Networking

Assignment 1
1. Define Computer Networks and Discuss Their Primary Goals and
Applications. How Do Broadcast and Point-to-Point Network Hardware
Differ?
Definition of Computer Networks:
A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices (computers,
servers, printers, routers, switches, etc.) that communicate with each other to
share resources, data, and applications. This communication is achieved
through wired (Ethernet, fibre optics) or wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth)
transmission mediums.
Primary Goals of Computer Networks:
1. Resource Sharing: Allow multiple devices to share hardware (printers,
storage) and software resources (applications, databases).
2. Data Communication: Enable fast and secure transfer of data between
devices, whether locally or over the internet.
3. Reliability and Redundancy: Provide fault tolerance with minimal
downtime through backup routes and failover mechanisms.
4. Scalability: Facilitate the easy addition of new devices or resources
without disrupting existing operations.
5. Security: Ensure data privacy, integrity, and access control to protect
against unauthorized access and cyber threats.
6. Remote Accessibility: Support remote access to resources, enabling
telecommuting and global collaboration.
Applications of Computer Networks:
• Business Operations: ERP systems, CRM platforms, email
communication.
• Internet Services: Web browsing, cloud computing, social media, VoIP.
 • Education: E-learning platforms, virtual classrooms, research
collaboration.
• Healthcare: Telemedicine, electronic health records (EHRs).
• Military & Government: Secure communications, surveillance systems.
• Smart Technologies: IoT devices in smart homes, smart cities, and
industrial automation.
Broadcast vs. Point-to-Point Network Hardware:

Aspect Broadcast Network Point-to-Point Network

A single communication channel A dedicated link between

Definition
shared by all devices. exactly two devices.

Ethernet (hub-based), Wi-Fi Leased lines, direct fibre

Example
(wireless signals). optic connections.

Data Data sent to all devices; only the Data sent directly between
Transmission intended recipient processes it. the sender and receiver.

Less efficient due to potential

High efficiency as the link is
Efficiency collisions (CSMA/CD used in
not shared.
Ethernet).

Easily scalable but prone to Limited scalability due to

Scalability
congestion. point-to-point nature.

More secure as data is

Less secure since data is accessible
Security confined to the dedicated
to all devices unless encrypted.
link.

2. Explain Various Network Topologies: Mesh, Star, Bus, and Ring. What Are
the Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Topology?
1. Mesh Topology:
• Structure: Every device is connected to every other device via dedicated
links.
 • Example: Military networks, WAN backbones.
Advantages:
• High reliability due to multiple redundant paths.
• Failure of one node/link doesn’t affect the network.
• Easy to identify faults.
Disadvantages:
• Expensive to implement due to extensive cabling.
• Complex setup and maintenance.

2. Star Topology:
• Structure: All devices are connected to a central hub/switch.
• Example: Home networks, office LANs.
Advantages:
• Easy to install and manage.
• Failure of a peripheral device doesn’t affect the network.
• Centralised control simplifies troubleshooting.
Disadvantages:
• If the central hub fails, the entire network goes down.
• Higher cost due to reliance on networking hardware (switches).

3. Bus Topology:
• Structure: All devices are connected to a single backbone cable (bus).
• Example: Early Ethernet networks, simple LAN setups.
Advantages:
• Easy to set up for small networks.
 • Requires less cable than star or mesh.
Disadvantages:
• Limited scalability; performance degrades with more devices.
• Difficult to troubleshoot if the backbone cable fails.
• Data collisions are common, requiring protocols like CSMA/CD.

4. Ring Topology:
• Structure: Devices are connected in a circular loop; data travels in one
direction.
• Example: Token Ring networks, FDDI networks.
Advantages:
• Equal access for all devices; predictable performance.
• Easy to detect and isolate faults.
Disadvantages:
• A failure in any device or cable disrupts the entire network.
• Adding/removing devices requires network downtime.
3. Differentiate Between LAN, MAN, WAN, Internetwork, and Wireless
Networks. Provide Examples of Scenarios Where Each Type Would Be Most
Appropriate.

Coverage
Type Definition Example
Area

Local Area Network: Single

Office network,
LAN Connects devices within a building or
home network
small area. campus

Metropolitan Area City-wide ISP

MAN Network: Covers a city or City-wide services, university
large campus. campus

Wide Area Network: Country, The Internet,

WAN Connects devices over continent, multinational
large geographic areas. global corporate networks

The Internet
Interconnection of multiple
Internetwork Global (network of
networks using routers.
networks)

Network using wireless Home Wi-Fi, mobile

Wireless Varies (local
technologies like Wi-Fi, networks, public
Network to global)
Bluetooth, LTE. hotspots

Scenario Examples:
• LAN: Corporate office connecting workstations, printers, and servers.
• MAN: A university with multiple campuses across a city.
• WAN: A multinational company with offices across different continents.
• Internetwork: The internet itself, interlinking ISPs and private networks.
• Wireless Network: A coffee shop providing Wi-Fi to customers.
4. Describe the Modes of Communication: Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-
Duplex. How Does Each Mode Impact Data Transmission in a Network?
1. Simplex Mode:
• Definition: Data flows in one direction only, with no return path.
• Example: Television broadcast, keyboard-to-CPU.
Impact on Data Transmission:
• Simple, low-cost setup.
• No feedback mechanism, so errors cannot be corrected.

2. Half-Duplex Mode:
• Definition: Data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a
time.
• Example: Walkie-talkies, older Ethernet networks (using CSMA/CD).
Impact on Data Transmission:
• Efficient for scenarios where communication is intermittent.
• Slower than full-duplex due to the need for devices to switch roles
between sender and receiver.

3. Full-Duplex Mode:
• Definition: Data flows simultaneously in both directions.
• Example: Modern Ethernet networks (using switches), phone calls.
Impact on Data Transmission:
• Maximises bandwidth utilisation.
• Requires more sophisticated hardware (e.g., switches instead of hubs).
5. Compare Server-Based LANs and Peer-to-Peer LANs. What Are the Key
Differences in Terms of Architecture, Performance, and Use Cases?

Aspect Server-Based LAN Peer-to-Peer (P2P) LAN

Centralised server controls No central server; all devices

Architecture
resources and security. share resources equally.

Performance may degrade as

High performance due to
Performance the number of devices
dedicated servers.
increases.

Strong, centralised security Less secure; relies on

Security
policies. individual devices’ security.

Requires network administrators Easy to manage for small

Management
for management. setups; no admin required.

Higher cost (server hardware, Low cost, as no dedicated

Cost
software licenses, IT staff). servers are needed.

Highly scalable to support Limited scalability; suitable

Scalability
hundreds/thousands of devices. for small networks.

Corporate networks, data Home networks, small offices,

Use Cases
centres, large organisations. temporary setups.

Example Scenarios:
• Server-Based LAN: An enterprise with hundreds of employees,
centralised file servers, and strict security requirements.
• Peer-to-Peer LAN: A small business with fewer than 10 employees
needing basic file and printer sharing.
 Assignment 2
6. What Are Protocols and Standards in Networking? Discuss Their
Importance and Provide Examples of Commonly Used Protocols.
Protocols in Networking:
A network protocol is a set of rules and conventions that define how devices
on a network communicate with each other. Protocols ensure that data is
transmitted, received, and processed correctly, regardless of the hardware or
software involved.
• Functions of Protocols:
o Data formatting and structuring
o Error detection and correction
o Flow control
o Addressing and routing
o Connection establishment and termination
Standards in Networking:
Networking standards are established guidelines and technical specifications
developed by organisations to ensure interoperability, compatibility, and
consistency across devices and networks.
• Standard Organisations Include:
o IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers): IEEE 802.3
(Ethernet), IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi)
o IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force): TCP/IP protocols
o ISO (International Organization for Standardization): OSI model
o ITU (International Telecommunication Union):
Telecommunications protocols
Importance of Protocols and Standards:
 • Interoperability: Ensure devices from different vendors can work
together seamlessly.
• Reliability: Provide consistent and error-free data transmission.
• Scalability: Enable networks to grow without compatibility issues.
• Security: Define encryption and authentication mechanisms for secure
communication.
Examples of Commonly Used Protocols:
• HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Used for web
communication.
• FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Transfers files between systems.
• SMTP/IMAP/POP3: Email communication protocols.
• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The backbone
of the internet for reliable data transmission.
• DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names into IP
addresses.
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Assigns IP addresses
dynamically.

7. Explain the OSI Reference Model, Detailing the Functions of Each of Its
Seven Layers. How Does This Model Facilitate Interoperability Between
Different Network Systems?
OSI Reference Model:
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual framework
developed by the ISO that standardises the functions of a networking system
into seven layers. It helps different systems communicate using standardised
protocols.
Seven Layers of the OSI Model:
1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):
 o Function: Deals with the physical transmission of raw binary data
over a medium (cables, switches).
o Components: Cables, hubs, repeaters, network interface cards
(NICs).
o Key Protocols: Ethernet (physical signals), DSL.
2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):
o Function: Manages node-to-node data transfer, error detection,
and MAC addressing.
o Components: Switches, bridges.
o Key Protocols: Ethernet (framing), PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol).
3. Network Layer (Layer 3):
o Function: Handles logical addressing (IP addresses) and routing of
data packets.
o Components: Routers.
o Key Protocols: IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (for diagnostics), ARP.
4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):
o Function: Provides reliable data transmission, error correction,
and flow control.
o Key Protocols: TCP (reliable), UDP (fast but unreliable).
5. Session Layer (Layer 5):
o Function: Manages sessions (connections) between applications,
maintaining state and synchronisation.
o Key Protocols: NetBIOS, RPC (Remote Procedure Call).
6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):
o Function: Translates data formats, encrypts/decrypts data,
handles data compression.
o Key Protocols: SSL/TLS (encryption), JPEG, MPEG.
 7. Application Layer (Layer 7):
o Function: Provides network services directly to user applications.
o Key Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
Interoperability Benefits:
• Modularity: Each layer performs a specific function, making it easier to
troubleshoot.
• Vendor-Neutral: Ensures devices from different manufacturers can
communicate.
• Protocol Independence: Changes in one layer don’t affect others.

8. Discuss the TCP/IP Reference Model and Compare It with the OSI Model.
What Are the Main Differences, and Why Is TCP/IP More Widely Adopted in
Practical Networking?
TCP/IP Reference Model:
The TCP/IP model is the foundation of the modern internet, defining how data
should be packaged, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received across
networks. It consists of four layers:
1. Network Interface Layer: Manages physical transmission (equivalent to
OSI Layers 1 & 2).
2. Internet Layer: Handles logical addressing and routing (similar to OSI
Layer 3).
3. Transport Layer: Manages end-to-end data transmission (equivalent to
OSI Layer 4).
4. Application Layer: Provides network services (combines OSI Layers 5, 6,
7).
Comparison Between OSI and TCP/IP Models:
Aspect OSI Model (7 Layers) TCP/IP Model (4 Layers)

Theoretical model Practical model developed by the

Development
developed by ISO. Department of Defense (DoD).

7 layers (Physical, Data 4 layers (Network Interface,

Layer Count
Link, Network, etc.). Internet, Transport, Application).

Protocol Protocol-specific (designed around

Protocol-independent.
Dependency TCP/IP).

Widely used for Dominates real-world networks

Adoption
academic purposes. (Internet).

Strict layering with clear Flexible, with overlapping

Flexibility
boundaries. functionalities.

Why TCP/IP is More Widely Adopted:

• Developed alongside the internet, ensuring seamless integration.
• Flexible, robust, and adaptable to different technologies.
• Open-standard protocols supported globally.

9. What Are Physical, Logical, and Port Addresses in Networking? How Do

They Function Within the TCP/IP Protocol Suite to Ensure Accurate Data
Transmission?
1. Physical Address (MAC Address):
• Definition: A hardware address assigned to a network interface card
(NIC) at the factory.
• Format: 48-bit hexadecimal (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
• Role: Unique identifier for devices within the same local network (used
in Layer 2).
• Example: When sending data over Ethernet, MAC addresses are used to
identify the source and destination devices.
2. Logical Address (IP Address):
• Definition: A software-assigned address used to identify devices across
different networks.
• Types: IPv4 (192.168.1.1), IPv6 (2001:0db8::1).
• Role: Enables devices to be identified and located on the internet (used
in Layer 3).
• Example: Routers use IP addresses to route data packets between
networks.
3. Port Address:
• Definition: A 16-bit number used to identify specific processes or
applications on a device.
• Format: Ranges from 0 to 65,535 (e.g., Port 80 for HTTP, Port 443 for
HTTPS).
• Role: Facilitates communication between devices by directing data to the
correct application (used in Layer 4).
• Example: When accessing a website, data is sent to the server’s IP
address on Port 80 (for HTTP).
How They Work Together:
• A data packet on the internet contains:
o MAC Address (local delivery),
o IP Address (network-level delivery),
o Port Number (application-specific delivery).

10. Identify and Describe Various Transmission Media Used in Networking,

Such as Twisted Pair Cables, Coaxial Cables, Fibre Optics, and Wireless Media.
What Are the Characteristics, Advantages, and Limitations of Each?
Transmission
Characteristics Advantages Limitations
Media

Pairs of copper wires Limited distance

Twisted Pair twisted to reduce Cost-effective, easy (~100m),
Cables electromagnetic to install, flexible. susceptible to
interference. interference.

UTP (Unshielded) and

Types: STP (Shielded Twisted
Pair)

Single copper
Higher bandwidth Bulky, harder to
Coaxial conductor with
than twisted pair, install, limited
Cables insulating layer and
durable. flexibility.
shielding.

Extremely high
bandwidth, long-
Transmit data as light Expensive, fragile,
Fibre Optic distance
through glass or complex
Cables transmission,
plastic fibres. installation.
immune to
interference.

Uses radio waves, Security risks,

No physical cables
Wireless microwaves, or susceptible to
needed, mobile,
Media infrared for data interference,
scalable.
transmission. limited range.

Usage Scenarios:
• Twisted Pair: LAN connections in offices and homes.
• Coaxial: Broadband internet, cable TV networks.
• Fibre Optic: High-speed internet backbones, data centres.
• Wireless: Wi-Fi networks, mobile communications.