COMPUTER NETWORKS

It is a collection of interconnected autonomous computing devices so as to exchange

information or share resources .
Components of computer networks:
a) Host/Node: Refers to the computers that are attached to a network and are seeking to
share the resources of the network. E.g. PCs, Laptops etc when connect to a network
become hosts.
b) Server: It facilitates networking task like sharing of data, resource sharing,
communication among hosts etc. (Sender)
c) Client: A client computer is a host computer that request for some services from a
server. (Receiver)
d) Network hardware: A network requires specialized hardware to carry out various roles,
such as establishing corrections, controlling network traffic etc. E.g. NIC(Network
Interface Card) bracket close, hub, switch, router etc.
e) Communication channel: Hosts a network interact with other hosts and servers
through a communication channel or communication medium.
 Guided media (Wired): Transmission of data is unidirectional. E.g. Coaxial cable,
twisted pair cable, fibre optic cable etc.
 Unguided media (Wireless): Transmission of data is in all directions. E.g. Microwaves,
radio waves, satellites etc.
f) Software: the software layers of a network make networking possible. This comprises of
network protocols, network operating system etc.
A Protocol refers to a pre-decided set of rules using which all parties of a network
connect and interact with one another.
A Network operating system is a specialized operating system that can handle
networking tasks.
g) Network services: These refers to the applications that provide different functionalities
over network such as DNS (Domain Name System), file sharing, VoIP (voice over IP) etc.
Types of Networks:
I. Based on Geographical spread:
1. Personal Area Network (PAN):
 A very small area, typically a few meters (1-10 meters).
 Designed for personal devices such as smartphones, laptops, and wearable devices to
communicate with each other.
 Limited range.
 Typically wireless.
 E.g. Bluetooth connections (e.g., connecting a phone to headphones), Infrared
communication (e.g., remote controls).

2. Local Area Network (LAN):

 A small geographical area, such as a single building, office, or campus (up to 100
meters).
 Used for connecting computers and devices within a limited area for resource sharing
(e.g., files, printers).
 High data transfer speeds (e.g., Ethernet or Wi-Fi).
 E.g. Office networks, Home Wi-Fi networks.
 3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
 A city or metropolitan area (up-to 500 kilometers).
 Connects multiple LANs within a city, often used by organizations or municipalities
for shared resources.
 E.g. A city-wide Wi-Fi network, a university network connecting multiple campuses.

4. Wide Area Network (WAN):

 A large geographical area, such as a country or the globe.
 Connects multiple LANs and MANs to facilitate communication and data sharing over
long distances.
 Uses public or leased communication lines.
 Slower speeds compared to LANs due to long-distance transmission
 E.g. The Internet (the largest WAN), Corporate networks connecting offices across
countries.

II. Based on Component role:

1. Client-Server Network: A network where certain devices (servers) provide services,
resources, or data, and other devices (clients) request and use these services.
Centralized management.
 Servers handle tasks like authentication, file storage, printing, and hosting
applications.
 Clients are typically less powerful devices relying on the server.
 E.g. A company network where employee's computers (clients) access files stored on
a central server, Web browsing (the browser acts as the client, and the website’s
server responds to requests).
Advantages:
 Easier management and scalability.
 Centralized control ensures security and efficiency.
Disadvantages:
 Server dependency: if the server fails, the entire network may be disrupted.

2. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network: A network where all devices (peers) have equal roles
and can act as both clients and servers, sharing resources directly with each other.
 Decentralized: no dedicated server.
 Each node can share files, printers, or other resources with other nodes.
 E.g. Home networks where devices share files without a central server, File-sharing
platforms like BitTorrent.
Advantages:
 Cost-effective and simple to set up.
 No reliance on a central server.
 Disadvantages:
 Less secure and harder to manage as the network grows.
 Performance may degrade with many simultaneous connections.

Network Topologies
i. Star Topology:
Advantages:
 Easy to add or remove nodes.
 If one node fails the entire network will
not get affected.
Disadvantages:
 Long cable length.
 If the central hub fails then the entire
network will shutdown.
ii. Bus/Linear Topology:
Advantages:
 Short cable length and simple wiring.
 Easy to add or remove notes.
 If one node fails the entire network will
not get affected.
Disadvantages:
 Difficult fault analysis.
 If the central (backbone) wire fails the entire network will shutdown.
 Need repeater for longer configuration.
iii. Tree Topology: Combination of Bus and Star
topology.
Advantages:
 It is flexible and scalable.
 Very secure.
Disadvantages:
 Complex design (difficult to add or remove
nodes).
 Long cable length.
 If the backbone wire fails then the entire network will shutdown.
iv. Mesh Topology: No. Of cables required = n(n-1)/2
Advantages:
 Fast transmission.
 If one node fails then entire network will not
get affected.
Disadvantages:
 Long cable length.
 Difficult to add or remove nodes.
v. Ring Topology: (Unidirectional)
Advantages:
 Short cable length.
 Less collision.
Disadvantages:
 If one node fails the entire network will
shutdown.
 Difficult to add or remove nodes.
 One way transmission.
 Less secure.

Evolution of Networking
i. ARPANET(Advance Research Projects Agency NETwork): Developed in 1969 by U. S.
Department of Defense. The goal of this project was to connect computers at different
universities and U. S. Defense.
ii. NSFnet(National Science Foundation Network): NSFNET was a network funded by the
U.S. National Science Foundation in the mid-1980s,It served as a backbone network for
research and education, expanding on ARPANET's foundation.
iii. The Internet: The internet is a global network of interconnected computer networks,
enabling data exchange, communication, and services worldwide. It Uses TCP/IP
protocols for communication.

Switching Techniques
Switching techniques are used for transmitting data across networks. The different types of
switching techniques are:
i. Circuit switching: In this technique, first the
complete physical connection between two
computers is established and then data is
transmitted from the source computer to the
destination computer.
ii. Packet switching: In this technique, Data is
divided into small packets, which are sent
independently over the network with
unique sequence number. Packets may take
different paths to the destination and are
reassembled in order upon arrival.
Bandwidth: It refers to the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of a
transmission channel. High bandwidth channels are called broadband. Low bandwidth
channels are called narrowband.
Data transfer rate: It represents the amount of data transferred per second by a
communications channel or a computing device. It is measured in units of bits per
second(bps) or baud ,and bytes per second (Bps).
IP Address (Internet Protocol Address): A logical address assigned to a device in a network,
used to identify its location and enable communication. It helps route data between devices
across networks (e.g., local and the internet).
MAC Address (Media Access Control Address): A physical, unique hardware address
assigned to a network interface card (NIC) by the manufacturer. It identifies devices within
the same local network (LAN).

Transmission Media
I. Guided Media (Wired)
1. Twisted Pair Cable: It consists of two identical wires wrapped together in a double
helix.
Application: Local Area Networks (LANs) and telephone lines.
Advantages:
 Simple and easy to install and maintain.
 Physically flexible.
 Not expensive.
Disadvantages:
 Use of repeater over long distance.
 Not suitable for broadband application due
to low bandwidth.
It is of two type:
a. UTP(Unshielded Twisted Pair)
b. STP(Shielded Twisted Pair)

2. Coaxial Cable: This type of cable consist of a solid wire core surrounded by one or
more foil or wire shields each separated by some kind of plastic insulator. The inner
core carries the signal, and the shield provides the ground. The coaxial cable has
high electrical properties and it is suitable for high speed communication.
Application: Cable television(CATV), internet services, and connecting radio
transmitters.
Advantages:
 Data transmission is better than twisted
pair.
 Can be used as broadband transmission.
 Offer higher bandwidth upto 400 MBps.
Disadvantages:
 Expensive than twisted pair.
 Not compatible with twisted pair.
 Types of coaxial cable:
a. Thicknet (upto 500 meters)
b. Thinnet (upto 185 meters)

3. Optical Fibers: Uses light signals transmitted through a core made of glass or plastic
to carry data. Surrounding the core are cladding and protective layers.
Application: High-speed internet, telecommunications, and data centers.
Advantages:
 Immune to any kind of interference.
 Very high transmission capacity.
 Highly suitable for harsh industrial
environments.
Disadvantages:
 Very expensive.
 Connecting two fiber optic cable is very difficult.
 Light can reach the receiver out of phase.
Types of optical fiber:
a. Single node (segement length upto 2 Kms, bandwidth upto 100 MBps)
b. Multinode (segment length upto 100 Kms, bandwidth upto 2 GBps)
II. Unguided Media (Wireless)

Feature Microwave Radio Wave Infrared Wave

Definition Electromagnetic Electromagnetic waves Electromagnetic waves
waves with with the longest with frequencies
frequencies between wavelength, between 300 GHz and
300 MHz and 300 frequencies 3 Hz to 430 THz.
GHz. 300 GHz.
Wavelength 1 mm to 1 meter Greater than 1 mm 700 nm to 1 mm
Range (longer than (shorter than
microwaves) microwaves)
Applications - Satellite - AM/FM radio - Remote controls.
communication (e.g., broadcasting. - Thermal imaging (e.g.,
GPS, TV). - Television night vision).
- Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. transmissions. - Fiber-optic
- Microwave ovens. - Wireless communication.
- Radar systems. communication.
Advantages - High bandwidth for - Can cover long - High precision in
data transmission. distances. applications like
- Reliable for line-of- - Suitable for thermal imaging.
sight communication. broadcasting and wide - Not prone to
area coverage. interference.
Disadvantages - Requires line-of- - Low bandwidth - Limited to short
sight for compared to distances.
communication. microwaves.
- Affected by physical - Can be prone to - Absorbed by most
 obstacles like interference from materials, reducing
mountains and other signals. range and efficiency.
weather.

Key - Suitable for high- - Omnidirectional, - Operates well in

Characteristics speed data transfer. spreads over large short-range, high-
- Directional and used areas. frequency
in focused beams. environments.
Network Devices
1. Modem: A device that converts digital signals from a computer into analog signals for
transmission over telephone lines (modulation) and vice versa (demodulation).
Uses: Facilitates internet access by connecting to an Internet Service Provider (ISP),
Commonly used in DSL or cable internet connections.
2. Ethernet Card (NIC): A hardware component (also known as a Network Interface Card)
that connects a computer or device to a wired network.
Uses: Provides the physical connection to a network via Ethernet cables, Supports high-
speed communication within Local Area Networks (LANs).
3. RJ45 Connector: A standardized connector for Ethernet cables, featuring 8 pins for
transmitting and receiving data.
Uses: Connects devices like computers, switches, and routers using Ethernet cables,
Commonly used in wired LAN setups.
4. Repeater: A device that amplifies and regenerates signals to extend the range of a
network.
Uses: Overcomes signal attenuation in long-distance wired or wireless communications,
Often used in large buildings or areas to improve network coverage.
5. Hub: A basic networking device that connects multiple devices in a network and
broadcasts data to all connected devices.
Uses: Used in small networks for basic connectivity. Allows devices to share a single
communication medium, though less efficient than switches.
6. Switch: An intelligent networking device that connects multiple devices in a network and
forwards data only to the intended recipient.
Uses: Provides efficient communication in LANs by reducing unnecessary data traffic,
Commonly used in enterprise and home networks.
7. Router: A device that connects multiple networks and routes data between them,
typically between a home network and the internet.
Uses: Enables internet access for multiple devices, Manages IP addressing and ensures
efficient data routing. Provides firewall and security features in many cases.
8. Gateway: A device or software that acts as a bridge between different networks, often
with differing protocols.
Uses: Facilitates communication between networks using different protocols. Acts as an
entry/exit point in large networks or between LANs and the internet.
9. Wi-Fi Card: A hardware component that allows a device to connect to wireless networks
via Wi-Fi. Uses: Enables wireless internet access on laptops, desktops, and IoT devices.
Provides flexibility and mobility by eliminating the need for wired connections.
 Network Protocols
1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Transfers web pages between browsers and servers;
used for accessing websites.
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Transfers files between computers; used for uploading and
downloading files.
3. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol): Enables direct connection between two nodes; used in
dial-up and VPNs.
4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Sends emails between servers; used for email
transmission.
5. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): Ensures reliable data
communication; used for all internet-based communication.
6. POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3): Retrieves emails from a server to a client; used for offline
email access.
7. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure): Transfers encrypted web data; used for
secure web browsing.
8. TELNET: Enables remote login to systems; used for managing devices over a network
(now largely replaced by SSH).
9. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol): Transmits voice and video over the internet; used
for online calls and conferencing.
Web Services
1. World Wide Web (WWW):
 A system of interlinked web pages accessible via the internet.
 Uses HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) to transfer information.
2. HyperText Markup Language (HTML) Vs Extensible Markup Language (XML):
Designed for displaying data and content on Designed for storing, transporting, and
the web. structuring data.
Focuses on presentation and layout of data. Focuses on the organization and
transportation of data.
Uses predefined tags (e.g., <p>, <h1>, <img>). Allows user-defined tags (e.g., <student>,
<book>).
Tags are not case-sensitive (e.g., <BODY> = Tags are case-sensitive (e.g., <data> ≠
<body>). <DATA>).
Directly rendered by web browsers. Not directly rendered; requires processing
by applications.
3. Domain Names:
 Unique, human-readable address of a website (e.g., www.cbse.gov.in).
 Maps to IP addresses.
 The character based naming system by which servers are identified is called
DNS(Domain Name System).
 Common domain types:
 .com: Commercial
 .org: Organization
 .edu: Education
 .in: India-specific
 .gov: Government
4. URL (Uniform Resource Locator): A URL is the complete web address used to locate a
resource (e.g., webpage) on the internet. It consists of:
 Protocol: Defines how data is transferred (http://, https://)
 Domain Name: Website address (www.example.com)
 Path: Specific location of a resource (/about-us)
 Example of a URL: https://www.cbse.gov.in/faq.html
5. Website: A website is a collection of interrelated web pages hosted on a server and
accessible via a domain name. It can contain text, images, videos, and interactive features.
6. Web Browser: A web browser is an application used to access and view websites.
Popular web browsers include:
a) Google Chrome
b) Mozilla Firefox
c) Safari
d) Microsoft Edge
Functions of a web browser:
i. Fetching web pages via URL.
ii. Rendering HTML content for display.
iii. Supporting interactive features like forms.
7. Web Servers: A web server is a system that stores and serves web pages to users upon
request. It processes incoming requests (from browsers) and sends the appropriate data
(e.g., HTML files). E.g. Apache, Microsoft IIS.
8. Web Hosting: Web hosting is a service that provides space on a server for websites to be
stored and made accessible on the internet. Types of web hosting include:
a) Shared Hosting: Multiple websites share one server.
b) Dedicated Hosting: One server is dedicated to a single website.
c) Cloud Hosting: Websites use a network of servers in the cloud.