Increased breathing Shaking hands

A. somatic parasympathetic sympathetic
B. autonomic parasympathetic parasympathetic
C. somatic sympathetic sympathetic
D. sympathetic sympathetic sympathetic

To answer these and additional questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

2.3 C
 onscious and unconscious responses to
sensory stimuli
Some people believe that we use only 10% of our brain A conscious response to a sensory stimulus is a
and the rest is a huge reservoir of untapped potential reaction that involves awareness. You will have paid
for some kind of remarkable ‘power’. The reality is that attention to the stimulus and therefore know about it.
we ordinarily use virtually every part of the brain, and The response will usually be a voluntary, ‘intentional’
that the brain is active almost all the time. reaction. The reaction, even if momentary, is also
likely to be goal directed (‘purposeful’) and you will
In neurosurgery, where it is possible to observe the
be able to exercise some degree of control over it.
functions of a patient’s brain under local anaesthetic
while the patient is awake, electrical stimulations In the course of a typical day we make numerous
in virtually all parts show activity at the neuronal conscious responses of varying complexity to all
level, even when no sensory experience, movement kinds of external sensory stimuli that bombard our
or any other reaction is being observed. Moreover, senses. For example, when you step outside and
no areas of the brain are completely inactive, even feel the air temperature you will make a conscious
during sleep. If they were, it would indicate a serious response when you decide whether to put on a jacket.
functional disorder. Similarly, if the sun is shining brightly, you may
choose to wear sunglasses, a hat or both.
Our brain and nervous system are constantly
processing sensory stimuli detected by sensory A conscious response may also be made to an
receptors and organs that respond to the different internally sourced stimulus, as might occur if you
types of information received from both our feel a stomach ache in class at school. Depending on
internal and external environments. Our responses the severity of the ache, you may decide to ignore it,
to these stimuli may be conscious or unconscious. stroke your stomach, tell someone about it, excuse
Psychologists distinguish between these reactions yourself and leave the room, or react in some other
primarily in terms of whether or not there is way that you believe is best.
awareness.

184 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
An unconscious response to a sensory stimulus Other reflexive responses also serve to help us avoid
is a reaction that does not involve awareness. It is danger and minimise harm. Sometimes, we need to
involuntary, unintentional, automatic and we cannot react so quickly that there is no time for conscious
ordinarily control its occurrence. Bodily responses thought. These unconscious, automatically occurring
regulated by the ANS occur automatically without responses are reflexes involving contraction of
conscious effort. For example, in response to stimuli skeletal muscles. Most are very simple responses.
about the state of different bodily systems, your They occur in the same way each time and do not
ANS is unconsciously regulating their functioning, require learning. Of course, we may sometimes
pumping blood from your heart, digesting your food become conscious of the stimulus that activated a
and so on. You do not consciously have to think reflex, and this awareness may enable us to correct or
about making your heart beat, your eyes blink or your avoid a potentially dangerous situation, but awareness
lungs fill with oxygen. Many of these ANS functions is not a part of the reflex itself. It may come after the
are actually reflexive responses (called autonomic reflex action has been completed, as may occur with
reflexes). a spinal reflex.

Figure 2.12 When exposed to bright sunlight, putting on sunglasses

and shielding your eyes is a conscious response, whereas squinting or
blinking are unconscious responses.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 185

Spinal reflexes withdraw your hand to release the handle before the
sensory information travels all the way to your brain
The spinal cord does more than provide pathways for
and therefore before pain is actually experienced. The
messages to and from the brain. It can also initiate
sensory receptor cells within the skin of your fingers
some simple responses on its own independently of
would detect the heat and send neural messages via
the brain. These responses include spinal reflexes.
one or more sensory neurons to your CNS, but the
A spinal reflex is an unconscious, automatic first point of contact in the CNS is the spinal cord.
response controlled solely by neural circuits in the It responds with a message via one or more motor
spinal cord. It is often referred to as a reflex arc neurons to move the appropriate muscles in your
because the response to an incoming stimulus is hand to release the hot object and withdraw the hand
automatically ‘reflected back’ from the spinal cord and is therefore called a withdrawal reflex.
without any initial input from the brain and before
The immediate response at the spinal cord enables a
the brain processes a conscious perception of the
faster reaction time, a fraction of a second before the
stimulus.
sensory information reaches the brain. Consequently,
For example, if you were to touch the hot metal this type of spinal reflex involving a withdrawal
handle of a frying pan, you would automatically reaction is believed to be an adaptive response.

6 The message is received in the brain

area that processes this type of
sensory information and the brain
consciously interprets it as pain in
the hand.

2 Sensory neuron carries the

1 Receptor cells within the message along a sensory
skin of fingers detect heat pathway to the spinal cord
from the frying pan and
then send a neural message
to a sensory neuron.

5 While the spinal reflex

occurs, the message is
also carried up the spinal
cord to the brain.

Spinal cord
(cross-section)

4 Motor neuron carries the message along a

motor pathway to hand muscles, causing 3 Interneuron in the spinal
a withdrawal reflex. The frying pan is cord relays the message
released before the brain perceives pain. to a motor neuron

Figure 2.13 This sequence shows a spinal reflex involving a withdrawal response. Sensory receptors within
the skin respond to the stimulation and initiate a neural message that is carried by a sensory neuron to an
interneuron in the spinal cord. The interneuron acts as a link between sensory and motor neurons, relaying
information from one to the other (because sensory and motor neurons rarely connect directly). The interneuron
sends the message to a motor neuron that carries a message back to the appropriate muscles, which stimulates
and causes them to contract and pull away from the stimulus. The spinal cord will also carry the message to the
brain, including information about the action taken. The hot and potentially harmful pan handle is released before
the brain processes the conscious perception of pain.

186 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
Spinal reflexes are considered adaptive as they save Note that a spinal reflex typically involves muscle
time in situations that may be very harmful to the contraction and does not represent all types of
organism. While the transmission of information from reflexes. Nor do all types of reflexes involve muscle
the spinal cord to the brain only takes a fraction of contractions.
a second, this saved time may be important in terms
of minimising harm, or even saving the life of the
organism. Other examples of this type of spinal reflex
are jerking your bare foot up from a hot pavement
and withdrawing your hand if you touch a sharp
object.
Because reflexes are normally so predictable, they
provide useful information about the functioning of
the nervous system and greatly assist in the diagnosis
of neural disorders. Damage or disease anywhere
along the reflex arc can cause a reflex to be absent or
abnormal.
For example, when the knee is tapped on the patellar
ligament, the sensory nerve that receives this stimulus
carries the information to the spinal cord, where it is
relayed to a motor nerve. This normally causes the
quadriceps muscle at the front of the thigh to contract
and jerk the leg up. The leg begins to jerk up while
the brain is just becoming aware of the tap. Absence
of this patellar reflex could indicate damage within
sensory or motor pathways, or a spinal cord injury in
the lower back area.
Spinal reflexes demonstrate that a response to
a particular sensory stimulus can have both an
unconscious and conscious component, one occurring
before the other. For each reflex action, a relatively Figure 2.14 The patellar ‘knee jerk’ reflex is a
small number of neurons simply convert a sensory spinal reflex that involves only a motor neuron and
stimulus into action. Many involve only three a sensory neuron. Absence of this reflex could
neurons — a sensory neuron, a motor neuron and an indicate damage within sensory or motor pathways,
or a spinal cord injury in the lower back area.
interneuron that relays messages between them. The
simplest of spinal reflexes (such as the patellar ‘knee
jerk’ reflex) can involve as few as two neurons — a
sensory neuron and a motor neuron.

Resources
Teacher digital document Teacher demonstration of a spinal reflex

learnMORE | Three types of neurons

Access learnON to learn more about the three types of neurons involved in the reception and transmission of
information within the nervous system.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 187

 2.3 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
Review
1. Distinguish between a conscious and unconscious response by the nervous system to a sensory stimulus with
reference to three key points.
2. a. Explain what a spinal reflex is.
b. Why is it also called a reflex arc?
3. Why may a spinal reflex be considered to have an ‘adaptive’ or ‘survival’ role?
4. Give an example of a reflex response that you believe may not be involved in a spinal reflex arc. Explain your
choice of example.
5. Ava is using a wet knife to remove a broken piece of toasted bread that is jammed in the toaster. She
experiences an electric shock and spontaneously releases the knife and pulls her hand away from the
stimulus.
a. Will Ava experience pain? When? Explain your answer.
b. Insert the numbers 1–6 in the spaces provided to show the correct order of the steps that enabled Ava’s
spinal reflex.
____ Motor neuron carries a message back from the spinal cord to initiate and enable knife release and
hand withdrawal actions.
____ Brain processes the conscious perception of pain.
____ Knife release/hand withdrawal.
____ Pain stimulus of electric shock.
____ Interneurons transmits the message to a motor neuron and to the brain.
____ Sensory receptors within the skin detect and respond to the stimulus, initiating a neural message that
is carried by a sensory neuron to interneurons in the spinal cord.
c. Below is alternative sequence of steps in Ava’s spinal reflex. Show these in their correct order.
____ Motor neuron carries a message back from the spinal cord to initiate and enable withdrawal
actions, while the brain processes the conscious perception of pain.
____ Sensory receptors detect and respond to the pain stimulus of electric shock, initiating a neural
message that is carried by a sensory neuron to an interneuron in the spinal cord.
____ Interneurons transmit the message to a motor neuron and to the brain.
To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

2.3 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

VCAA exam questions
Question 1 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2020 Psychology, Section A, Q.2; ©VCAA
Which statement about conscious or unconscious responses by the nervous system is correct?
A. A conscious response by the nervous system is involuntary and goal-directed.
B. A conscious response by the nervous system is voluntary and attention is given to the stimulus.
C. An unconscious response by the nervous system is voluntary and regulated by the autonomic nervous system.
D. An unconscious response by the nervous system is unintentional and is always regulated by the autonomic
nervous system.

Question 2 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2019 Psychology, Section A, Q.2; ©VCAA
When someone pricks their finger and immediately withdraws it, their response demonstrates
A. the adaptive nature of the human nervous system.
B. how the spinal cord makes decisions about movement.
C. the conscious response involved in the coordination of the reflex.
D. the role of the brain in the responses of the autonomic nervous system.

188 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
 Question 3 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2018 Psychology, Section A, Q.1; ©VCAA
The spinal reflex is
A. the brain’s survival response.
B. a voluntary response to harmful stimuli.
C. an automatic response that occurs in the spinal cord.
D. a conscious response to external stimuli processed by the spinal cord.

Question 4 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2018 Psychology, Section A, Q.38; ©VCAA
Phil had recently bought a new pair of very expensive running shoes. He was looking forward to wearing the new
shoes during an upcoming race. A few days before the race, Phil went to put on his new shoes and could not find
them. He started to panic, his heart started beating quickly and sweat started to run down his face. He frantically
searched his entire bedroom but could not find his new shoes anywhere.

Which one of the following best describes Phil’s physiological response when he could not find his new shoes?
A. the spinal reflex
B. maintenance of homeostasis
C. slowing of the somatic nervous system
D. activation of the sympathetic nervous system

Question 5 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2013 Psychology, Section A, Q.11; ©VCAA
The action of writing is controlled by
A. the muscular nervous system.
B. the somatic nervous system.
C. the autonomic nervous system.
D. the sympathetic nervous system.
To answer these and additional questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

2.4 Role of neurotransmitters

When neurons communicate with one another, most generically; for example, as an axon terminal, a
do so by sending neurotransmitter across the tiny dendrite and a synaptic gap.
space between the terminal buttons of one neuron,
Neurotransmitter is a chemical substance produced
which release the neurotransmitter, and the dendrites
by a neuron that carries a message to other neurons
of another, which receive the neurotransmitter. This
or cells in muscles, organs or other tissue. It has its
tiny space is called the synaptic gap (or synaptic
effects by attaching itself (‘binding’) to receptor sites
cleft). The synaptic gap is about 500 times thinner
of postsynaptic neurons that are specialised to receive
than a strand of hair. It is one component of the
that specific neurotransmitter. Therefore, receptors
neural synapse.
on dendrites play a vital role in the communication
The neural synapse (or neural junction) is the site process.
where communication typically occurs between
Neurotransmitter that does not bind to receptors
adjacent neurons. The other two components are
in the postsynaptic neuron is absorbed back into
the terminal buttons of the presynaptic (‘sending’)
the terminal buttons by the presynaptic neuron in
neuron and the dendrites of the postsynaptic
a process called reuptake. Once the postsynaptic
(‘receiving’) neuron. The neural synapse may
neuron has received the neurotransmitter, any
be referred to more simply as the synapse and
additional neurotransmitter left in the synapse
its components may also be referred to more
will also be reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 189

Many medications work by affecting the process of have either an excitatory or an inhibitory effect at a
reuptake in order to increase or reduce the availability particular location.
of particular neurotransmitter(s) in the brain.
The effects of a neurotransmitter are not entirely
Generally, a specific type of neurotransmitter will caused by the chemical. Its effects are also due to
have either of two effects. Some neurotransmitters the receptor to which the neurotransmitter binds.
have an excitatory effect and consequently stimulate Therefore, whether a neurotransmitter is excitatory or
or activate postsynaptic neurons to perform their inhibitory depends on the properties of the receptor at
functions. Other neurotransmitters have an inhibitory the synapse where it is released and on the receptor’s
effect and block or prevent postsynaptic neurons location in the brain.
from firing. The same neurotransmitter, however, may

Dendritic
spines Dendrites

Synapse

Terminal
buttons

Axon

Dendrites

Soma

Figure 2.15 Neurons do not link together like a chain. The branches of an axon almost touch the
dendrites of an adjacent neuron, leaving a tiny space called a synaptic gap.

190 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
 researchers have estimated far more than
this number. All this complexity allows for
a very large number of neurotransmitters
Neural message Terminal buttons and receptor sites for them (Seal, 2008;
(action potential) from Kolb & Whishaw, 2015).
presynaptic (sending)
neuron Axon terminal
While communication between one
neuron and another is usually a chemical
process involving neurotransmitters,
communication between neurons also
Neurotransmitter
occurs in other ways. In some instances,
communication between neurons is
Synaptic gap
electrical; for example, when axons
transmit messages directly to other axons
or directly to the cell body (soma) of other
Synapse neurons and when dendrites of one neuron
communicate directly with the dendrites of
other neurons.

Receptor site
Some neurotransmitters also occur as
hormones, so they may be referred
Dendrite (or dendritic spine) to as neurohormones. For example,
of postsynaptic (receiving) neuron noradrenaline (also called norepinephrine)
is a neurotransmitter and a hormone.
Figure 2.16 When the neural message reaches the axon It is secreted as a hormone by the
terminal, neurotransmitter is released from the terminal buttons, adrenal glands into the blood, and as a
which carries the message across the synaptic gap to the
neurotransmitter from neurons.
receiving neuron.
In addition, some neurotransmitters
can influence the action of other
neurotransmitter. These are called neuromodulators
Resources and are described in the next section.
Weblink Video tutorial on synaptic Glutamate and GABA are the most common
neurotransmission 1 m 51 s
neurotransmitters in the CNS. Neurons in virtually
every brain area use these two chemical messengers
to communicate with each other. They are considered
The number of neurotransmitters that a neuron can
the ‘workhorses’ of the CNS because they are found
manufacture varies. Some neurons produce only
at so many synapses.
one type of neurotransmitter, whereas other neurons
manufacture two or more and therefore contain
more than one type of neurotransmitter at their axon 2.4.1 Glutamate
terminals. This means that a single neuron may
secrete one neurotransmitter at one synapse and a Glutamate (Glu) is the main excitatory
different neurotransmitter at another synapse. In some neurotransmitter in the CNS. This means that
cases, more than one type of neurotransmitter may glutamate enhances information transmission by
coexist in the same terminal button. making postsynaptic neurons more likely to fire. It
is the second most abundant neurotransmitter in the
Although estimates vary depending on the source brain and is involved in most aspects of normal brain
and how they are defined or classified, researchers function, including learning, memory, perception,
have identified the presence of at least 60 different thinking and movement.
neurotransmitters in the human brain. Some

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 191

In particular, glutamate has crucial roles in the brain, causing seizures similar to those of epilepsy
synaptic changes that occur during learning and and other problems.
memory. Its excitatory effects promote the growth and
Anxiety symptoms such as those experienced by
strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons
people with a phobia have been connected to a low
within a neural pathway that subsequently represents
level of GABA in the brain, thereby impacting on
the memory of what has been learned. This role is
the regulation of neuronal transmission in the brain.
described in the next section on synaptic plasticity.
The link between anxiety and a dysfunctional GABA
Despite its importance, too much or too little system is examined in Topic 9 on specific phobia.
glutamate can actually be harmful to neurons and brain
functioning as a whole. ‘Glutamatergic communication’
requires the right concentrations of glutamate to be
released in the right places for the right amounts of
time. Less than this results in poor communication.
Alternatively, abnormally high concentrations of
glutamate can result in overexcitation of receiving
neurons. This overexcitation can lead to effects
that can cause neuronal damage and/or death by
overstimulating them. In turn, this can damage neural
networks (Adães, 2018; Jenner & Caccia, 2019).

2.4.2 Gamma-amino butyric acid Glutamate GABA

(GABA)
Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) is the primary
inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. It works
throughout the brain to make postsynaptic neurons
less likely to fire (i.e. it ‘inhibits’ firing). One of its Figure 2.17 Glutamate is an excitatory
roles is to fine-tune neurotransmission in the brain neurotransmitter and makes receiving neurons more
likely to fire. GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter
and maintain neurotransmission at an optimal, or
and makes receiving neurons less likely to fire. The
‘best possible’, level. inhibitory action of GABA normally counterbalances
Without the inhibitory effect of GABA, activation of the excitatory activity of glutamate and vice versa.
Consequently, GABA and glutamate have important
postsynaptic neurons might get out of control. Their
roles in regulating central nervous system arousal.
uncontrolled activation could spread throughout the

2.4 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

Review
1. What is a neurotransmitter?
A. a nerve cell
B. a brain cell
C. a chemical messenger
D. the gap between neurons

192 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
2. A neural synapse is
A. a structure found throughout the nervous system that enables neurons to pass an electrical or chemical
signal to another neuron.
B. a type of neuron that is modified when neurotransmitter exerts its influence.
C. the part of a neuron that receives neurotransmitter.
D. a point of communication between neurons where axons and dendrites meet.
3. The synapse is made up of which three structures?
A. synaptic gap, terminal buttons, axons
B. synaptic gap, axons, the soma
C. synaptic gap, terminal buttons, dendrites
D. synaptic gap, receptor, neurotransmitter
4. The excess amount of neurotransmitter secreted by a presynaptic neuron is
A. redirected to other neighbouring neurons.
B. recycled back into the presynaptic neuron.
C. reabsorbed by the postsynaptic neuron.
D. eliminated through evaporation over time.
5. Neurotransmitters can affect the response of
A. neurons.
B. muscles.
C. glands.
D. All of the above are correct.
6. Distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory effects of a neurotransmitter with reference to glutamate and
GABA.
7. In addition to the chemical substance itself, what else influences whether a neurotransmitter will be excitatory
or inhibitory at a particular synapse?
8. Match each neurotransmission term with its correct description. Insert each letter in the space provided.
(a) presynaptic neuron (h) synaptic gap (cleft)
(b) reuptake (i) binding
(c) receptor site (j) excitatory effect
(d) glutamate (k) neural synapse
(e) neurotransmitter (l) terminal button
(f) inhibitory effect (m) postsynaptic neuron
(g) gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)
___ tiny space between the terminal buttons of a sending neuron and the dendrites of receiving neuron
___ receiving neuron
___ when terminal buttons ‘take back’ neurotransmitter
___ where neurotransmitter is received
___ an excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS sending neuron
___ neural message in a chemical form
___ communication site for adjacent neurons
___ where neurotransmitter is released
___ block or prevent a postsynaptic neuron from firing
___ stimulate or activate a postsynaptic neuron
___ attachment of neurotransmitter to a receptor site
___ an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS
___ sending neuron
To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 193

 2.4 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2
VCAA exam questions
Question 1 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2021 Psychology, Section A, Q.27 (adapted); ©VCAA
Which of the following describes the role of glutamate when learning how to play a video game?
A. Glutamate makes the post-synaptic neurons more likely to fire.
B. Glutamate stimulates the release of neurotransmitter during the learning process.
C. Glutamate excites the neurons that are involved in playing the game.
D. Glutamate makes the presynaptic neurons more likely to fire.

Question 2 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2020 Psychology, Section A, Q.1; ©VCAA
Which of the following correctly identifies the specialised structure and corresponding function at any given
synapse?

Structure Function
A. pre-synaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters from vesicles
B. synaptic gap electrical charge transmits the neural message
C. receptor site neurotransmitters are stored
D. post-synaptic neuron reuptake of neurotransmitters occurs

Question 3 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2019 Psychology, Section A, Q.3; ©VCAA
What would be the impact on the transmission of neuronal messages if there was evidence of the thinning of
dendrite branches?
A. The neuron would not function properly and could die because dendrites provide energy for the cell.
B. Electrical messages may become weaker because dendrites conduct electrical energy away from the cell
body.
C. Fewer neurotransmitters may be released into the synapse because dendrites contain vesicles holding
neurotransmitters.
D. The likelihood of the post-synaptic neuron being activated may decrease because dendrites receive the
neurotransmitters from the synapse.

Question 4 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2016 Psychology, Section A, Q.1; © VCAA
The correct sequence in which information travels along a neural pathway is
A. dendrite, synapse, neurotransmitter, axon.
B. synapse, neurotransmitter, axon, dendrite.
C. axon, dendrite, synapse, neurotransmitter.
D. dendrite, axon, synapse, neurotransmitter.

Question 5 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2013 Psychology, Section A, Q.57; ©VCAA
During learning, the dendrites of some nerve cells will
A. release neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap.
B. receive neurotransmitters across the synaptic gap.
C. transmit impulses towards the synapses with other neurons.
D. integrate and process incoming information from other connecting neurons.
To answer these and additional questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

194 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
2.5 Role of neuromodulators
Some neurotransmitters may ‘modulate’, or
influence, the effects of other neurotransmitters and
are therefore called modulatory neurotransmitters,
or simply neuromodulators. For example, if a
neurotransmitter has modulatory effects, it can
change the reactivity of receptors to another type
of neurotransmitter to enhance their excitatory or
inhibitory responses.
Neuromodulators can also team up and work together
with another neurotransmitter in a synapse to make
the other more or less potent. However, their activity
is not restricted to the synaptic gap between two Neurotransmission
adjacent neurons.
Neuromodulators do not release their chemical
messengers into a single synapse. Instead, they
are released into far broader areas, where they can
affect a large number of neurons at once, as many
as 100 000 or more. Consequently, an entire neural
tissue, brain area, pathway or multiple pathways may
be influenced by exposure to a neuromodulator’s
action.
Neuromodulators also exert their influence over a
slower time period than excitatory and inhibitory
neurotransmitters at synapses with fast-acting
Neuromodulation
receptors. Their effects take longer to become
established and last longer. Given the nature of their Figure 2.18 Neuromodulators influence the activity
activity, neuromodulators are often thought to convey of multiple neurons at the same time
global control of brain states that underlie different
behaviours, such as sleep and wakefulness. 2.5.1 Dopamine
Dopamine and serotonin are two neurotransmitters Dopamine is a modulatory neurotransmitter known
that have widespread modulatory roles over neural to have multiple functions depending on where
activity in the CNS and therefore have a range in the brain it acts. For example, it has important
of effects on brain activity, mental processes and roles in voluntary movements, the experience of
behaviour. As with glutamate and GABA, either too pleasure, motivation, appetite, reward-based learning
much or too little of either dopamine or serotonin can and memory. It has also been implicated in various
have detrimental effects. mental conditions, including Parkinson’s disease,
Although dopamine and serotonin work differently addiction and schizophrenia.
and differ in function, they do not work in isolation. Although primarily an excitatory neurotransmitter,
They interact with each other in certain functions, dopamine can have either an excitatory effect at one
as do the many other neurotransmitters and location or an inhibitory effect at another, depending
neuromodulators. Dopamine and serotonin can also on the type of receptors that are present.
interact by counterbalancing each other’s effects, as
do glutamate and GABA.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 195

The brain has several distinct dopamine producing person to move, as occurs in Parkinson’s disease.
areas and neural pathways along which dopamine Individuals with the disease report feeling that
travels to convey information to different areas and their muscles will not do what they want them
exert its influence. This dopamine or dopaminergic to do and that it takes a long time ‘get going’.
system is shown in Figure 2.19 below. Voluntary movements are slow, particularly when
initiating and executing movement and in performing
One of the dopamine pathways takes part in
repetitive movements. Tremors involving continuous,
coordinating movement. This pathway (nigrostriatal)
involuntary shaking (trembling) of the body can also
has its origins in the midbrain structure called the
be experienced. Drugs commonly used to treat these
substantia nigra. Dopamine produced by neurons in
motor symptoms of the disease target dopamine.
this structure carries messages that allow smooth,
coordinated function of the body’s muscles and Two other dopamine pathways (mesolimbic and
movements. mesocortical) overlap and are strongly associated
with rewarding behaviour through the experience of
When the substantia nigra is diseased or damaged,
pleasure. These pathways form what is commonly
the amount of dopamine available along this pathway
called the dopamine reward system. Behaviours that
is markedly reduced. This means that other brain
may be perceived as rewarding due to the release of
structures linked to the pathway that are involved
dopamine include both healthy behaviours (such as
in planning, coordinating and initiating voluntary
eating when hungry and drinking when thirsty) and
movements receive slower, fewer and/or irregular
harmful behaviours that involve a loss of impulse
dopamine messages about motor activity.
control and have become addictive (such as gambling
This can result in a condition of extreme muscle and video gaming).
rigidity, or ‘stiffness’, that makes it difficult for a

Substantia nigra

Nucleus
accumbens

Ventral tegmentum

Figure 2.19 The brain has several distinct dopamine producing areas and neural pathways along which
dopamine travels to convey information to different areas and exert its influence. These form the dopamine
(dopaminergic) system. Two of the pathways are the nigrostriatal pathway which originates from the substantia
nigra (orange) and the mesolombic pathway (purple). The dopamine reward system is located between the
ventral tegmentum and nucleus accumbens.

196 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
When someone experiences something that is experience of hallucinations and delusions (which are
rewarding, the brain tends to respond by releasing classified as ‘positive symptoms’). Drugs commonly
dopamine, resulting in feelings of pleasure and used to treat these symptoms of schizophrenia target
possibly even euphoria. This primarily occurs in the dopamine. However, this does not mean that a low
pathway (mesolimbic) that originates in the ventral level of dopamine necessarily causes schizophrenia
tegmental area deep within the midbrain. or another disorder. As with pleasurable experiences
and other behaviour changes, it may be a contributory
Dopamine activity in this pathway in particular is
factor.
thought to be involved in reward-based learning of
behaviours that are associated with the pleasurable
experience due to dopamine release. When 2.5.2 Serotonin
we experience a behaviour with a pleasurable
consequence, we are more likely to repeat that Like dopamine, serotonin is a modulating
behaviour and eventually learn to associate that neurotransmitter that has a wide range of functions,
rewarding experience and whatever is thought to have depending on where in the brain it acts. For example,
caused it. it has important roles in mood, emotional processing,
sleep onset, appetite and pain perception.
In addition, the anticipation of receiving a rewarding
stimulus can be a motivating influence on behaviour. As with dopamine, seratonin has been implicated
For example, dopamine may influence us to engage in various mental conditions, including depression,
in certain behaviours to attain the pleasurable anxiety disorders and sleep disorders. In addition,
experience it can cause, based on previous experience there are distinct serotonin producing areas and
with that type of reward. It seems that even the mere neural pathways along which seratonin travels to
thought of doing so can trigger dopamine release convey information to different brain areas and
under certain conditions. exert its influence. The serotonin system is shown in
Figure 2.20.
An unfortunate side of dopamine stimulation in this
pathway is that it has been found to be strongly Unlike dopamine that can have
associated with addictive behaviours. The intense both excitatory and inhibitory effects, serotonin
feeling of reward some people feel when they take only has inhibitory effects, so it does not stimulate
drugs, gamble or engage in various other harmful brain activity. Its inhibitory effects can help
behaviours, or even ordinarily healthy behaviours, counterbalance excessive excitatory effects of other
can lead to addiction. neurotransmitters, as GABA does with glutamate.

Dopamine release within this pathway is not in Serotonin is widely described as a mood stabaliser,
itself entirely responsible for reward learning, its with low levels associated with mood disorders
motivating effects and other influences on behaviour. such as depression and seasonal affective disorder.
The pathway has connections to limbic system Depression involves an overemphasis of negative
structures and cortical areas that work together thoughts and emotions, including prolonged feelings
to produce the rewarding effect and increase the of worthlessness and hopelessness, and a decrease in
likelihood that rewarding behaviours are repeated. the reward produced by pleasurable experiences.

The brain is a massive communication centre that It seems that the right amount of serotonin is
continually passes messages back and forth to required for us to feel positive, calm and have a
regulate what we think, feel and do. Brain activity stable mood. Serotonin’s effect on mood suggests
in one brain area can affect activity in another that it contributes significantly to our overall sense of
area(s), so dopamine activation in a dopamine wellbeing. Drugs commonly used to treat depression
pathway may best be considered as being involved target serotonin and increase its availability at
with aspects of behaviour reward rather than being the synapse.
entirely responsible for directly causing pleasurable Reduced levels of serotonin in the brain have also
experiences. been associated with a number of anxiety disorders,
Schizophrenia has also been linked to dopamine. particularly obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).
In particular, high levels of dopamine activity (in This disorder is characterised by repetitive, intrusive
the mesolimbic pathway) are associated with the thoughts (obsessions) that prompt performance of
ritualistic behaviour (compulsions). Most OCD

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 197

medications are like those used for depression. As quality of our sleep. The serotonin-melatonin
with depression, low levels of serotonin doesn’t relationship may also contribute to the insomnia that
necessarily cause OCD. is common among people with depression.
Serotonin also seems to play an important role in the While low levels of serotonin can have adverse
regulation of the daily sleep–wake cycle, including effects, having too much can also cause problems.
when we fall asleep, how much we sleep and when For example, the presence of an excessive amount of
we wake, as well as our feeling of wakefulness serotonin may cause serotonin syndrome, which can
throughout the day. Its effect on the sleep–wake cycle be life threatening in some people.
and our state of arousal is associated with the amount
Serotonin syndrome is a collection of symptoms
in different brain areas. For example, increasing the
that includes fever, elevated heart rate, restlessness,
level of serotonin, as occurs with the use of drugs for
agitation, confusion, hallucinations, delirium and
treating depression, tends to reduce the amount of
seizures. It most often results from too high a dosage
rapid eye movement sleep during a sleep episode.
of medications used to increase low serotonin levels.
Serotonin alone does not regulate the sleep–wake The amount of available serotonin is at a toxic level
cycle. Other neurotransmitters also have contributory and can result in unconsciousness. Serious cases of
roles. There is also a relationship between serotonin serotonin syndrome can be fatal if not treated. Illegal
and melatonin, a hormone that has a crucial role in drugs such as ecstacy, cocaine and amphetamines
sleep and wakefulness. Our brain uses serotonin in (‘speed’/‘meth’/‘ice’) that act as stimulants in the
the pineal gland to produce melatonin, suggesting CNS can also increase serotonin to a toxic level.
that too little serotonin can affect the pattern and

Raphe nuclei

Figure 2.20 Brain structures and neural pathways that form the seratonin (serotonergic) system. Within the brain,
serotonin is mostly produced in the brain stem, within the Raphe nuclei which comprise clusters of cell bodies
belonging to neurons. The serotonin created by the brain comprises around 10% of the body’s total amount of
serotonin. The majority (over 80%) is found in the enteric nervous system within the gastrointestinal tract.

198 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
2.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
Multiple-choice questions
1. Dopamine, serotonin, GABA and glutamate are collectively called
A. neurotransmitters.
B. neuromodulators.
C. neurohormones.
D. All of the above are correct.
2. A neurotransmitter that can influence the activity of another type of neurotransmitter is called a
A. neurotransmitter.
B. neuromodulator.
C. neurohormone.
D. All of the above are correct.
3. Which of the following can have a modulatory effect?
A. GABA and serotonin
B. serotonin and dopamine
C. glutamate and GABA
D. dopamine and glutamate
4. A neuromodulator can influence
A. the size or shape of a synaptic gap.
B. the size or shape of a synaptic connection.
C. any activity of any neurotransmitter at a synaptic gap.
D. how receptors react to another type of neurotransmitter.
5. When compared to the action of a typical excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter at a single synapse, a
neuromodulator can
A. alternate its excitatory and inhibitory effects.
B. exert its effects outside a synapse.
C. affect the activity of multiple neurons simultaneously.
D. team up and work together with other neurons to form neural tissue.
6. Which of the following statements about neuromodulation is correct?
A. A neuromodulator typically releases its chemical message into a single synapse.
B. An entire brain area may be influenced by exposure to a neuromodulator’s action.
C. Too much or too little of a neuromodulator is unlikely to have a detrimental effect.
D. A neuromodulator’s effects are restricted to the synaptic gap between two adjacent neurons.

To answer these and additional questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

2.5 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

Analysis and evaluation of research on dopamine treatment for gambling
addiction
Empirical evidence that the dopamine reward system may play a role in addictive disorders has led researchers
to target this system for the treatment of people who have a gambling addiction.

While there is no ‘magic pill’, one medication that has been studied in relation to gambling addiction is
naltrexone. Naltrexone has traditionally been used to treat alcohol dependency and addiction to heroin and other
opium-based drugs. Naltrexone can inhibit dopamine activity in the dopamine reward system, thereby resulting
in decreased subjective feelings of pleasure. People with a gambling addiction who are taking naltrexone are
therefore possibly not compelled to seek reward stimulation through further gambling because they do not feel as
much pleasure as before they were on the medication.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 199

 In one study, American psychiatrist Suck Won Kim and his colleague Jon Grant (2001) tested the effectiveness
of naltrexone in the treatment of participants with a gambling addiction. Kim and Grant predicted that naltrexone
would reduce the urges and behaviours associated with addiction.

Participants were recruited through newspaper advertisements. Of the 26 volunteers who were screened by the
researchers in a phone interview, seven males and ten females with a mean age of 44.6 years were assessed as
eligible to participate in the study. All met the criteria for having a diagnosable gambling addiction and did not
have any other disorder.

All participants were prescribed naltrexone for 6 weeks and its use was monitored by the researchers to check
for suitability of the dosage and potential side effects. Of the 17 participants, the involvement of three had to
be terminated prematurely because of the drug’s side effects (severe nausea and diarrhoea). The remaining 14
participants completed the study.

The results are shown in the following table.

Baseline
Baseline and
and terminal
terminal visit
visit gambling
gambling symptom
symptom datadata

Baseline (beginning of Terminal (end of treatment)

Outcome measure treatment) (mean) (mean)
Total number of episodes of 7.56 1.69
gambling during the past 7 days
Amount lost in the last 7 days ($US) 547.50 68.80
Gambling thought frequency (a) 3.94 1.24
Gambling urge frequency (a) 2.91 1.00
Gambling urge strength (b)
6.21 1.41

(a) 0 = none, 1 = once a day, 3 = three times a day, 5 = five times a day, 6 = more than five times a day
(b) 0 = none, 2 = mild, 4 = moderate, 6 = severe, 8 = extreme
Source: Kim, S.W., & Grant, J.E. (2001). An open naltrexone treatment study in pathological gambling disorder.
International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 16(5), 287.

As shown in the table above, use of the medication naltrexone appears to have been very effective in treating the
participants’ gambling addiction.
a. Describe the sample and the population used for the research.
b. How were the participants selected?
c. Explain whether the sample is biased.
d. What was hypothesised for the study?
e. Briefly outline the procedure for testing the hypothesis.
f. Construct another suitable title for the table.
g. With reference to data in the table, explain why the use of naltrexone appears to have been effective in treating
the participants’ gambling addiction.
h. Explain a possible limitation of the study.
i. Suggest a different research method to test the hypothesis and explain your choice of method.
j. What is a limitation of the long-term use of naltrexone for the treatment of gambling addiction?
To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

200 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
2.6 N
 eural mechanisms of memory formation and
learning
Learning involves the acquisition of new information, All memory involves neurological changes that
behaviour or abilities through experience. It may occur as a result of learning. Memory is not a
occur with or without conscious awareness and is recorded ‘snapshot’ of an event but a neurological
evidenced by change in behaviour, knowledge or representation of the event. From a biological
brain function. For learning to have occurred, the new perspective, learning may be viewed as the capability
knowledge or skill must be retained in memory. of modifying information already stored in memory
based on new sensory input or learning experiences.
Memory is therefore very closely related to learning.
Since memory is dependent on some kind of prior
The two processes are interdependent and their
experience, the first step in memory formation is
relationship is so close that they are often described
learning, which occurs when our sensory systems
as inseparable. The existence of memory indicates
send information to the brain.
that learning has occurred. If no learning occurs
there is nothing to remember. Without memory, In this subtopic we examine the neural basis of
learning would not be possible because we need the learning and memory, focusing on synaptic plasticity
capability to retain what we have learned. Nor would and changes to connections between neurons that
learning have any value if we could not remember enable memory formation and learning to take place.
— we usually learn with the understanding that at
some future time we will be able to recall what we
learned. 2.6.1 Synaptic plasticity and
Memory is essentially the outcome of learning
changes to connections between
and enables knowledge, skills and everything neurons
else acquired through experience to be stored in The human brain typically follows a predictable
the brain and retrieved when needed. The close pattern of growth and development, with different
relationship between learning and memory is evident structures and abilities progressing at different rates
not only from a psychological perspective, but also and maturating at different points in the life span.
biologically as they both involve and are influenced Although our genes ensure that the basic structure
by many of the same neural mechanisms and and organisation of our brain are established well
processes. before birth, our brain continues to mature and
change long after birth. It is not a rigidly fixed
organ. Nor are the connections between
neurons or neural circuits and pathways
extending within and between different
areas of our brain ‘hardwired’ like
a computer or other human-made
electronic device.
Neurons are soft, flexible living cells.
They can change in size, shape and
function. They can also change their
connections with other neurons and
their patterns of connections. These
types of changes are influenced by
the interaction of biological processes
that are genetically determined and by
experiences in everyday life. Our genes
Figure 2.21 Learning and memory are interdependent. If no govern the overall architecture of our
learning occurs there is nothing to remember, and to learn brain, but experience guides, sustains
requires a capability to remember what will be learned. and maintains the details.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 201

From birth through to the end of life, neurons and the Synaptic plasticity enables a flexible, efficient and
connections between them change in response to our effectively functioning nervous system. It is also the
experiences. They change to represent and store this biological basis of learning and memory formation.
information so that we can learn and remember. This
As we learn through the constant stream of new
fundamental and very important ability to change
experiences in everyday life, our brain modifies its
is referred to as neural plasticity, neuroplasticity, or
neural connections and pathways, thereby actually
simply plasticity.
changing its structure and function by ‘rewiring’
itself. Existing connections between neurons can
reorganise, and new networks or pathways can form
and strengthen through use during the learning
(and memory formation) process, thus making
communication across a connection and along a
pathway easier the next time.
Furthermore, through synaptic plasticity, the brain
can reorganise and reassign its neural connections
and pathways based on which parts of it are overused
or underused. The result is a structure constantly
remodelled by experience.
Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb is credited with
Figure 2.22 Lifelong plasticity accounts for many of
the idea that learning involves the establishment and
the learning experiences we have throughout life,
such as learning how to play a video game in young
strengthening of neural connections at the synapse.
or old age. For example, learning a list of new spelling words,
to use a pogo stick, to play a harmonica or any
other task will establish new neural connections,
and regular practice of the task will strengthen these
Resources
connections with the result that you get better at
Weblink TEDx Talk on learning, memory and the task, become more efficient and make fewer
neural plasticity 14 m 24 s mistakes.
Some 70 years ago, Hebb proposed that learning
results in the creation of cell assemblies —
Synaptic plasticity
interconnected groups of neurons that form networks
Neural plasticity is evident in physical changes that or pathways and function as a unit. Neurons in a
take place at synapses where neurotransmission network send messages to other neurons within the
occurs and multiple neurons interconnect to form network, but messages from one network may also
neural pathways. At the level of the synapse, neural be sent to other networks and small networks may
plasticity is commonly called synaptic plasticity. also organise into bigger networks. Consequently,
Synaptic plasticity refers to the ability of the the same neurons may be involved in learning
synapse to change in response to experience. This different things or in producing different patterns
controls how effectively two neurons communicate of behaviour, depending on which combination of
with each other. For example, synaptic plasticity neurons is active.
enables change involving the strengthening or According to Hebb (1949), when neurotransmitter is
weakening of connections between the neurons at a repeatedly sent across the synaptic gap, presynaptic
synapse. Strengthening may occur through continual and postsynaptic neurons are repeatedly activated
use of synaptic connections or through the growth at the same time. When a presynaptic and a
of new, additional connections, whereas weakening postsynaptic neuron are active at the same time, this
may occur through disuse of synaptic connections changes the structure or chemistry of the synapse,
resulting in the decay or elimination of a synapse. strengthening the connections between these two
neurons at the synapse.

202 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
When the synaptic connection is strengthened, this 2.6.2 Sprouting, rerouting and
makes them more likely to fire together again and to
transmit their signals more forcibly and efficiently
pruning
in the future. Conversely, not firing together — for It is now accepted that changes are constantly
example, through disuse — weakens the connections occurring at the brain’s trillions of synapses. As we
between neurons and also makes them less likely to think, feel and behave in the course of everyday
fire together at the same time in the future. life, we are both strengthening trillions of existing
synapses and creating new synapses. Generally,
Hebb’s explanation of changes to synaptic connections
these changes involve reorganisation and refinement
between neurons during learning is known as Hebb’s
of synaptic connections, including the loss of some
rule or Hebbian learning and is often summarised as
synapses and establishment of others.
‘neurons that fire together, wire together’. Subsequent
research in the 1970s on neurological processes Sprouting is the creation of new extensions on a
during learning found that the synaptic changes neuron to allow it to make new connections with
underlying the formation of cell assemblies described other neurons. This occurs through the growth of
by Hebb were also involved in the formation and nerve endings (‘sprouts’) on axons or dendrites,
storage of new memories. In particular, the discovery thereby enabling new links to be made, including
of long-term potentiation provided evidence in support rerouting of existing connections.
of Hebb’s rule (Kandel, 2001).
Rerouting occurs when new connections are made
between neurons to create alternate neural pathways.
These alternate ‘routes’ may be entirely new neural
pathways or connections to other pathways in the
brain. The rerouting may involve the existing synaptic
connections and/or new connections from the sprouts.
Pruning is the elimination of weak, ineffective or
unused synapses (and therefore connections to other
neurons). Experience determines which synapses
will be retained and strengthened and which will be
pruned. The synapses that are frequently used are
retained and those that are not decay and disappear.
The entire process occurs as if the rule ‘use it or lose
it’ is being followed. Synaptic pruning can be likened
to the way a gardener prunes a tree or bush to give
the plant a desired shape so it can flourish.
Figure 2.23 Canadian psychologist Donald Hebb The elimination of weaker or ineffective synapses
(1904–1985) first proposed that the strength of a whilst stronger ones are kept and strengthened is a
connection between neurons is determined by the naturally occurring biological process that starts early
neural activity of adjacent pre- and postsynaptic in childhood. The constant, synaptic turnover makes
neurons. According to Hebb (1949, p. 62), ‘when
it possible to adapt to changing and increasingly
an axon of cell A is near enough to excite cell B
or repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, complex environments. The new synaptic formations
some growth process or metabolic change takes may not only support learning and memory of new
place in one or both cells such that A’s efficiency, knowledge and skills, but the pruning may also be
as one of the cells firing B, is increased’. This a way of fine-tuning the brain’s neural circuits to
theory has become known as Hebb’s rule and is maintain efficient brain functioning.
often summarised more simply as neurons that fire
together, wire together. Synaptic sprouting, rerouting and pruning also
enable neurons to restore or compensate for a lost

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 203

function following a brain injury and/or to maximise presynaptic and a postsynaptic neuron — to
remaining functions. However, in order for neurons communicate with one another at the synapse.
to reconnect or form new connections following brain Importantly, the improvement is stable and enduring
damage, they need to be simulated through activity. (Bliss & Lomo, 1973).
Relevant types of experience during brain damage
LTP strengthens synaptic connections in a way that
are therefore important influences on the speed of
enables postsynaptic neurons to be more easily
recovery.
activated. The postsynaptic
neurons become more and more
responsive to the presynaptic
neurons as a consequence
of repeated stimulation by
neurotransmitter. The more
that the connection is activated,
the more the connection is
strengthened.
The more the connection is
strengthened, the more the
relevant neural pathway is
strengthened, increasing the
efficiency in transferring
information along the pathway
Figure 2.24 The hippocampus deep within the brain has crucial roles
and decreasing the likelihood
in learning and memory. These images show changes to synaptic that what has been learned
connections on a postsynaptic neuron in the hippocampus of a will be forgotten (and thereby
laboratory rat when learning and forming a memory of that learning. enhancing memory storage of the
A: the arrow is pointing to the cell body (soma). B: branches that have information).
sprouted and grown on a dendrite. C: the dendritic branches are studded
with numerous dendritic spines that have formed and enable new In addition, the more we
connections with neighbouring neurons. Sprouting may also occur on use the information being
axon collaterals. remembered, the more the LTP
process strengthens the pathway,
making it easier to retrieve that
2.6.3 Long-term potentiation and information. This suggests that simple repetitive ‘rote
long-term depression learning’ when studying for an exam is worthwhile
(but not necessarily more effective than other study
Long-term potentiation and long-term depression methods).
are enduring changes in synaptic strength that are
brought about by specific patterns of activity at the With LTP, there also appear to be changes in the
synapse. These activity-dependent changes are in presynaptic neuron. For example, the terminal
themselves forms of synaptic plasticity and also buttons on the neurons involved in LTP release more
influence sprouting, rerouting and pruning. glutamate after the potentiation has been created
(Thompson, 2000).
Collectively, long-term potentiation, long-term
depression, sprouting, rerouting and pruning modify LTP was first reported in 1973 after it was observed
connections between neurons and may therefore be in the brains (hippocampus) of anesthetised rabbits
considered fundamental mechanisms of learning and in a laboratory in Norway. It is the same kind
memory formation. of mechanism that Hebb had imagined 25 years
earlier when he proposed that learning results from
Long-term potentiation (LTP) refers to the long- a strengthening of synaptic connections between
lasting enhancement of synaptic transmission due neurons that fire together. The discovery of LTP
to repeated strong stimulation. There is significant confirmed Hebb’s rule and helps explain in biological
improvement in the ability of two neurons — a terms why ‘neurons that fire together, wire together’.

204 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
 synaptic connections, leaving only
the important connections that
A
have been strengthened through
Presynaptic neuron
repeated use by LTP. LTD may,
for example, enable old memories
or unused connections and
pathways for previously learned
information or skills to be cleared
out. It has also been proposed
C that LTD in the cerebellum may
return synapses that have been
Postsynaptic neuron
potentiated by LTP to a normal
level so that they will be available
for motor learning and memory
B
formation (APA, 2022).
LTD may be what allows us to
Presynaptic neuron
correct our thinking when solving
a problem, or to adjust our
Figure 2.25 Long-term potentiation. The synapses between neuron A
movements when learning how to
and neuron C and between neuron B and neuron C are initially weak. If
neuron A fires and neuron C is activated immediately, and this occurs serve in tennis or ride a surfboard.
repeatedly for a sufficient number of times, neuron C will become more It may also provide the basis of
responsive to A than it was initially. This means that C will be more blocking or erasing unwanted,
prepared to receive A’s message (neurotransmitter) than B’s message. In inappropriate or incorrect
addition, the simultaneous activity between neurons A and C will grow thoughts, feelings and behaviours
and strengthen this synapse. Long-term depression has the opposite
effect, instead weakening synaptic transmission and the responsiveness Given glutamate’s excitatory
of a neuron to neurotransmitter. effect, it has a vital role in LTP
and LTD. Generally, the more
Long-term depression (LTD) is the long-lasting often that glutamate can excite an
decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission adjacent neuron, the more it contributes to LTP (and
and neuronal response (which is the opposite vice versa for LTD).
of LTP). This results from a lack of stimulation Although LTP and LTD have opposite outcomes
of pre- and postsynaptic neurons or prolonged in that they result in persistent increased versus
low level stimulation (but following persistent decreased synaptic excitability and one increases
strong stimulation in the cerebellum). Generally, a neurotransmitter release in presynaptic neurons and
postsynaptic neuron becomes less responsive to the the other does not, there are a number of similarities.
neurotransmitter released by a presynaptic neuron For instance:
and the effect is to weaken the synaptic connection
• both are activity dependent; that is, more or less
and therefore weaken or even silence communication
at the synapse (Bliss & Cooke, 2011; APA, 2022). activity
• both involve glutamate
LTD was discovered in the cortex of the cerebellum • both occur at glutamate synapses
by Japanese researchers in 1981, then later found to • both involve changes in excitability
also occur in the hippocampus and elsewhere in the • both have long-lasting effects
CNS (Ito & Kano, 1982; Ito, 1989). • both are forms of long-lasting neural plasticity.
It is believed that LTD may be just as important for Although Hebb’s rule, LTP and LTD are often
learning and memory as LTP. The weakening or described with reference to a pair of neurons, this
elimination of unused synapses through LTD may is an oversimplification and it should be kept in
result in the pruning of unimportant or unwanted mind that a single neuron in the human brain may

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 205

have thousands of connections Presynaptic neuron
with other neurons, often in
extremely complex ways.
For example, a memory of Axon
a single bit of information terminal
may be stored within many
connections, and each
connection may be involved in Glutamate
several different memories. Synapse
Receptors
Thus, multiple memories may
be stored within a single neural Dendritic
pathway, and have multiple spine
synaptic connections. Similarly,
a single memory may involve Postsynaptic neuron
simultaneously activating Figure 2.26 With LTP, there is an increase in the amount of neurotransmitter
several different groups of released by the presynaptic neurons, thereby enhancing communication.
neurons in completely different
areas of the brain so that the
information can be brought into
conscious awareness.

Figure 2.27 Memory formation can be likened to the way foot traffic creates a path along a stretch of grass.
The more a patch of grass is trampled as people pass along it, the clearer the path becomes and the easier it is
to follow — it’s as if a ‘memory’ of all the walking has been created. The same thing happens in the brain. The
more a neural pathway is activated, the stronger the synaptic connections along the way become. Then, when a
thought enters our head — say, a tropical beach — we recall related experiences or knowledge, such as putting
on sunscreen and the feel of sand, as our minds funnel our thoughts along well-established neural pathways
(Qld Brain Institute, 2018b).

206 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
2.6 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1
Review
1. Define the meaning of synaptic plasticity with reference to two examples of synaptic change.
2. Distinguish between sprouting, rerouting and pruning at a synapse.
3. How does neural plasticity enable learning and memory formation?
4. Explain how learning and memory occur with reference to ‘connections between neurons’ and Hebb’s rule.
5. To how many neural pathways might the memory of a single bit of information belong? Explain your answer.
6. Complete the following table to summarise similarities and differences between LTP and LTD.

Characteristic LTP LTD

Definition

Where it occurs

How it occurs

Change in excitability or responsiveness of

postsynaptic neurons
How enduring

Effect on neuronal communication

Role in learning and memory formation

7. Explain how LTP and LTD demonstrate synaptic plasticity.

8. Why is LTP considered to be ‘evidence’ supporting Hebb’s physiological explanation of learning?
9. Briefly explain why learning and memory may be considered interdependent or inseparable from:
a. a biological perspective
b. a psychological or behavioural perspective.
To answer questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

2.6 LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

VCAA exam questions
Question 1 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2021 Psychology, Section A, Q.28; ©VCAA
Orla and Anthony are focused on playing a video game and are talking to each other intently. Orla is excited and
does not realise time is passing quickly.

The more Orla practices, the better she becomes at playing the video game.

This can be explained by

A. long-term depression, which strengthens the synaptic connections that allow her to move her fingers.
B. long-term depression, which improves stimulation of the neurons involved in her playing the video game.
C. long-term potentiation, which increases synaptic communication when she presses the buttons on the
controller.
D. long-term potentiation, which decreases the synaptic transmission speed of the neurons involved in her
playing the video game.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 207

 Question 2 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2020 Psychology, Section A, Q.11; ©VCAA
Which of the following identifies a difference between long-term potentiation and long-term depression?

Long-term potentiation Long-term depression

A. results in a change in excitability of the post- does not involve an increase in excitability of the
synaptic neuron post-synaptic neuron
B. occurs at the synapse does not occur at the synapse
C. involves the neurotransmitter glutamate involves the neurotransmitter GABA
D. changes are long-lasting changes are not long-lasting

Question 3 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2019 Psychology, Section A, Q.3; ©VCAA
What would be the impact on the transmission of neuronal messages if there was evidence of the thinning of
dendrite branches?
A. The neuron would not function properly and could die because dendrites provide energy for the cell.
B. Electrical messages may become weaker because dendrites conduct electrical energy away from the cell
body.
C. Fewer neurotransmitters may be released into the synapse because dendrites contain vesicles holding
neurotransmitters.
D. The likelihood of the post-synaptic neuron being activated may decrease because dendrites receive the
neurotransmitters from the synapse.

Question 4 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2018 Psychology, Section A, Q.9 (adapted); ©VCAA
Mai began piano lessons when she was eight years old. Each time she practised, she played more accurately
and made fewer mistakes. However, after two years, she lost interest and stopped her lessons. As an adult, Mai
decided to take piano lessons again and found that she learnt to play the pieces she had played as a child more
quickly than pieces she had never played before.

In terms of neural plasticity, Mai’s increased accuracy as she practised as a child was likely a result of
A. the role of GABA.
B. the role of dopamine.
C. long-term depression.
D. long-term potentiation.

Question 5 (1 mark)
Source: VCAA 2017 Psychology, Section A, Q.4; ©VCAA
Glutamate plays a key role in synaptic plasticity by
A. releasing neurohormones into the bloodstream.
B. increasing the speed of neurotransmitter transmissions along the axon.
C. acting as an excitatory neurohormone released across the synaptic gap.
D. acting as an excitatory neurotransmitter released across the synaptic gap.
To answer these and additional questions online and receive immediate feedback, access learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.

208 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
 2.7 Review
Topic summary
Brain
Central nervous system
Roles of different sub-divisions Spinal cord
of the central and peripheral
nervous systems Somatic nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
Autonomic nervous system

Sympathetic nervous system

Conscious and unconscious Parasympathetic nervous system
responses to sensory stimuli Spinal reflexes
Enteric nervous system

Glutamate

Role of neurotransmitters
Gamma-amino butyric
acid (GABA)

Dopamine

Role of neuromodulators

Serotonin

Synaptic plasticity and changes

to connections between neurons

Neural mechanisms of memory Sprouting, rerouting and pruning

formation and learning

Long-term potentiation and

long-term depression

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 209

Key terms
afferent p. 174 long-term depression p. 205 sensori stimuly p. 184
autonomic nervous long-term potentiation p. 204 sensory neuron p. 174
system p. 176 motor neuron p. 174 sensory receptor p. 166
brain p. 166 nervous system p. 166 serotonin p. 197
central nervous system p. 170 neural pathway p. 170 somatic nervous system
conscious response p. 184 neural synapse p. 189 p. 174
dopamine p. 195 neuromodulator p. 195 spinal reflex p. 186
enteric nervous system p. 180 neuron p. 166 spinal cord p. 172
efferent p. 174 neurotransmission p. 192 sprouting p. 203
excitatory effect p. 190 neurotransmitter p. 189 synaptic plasticity p. 202
ganglia p. 180 parasympathetic nervous synaptic gap p. 189
gamma-amino butyric acid system p. 179 sympathetic nervous
(GABA) p. 192 peripheral nervous system p. 178
glutamate p. 191 system p. 173 unconscious response p. 185
inhibitory effect p. 190 pruning p. 203
interneuron p. 187 rerouting p. 203

Note: The References for the entire title can be accessed in learnON and are also available as a downloadable PDF.

Resources
Digital documents Key terms glossary — Topic 2 (doc-38530)
Topic summary — Topic 2 (doc-38531)
Key diagrams PowerPoint — Topic 2 (doc-38532)
Exam question booklet Exam question booklet — (eqb-0133)

210 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
2.7 Topic 2 test
Section A: 35 marks    Section B: 40 marks    Total: 75 marks

Access learnON to answer the following test questions online and receive immediate feedback.

Section A — Multiple-choice questions

Choose the response that is correct or best answers the question.
A correct answer scores 1, an incorrect answer scores 0.
Marks will not be deducted for incorrect answers.
No marks will be given if more than one answer is completed for any question.

Question 1 Question 5
A role of the spinal cord is to The neurotransmitter _____ is associated with the
A. protect the spinal column. experience of pleasure and motivation; whereas
B. initiate voluntary muscle movements. _____ is associated with the experience of relaxation
C. connect the brain and central nervous system. and calmness.
D. connect the brain and peripheral nervous system. A. serotonin; dopamine
B. dopamine; serotonin
Question 2
C. serotonin; GABA
You are working quietly in the library when a friend D. glutamate; GABA
sneaks up from behind and scares you, making your
heart race. At this time, your _____ nervous system Question 6
would be dominant. Communication within neurons is _____; whereas
A. parasympathetic communication between neurons is _____.
B. sympathetic A. inhibitory, excitatory
C. somatic B. excitatory, inhibitory
D. central C. electrical, chemical
D. chemical, electrical
Question 3
Sensory pathways carry information to the _____ Question 7
and motor pathways carry information from the The process through which new connections are
_____. made between active neurons to create alternate
A. somatic nervous system; peripheral nervous neural pathways in response to a brain injury is
system called synaptic
B. central nervous system; somatic nervous system A. formulation.
C. central nervous system; central nervous system B. sprouting.
D. peripheral nervous system; peripheral nervous C. pruning.
system D. rerouting.

Question 4 Question 8
Which of the following is not a form of synaptic A mosquito lands on your arm. You watch it carefully
plasticity? then move your hand to swat it. Your sensation and
A. neurotransmission response are due to _____ activity.
B. long-term depression A. spinal reflex
C. dendritic sprouting B. autonomic nervous system
D. synaptic pruning C. somatic nervous system
D. parasympathetic nervous system

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 211

 Question 9 Question 15
Regulation of the sleep–wake cycle is predominanly Which organ is not a part of the enteric nervous
influenced by system?
A. serotonin. A. intestines
B. glutamate. B. gall bladder
C. dopamine. C. oesophagus
D. GABA. D. stomach

Question 10 Question 16
Too little dopamine in the brain is most strongly Neurons that are grouped together in clusters in the
associated with enteric nervous system are called
A. sleep disorders. A. ganglia.
B. mood disorders. B. tracts.
C. Parkinson’s disease. C. nerves.
D. schizophrenia. D. nuclei.

Question 11 Question 17
Sensory information is best described as _____ The autonomic nervous system
information. A. controls movements of skeletal muscles.
A. afferent B. initiates movements of skeletal muscles.
B. efferent C. controls virtually all thoughts, feelings and
C. internal behaviours.
D. external D. controls the activities of visceral muscles, organs
and glands.
Question 12
The _____ nervous system automatically restores Question 18
bodily systems to their normal level of functioning A synapse is
after the need for heightened activity has passed. A. a neural connection.
A. somatic B. a type of neurotransmitter.
B. parasympathetic C. the place where neurons communicate.
C. sympathetic D. the part of the neuron on which small extensions
D. central grow.

Question 13 Question 19
Jana was diagnosed with paraplegia after a horse Which of the following can have a modulatory effect
riding accident and can no longer walk. She is in the nervous system?
unable to walk because her _____ nervous system A. serotonin and dopamine
cannot communicate with her _____ nervous B. glutamate and GABA
system. C. dopamine and glutamate
A. central; autonomic D. GABA and serotonin
B. somatic; central
C. somatic; sympathetic Question 20
D. autonomic; sympathetic The _____ nervous system initiates skeletal muscle
movement, whereas the _____ nervous system
Question 14 regulates the activity of visceral muscles.
Which of the following is not classified as being A. parasympathetic; sympathetic
primarily an inhibitory neurotransmitter? B. somatic; autonomic
A. serotonin C. autonomic; somatic
B. GABA D. peripheral; sympathetic
C. glutamate
D. dopamine

212 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
Question 21 Question 27
The neurons in the spinal cord are part of the _____ A difference between glutamate and GABA is that
nervous system. A. glutamate is a neurotransmitter; whereas GABA
A. central is a neurohormone.
B. peripheral B. GABA is a neurotransmitter; whereas glutamate
C. somatic is a neurohormone.
D. autonomic C. glutamate has an excitatory effect; whereas
GABA has an inhibitory effect.
Question 22
D. GABA has an excitatory effect; whereas
The peripheral nervous system transmits information glutamate has an inhibitory effect.
between the _____ and the _____.
Question 28
A. central nervous system; spinal cord
B. spinal cord; muscles, organs and glands Long-term potentiation is
C. sensory receptors, muscles, organs and glands; A. the potential to learn and form memories.
central nervous system B. the long-lasting decrease in the strength of
D. somatic nervous system; muscles, organs and synaptic transmission.
glands C. the long-lasting release of glutamate at the
synapse.
Question 23
D. the enduring strengthening and efficient
The two sub-divisions of the central nervous system functioning of synaptic connections.
are the _____ and the two sub-divisions of the
peripheral nervous are the _____. Question 29
A. somatic and autonomic systems; brain and spinal If long-term potentiation is to occur between two
cord neurons, then
B. brain and peripheral system; somatic and A. the two neurons must be activated
sympathetic systems simultaneously.
C. somatic system and spinal cord B. the two neurons must be connected within a
D. brain and spinal cord; autonomic and somatic neural pathway.
systems C. the existing connection between the two neurons
must be weak.
Question 24
D. the existing connection between the two neurons
A major function of the somatic nervous system is to must be strong.
A. carry neural messages between the CNS and
Question 30
internal organs and glands.
B. maintain the body’s internal states. When learning and memory occur
C. carry motor messages to the CNS. A. there is a change in the structure of a neurons in
D. transmit information from sensory receptors to the brain.
the CNS. B. there is an increase in the amount of synapses
produced by neurons, thereby enabling them to
Question 25
flow more freely within a neural pathway.
Which sub-division of the nervous system is C. new neurotransmitters grow and interconnect the
generally self-regulating? neurons to form a pathway for the information.
A. central nervous system D. neurons assemble in a formation that creates a
B. somatic nervous system neural pathway for the learning to occur and its
C. autonomic nervous system subsequent memory.
D. peripheral nervous system
Question 31
Question 26 Which of the following statements about learning is
Which of the following bodily functions results from not true?
parasympathetic nervous system action? A. Learning causes changes at the synapse.
A. increased salivation B. Learning can create new neural pathways.
B. increased perspiration C. Learning causes weakening of synaptic
C. increased respiration connections.
D. decreased stomach contractions D. Learning can reorganise neural pathways.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 213

 Question 32 Question 34
Long-term potentiation and long-term depression Long-term potentiation and long-term depression
cannot occur during learning or memory formation are _____ dependent processes.
unless A. time
A. the organism also wants to remember the new B. activity
information or skill. C. learning
B. the neurons involved in establishing a pathway D. learning and memory
already have synaptic connections.
C. prolonged simultaneous activity occurs in either Question 35
adjacent presynaptic or postsynaptic neurons. A neurotransmitter that has an inhibitory effect
D. prolonged simultaneous activity occurs in both causes postsynaptic neurons to
adjacent presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. A. fire.
B. not fire.
Question 33
C. reuptake.
Simultaneous firing of two adjacent neurons makes D. excitatory.
those neurons
A. more inclined to fire together in the future.
B. less inclined to fire together in the future.
C. rearrange their connections.
D. prune connections that cannot adapt to the
activity.

Section B — Short answer questions

Question 1 (1 mark)
Give an example of an unconscious response to an internal sensory stimulus.

Question 2 (2 marks)
The synaptic gap is one component of a synapse. Name the other two components.

Question 3 (3 marks)
List three characteristics that distinguish neurotransmission from neuromodulation.

Question 4 (3 marks)
Describe the interrelationship of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems with
reference to an example.

Question 5 (5 marks)
a. List the key steps in the spinal reflex sequence of activity that enables a withdrawal response to
occur before the brain processes the conscious perception of pain.  3 marks
b. Explain why a spinal reflex involving a withdrawal response is considered to be an adaptive
response with reference to conscious and unconscious responses to sensory stimuli.  2 marks

Question 6 (2 marks)
Explain why someone in a comatose state with severe brain damage may still be able to remain alive
for a prolonged period without artificial life support.

Question 7 (4 marks)
a. Explain the meaning of excitatory and inhibitory effects of neurotransmitters.  2 marks
b. What primarily determines whether or not a neurotransmitter will have an excitatory or
inhibitory effect?  2 marks

214 UNIT 3 How does experience affect behaviour and mental processes?
Question 8 (4 marks)
a. When considered from a neuronal perspective, no two human brains are identical. Explain why,
with reference to neural change associated with learning and memory formation.  2 marks
b. Explain how synaptic plasticity makes learning and memory formation possible.  2 marks

Question 9 (4 marks)
Explain how long-term potentiation and long-term depression influence connections between neurons.

Question 10 (3 marks)
Explain the meaning of the phrase ‘learning and memory formation involve the building of neural
pathways in the brain’, ensuring you refer to Hebb’s rule.

Question 11 (9 marks)
A researcher conducted a clinical trial to investigate the effects of a new dopamine enhancing medication on
motor symptoms of a neurodegenerative disorder. She designed an ethically approved experiment that used two
groups.
Group A used the new medication for a trial period of six months, whereas Group B used a look-alike inert
substance over the same period. Neither the researcher nor the participants knew who was using the real trial
medication and who was not. Participants were assigned to each group by chance, and all had their motor
symptoms assessed at the beginning and end of the experiment.
Assessments were based on number and severity of symptoms involving walking, talking, swallowing, speaking,
blink rate in the eyes and facial expression.
a. Identify the experimental design.  1 mark
b. Identify the independent and dependent variables.  2 marks
c. Group A is the _____ group, and Group B is the _____ group.  2 marks
d. What is the technical term for the inert substance used by Group B?  1 mark
e. i. What is the technical term for assessment of symptoms at the start of the experiment?  1 mark
ii. What is the purpose of this procedure?  1 mark
f. The researcher used a _____ procedure in the experimental design to control for expectancy effects.  1 mark

Resources
Go to learnON to access answers to the Topic 2 test. A customisable Word version of the test can also be downloaded from
the Digital documents tab of the Resources panel.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning 215

           
learnMORE | Brain areas, structures and roles
Neuropsychologists often describe the brain using three main areas (or regions) — the forebrain, midbrain and
hindbrain. This is based on how the brain develops early in life. Each area is associated with identifiable mental
processes and behaviour, but these function in an integrated way to enable us to think, feel and behave as
we do.

(a) (b) (c) The brain has two cerebral

hemispheres
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
Forebrain: collection
of structures that
include the cerebrum;
regulates complex
cognitive processes
and various aspects
of emotion and Occipital
personality lobe

Temporal lobe
Midbrain: collection of
structures involved with Hindbrain: collection of
Right Left
movement, processing of structures that include
hemisphere hemisphere
sensory information, the cerebellum, medulla
sleep and arousal and pons

(d) Cerebral cortex: sheet of neural

tissue forming the outer surface
Corpus callosum: mass of nerve involved in complex mental abilities,
fibres connecting the cerebral sensory processing, voluntary
hemispheres movements and numerous other
functions that distinguish us as
Thalamus: filters and relays incoming humans; also called neocortex or cortex
sensory messages to the cerebral
cortex; influences wakefulness and
level of alertness
Cerebellum: coordinates timing
Hypothalamus: links the nervous and fluency of movements
system to the endocrine (hormonal) (especially rapid movements);
system, regulates body’s internal regulates posture and balance,
environment (homeostasis) and involved in formation of long-term
influences a range of behaviours motor skill memories; stores
including stress responses implicit memories of simple
conditioned reflexes
Amygdala: involved in emotional
reactions (particularly fear and aggression)
and formation of emotional memories

Hippocampus: involved in formation of

long-term explicit memories (including spatial memories) Brain stem: area in lowest part of
and their transfer to cortex for storage brain where the spinal cord enters
skull; comprises medulla, pons
Pons: regulates sleep, arousal and midbrain; regulates body’s
and some muscle movement basic life processes

Reticular formation: network of neurons that

regulates alertness and modifies muscle movements Spinal cord: links the brain and
rest of the body via the PNS;
Medulla: controls vital survival functions initiates simple reflex responses
such as breathing and heart rate independently of the brain

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning

learnMORE | Three types of neurons
The neuron is the primary cell involved in the reception and transmission of information within the nervous system.
Neurons can be classified in terms of their specific function and the direction that they send information. Within
these three classes of neurons are hundreds of different types, each with specific message-carrying abilities.
Sensory and motor neurons are found throughout the nervous system, whereas interneurons are found only in
the central nervous system (CNS). The figure below shows the interaction between the three types of neurons
activated to enable a spinal reflex initiated by a painful prick to the finger.

(a) (b) (c)

Dendrites
Sensory Dendrites
receptor

Action
potential
Nucleus Action
potential
Axon
Dendrite Neural Nucleus
message

Axon
Nucleus Axon

Axon Axon
Axon
terminals terminals
terminals
Sensory neuron Motor neuron Interneuron

(a) A sensory neuron receives and carries sensory information from both the external and internal
environments and transmits it to the CNS. It is also called an afferent neuron or affector. As the name
suggests, it is activated by sensory input. Note that it has a short axon, a long dendrite and one or more
receptor cells that detect sensory information. (b) A motor neuron carries messages from the CNS to cells
in skeletal muscles, organs and glands to stimulate activity. It is also called an efferent neuron, effector or
motoneuron. Note that it has a longer axon than the sensory neuron and many shorter dendrites. (c) An
interneuron sends messages between sensory and motor neurons within the CNS, relaying information
from one to the other (because sensory and motor neurons rarely ever connect directly). It is also called a
connecting or association neuron. It generally has relatively short axons and dendrites.

Sensory neuron

Motor
neuron

Spinal cord Interneuron

(cross-section)

Sensory
receptors

Interaction between the three types of neurons to enable a spinal reflex initiated by pain to the finger.

TOPIC 2 Nervous system functioning