PHYSICS NOTES

WAVES-GENERAL PROPERTIES

 Waves transfer energy and information

 Waves are described as oscillations or vibrations about a fixed point
o For example, ripples cause particles of water to oscillate up and down
o Sound waves cause particles of air to vibrate back and forth
 In all cases, waves transfer energy without transferring matter
o For water waves, this means it is the wave and not the water (the matter) itself
that travels
o For sound waves, this means it is the wave and not the air molecules (the
matter) itself that travels

Wave motion of water waves may be demonstrated using a ripple tank

 The wavelength of the waves can be determined by:

o Using a ruler to measure the length of the screen
o Dividing this distance by the number of wavefronts

 The frequency can be determined by:

o Timing how long it takes for a given number of waves to pass a particular point
o Dividing the number of wavefronts by the time taken

 The wave speed can then be determined by:

o Using the equation wave speed = frequency × wavelength

o
 Features of a Wave
 When describing wave motion, there are several terms which are important to know,
including:

o Crest (Peak)
o Trough
o Amplitude
o Wavelength
o Frequency
o Wave speed
o Wavefront

Crests & Troughs

 A crest, or a peak, is defined as:

The highest point on a wave above the equilibrium, or rest, position

 A trough is defined as

The lowest point on a wave below the equilibrium, or rest, position

Diagram showing a crest and a trough on a transverse wave

Amplitude

 Amplitude is defined as:

The distance from the undisturbed position to the peak or trough of a wave

 It is given the symbol A and is measured in metres (m)

 Amplitude is the maximum or minimum displacement from the undisturbed position
Wavelength

 Wavelength is defined as:

The distance from one point on the wave to the same point on the next wave

 In a transverse wave:
o The wavelength can be measured from one peak to the next peak
 In a longitudinal wave
o The wavelength can be measured from the centre of one compression to the
centre of the next
 The wavelength is given the symbol λ (lambda) and is measured in metres (m)
 The distance along a wave is typically put on the x-axis of a wave diagram

Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave

Frequency

 Frequency is defined as:

The number of waves passing a point in a second

 Frequency is given the symbol f and is measured in Hertz (Hz)

Wave Speed

 Wave speed is the speed at which energy is transferred through a medium

 Wave speed is defined as:

The distance travelled by a wave each second

 Wave speed is given the symbol, ν, and is measured in metres per second (m/s), it can
be calculated using:

wave speed = frequency × wavelength

Wavefront

 Wavefronts are a useful way of picturing waves from above: each wavefront is used to
represent a single wave
 The image below illustrates how wavefronts are visualised:
o The arrow shows the direction the wave is moving and is sometimes called a ray
o The space between each wavefront represents the wavelength
o When the wavefronts are close together, this represents a wave with
a short wavelength
o When the wavefronts are far apart, this represents a wave with
a long wavelength

Diagram showing a wave moving to the right, drawn as a series of wavefronts

The Wave Equation

 Wave speed is defined as:

The distance travelled by a wave each second

 Wave speed is given the symbol ν and is measured in metres per second (m/s)
 Wave speed is the speed at which energy is transferred through a medium
 Transverse and longitudinal waves both obey the wave equation:

 Where:
o v = wave speed in metres per second (m/s)
o f = frequency in Hertz (Hz)
 o λ = wavelength in metres (m)

 The wave speed equation may need to be rearranged, which can be done using this
formula triangle:

Transverse Waves
 Waves are repeated vibrations that transfer energy

 Waves can exist as one of two types:

o Transverse
o Longitudinal

Transverse Waves

 Transverse waves are defined as:

Waves where the points along its length vibrate at 90 degrees to the direction of energy
transfer

 For a transverse wave:

o The energy transfer is perpendicular to wave motion
o They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
o They can move in solids and on the surfaces of liquids but not inside liquids or gases
o Some transverse waves (electromagnetic waves) can move in solids, liquids and gases
and in a vacuum

 The point on the wave that is:

o The highest above the rest position is called the peak, or crest
o The lowest below the rest position is called the trough
 Transverse waves can be seen in a rope when it is moved quickly up and down

 Examples of transverse waves are:

o Ripples on the surface of water
o Vibrations on a guitar string
o S-waves (a type of seismic wave)
o Electromagnetic waves (such as radio, light, X-rays etc)

Representing Transverse Waves

 Transverse waves are drawn as a single continuous line, usually with a central line showing
the undisturbed position
 The curves are drawn so that they are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer
o These represent the peaks and troughs

Transverse waves are represented as a continuous solid line

Longitudinal Waves
 Longitudinal waves are defined as:

Waves where the points along its length vibrate parallel to the direction of energy transfer

 For a longitudinal wave:

o The energy transfer is in the same direction as the wave motion
 o They transfer energy, but not the particles of the medium
o They can move in solids, liquids and gases
o They can not move in a vacuum (since there are no particles)

 The key features of a longitudinal wave are where the points are:
o Close together, called compressions
o Spaced apart, called rarefactions

Longitudinal waves can be seen in a slinky spring when it is moved quickly backwards and
forwards

 Examples of longitudinal waves are:

o Sound waves
o P-waves (a type of seismic wave)
o Pressure waves caused by repeated movements in a liquid or gas

Representing Longitudinal Waves

 Longitudinal waves are usually drawn as several lines to show that the wave is
moving parallel to the direction of energy transfer
o Drawing the lines closer together represents the compressions
o Drawing the lines further apart represents the rarefactions

Longitudinal waves are represented as sets of lines with rarefactions and compressions
Difference between Longitudinal and Transverse Waves

 The different properties of transverse and longitudinal waves are shown in the table:

Transverse Waves v Longitudinal Waves Table

Reflection, Refraction & Diffraction

 All waves, whether transverse or longitudinal, can
be reflected, refracted and diffracted

Reflection

 Reflection occurs when:

A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through, but
instead stays in the original medium

 The law of reflection states:

The angle of incidence = The angle of reflection

 When waves hit an object, such as a barrier, they can be reflected:

When waves reflect off a barrier, the angle of reflection, r, is equal to the angle of
incidence, i

Refraction

 When waves enter a different medium, their speed can change

 This effect is called refraction and it occurs when:

A wave passes a boundary between two different transparent media and

undergoes a change in speed

 When a wave refracts, as well as a change in speed, the wave also undergoes:
o A change in wavelength (but frequency stays the same)
o A change in direction

Waves can change direction when moving between materials with different
densities

 If the waves slow down, the waves will bunch together, causing the wavelength to
decrease
o The waves will also start to turn slightly towards the normal
 If the waves speed up then they will spread out, causing the wavelength to increase
o The waves will also turn slightly away from the normal

Diffraction

 When waves pass through a narrow gap, the waves spread out
 This effect is called diffraction
 Diffraction: when a wave passes through a narrow gap, it spreads out

Factors Affecting Diffraction

EXTENDED

 Diffraction, as shown above, only generally happens when the gap is smaller than the
wavelength of the wave
 As the gap gets bigger, the effect gradually gets less pronounced until, in the case that
the gap is very much larger than the wavelength, the waves no longer spread out at all

The size of the gap (compared to the wavelength) affects how much the waves
spread out

 Diffraction can also occur when waves pass an edge

 Wh
en a wave goes past the edge of a barrier, the waves can curve around the edge

Reflection in a Plane Mirror

 When an object is placed in front of a mirror, an image of that object can be seen
in the mirror
 The image will be:
o The same size as the object
o The same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it
o Virtual
 The formation of this image can be understood by drawing a ray diagram

o
 Refractive Index
 The refractive index is a number which is related to the speed of light in the material
(which is always less than the speed of light in a vacuum):

 The refractive index is a number that is always larger than 1 and is different for
different materials
o Objects which are more optically dense have a higher refractive index, eg. n is
about 2.4 for diamond
o Objects which are less optically dense have a lower refractive index, eg. n is
about 1.5 for glass

 Since refractive index is a ratio, it has no units

Snell's Law
 When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it slows down and bends towards the
normal
o How much the light bends depends on the density of the material

Angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r through a glass block

 If light travels from a less dense to a more dense medium (e.g. air to glass), r < i (bends
towards the normal)
 If light travels from a more dense to a less dense medium (e.g. glass to air), r > i (bends
away from the normal)

 The angles of incidence and refraction are related by an equation known as Snell's Law:

 Where:
o n = the refractive index of the material
o i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
o r = angle of refraction of the light (°)

 'Sin' is the trigonometric function 'sine' which is on a scientific calculator

 This equation can be rearranged with the help of the formula triangle:

Total Internal Reflection

 Sometimes, when light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense one,
instead of being refracted, all of the light is reflected
o This phenomenon is called total internal reflection

 Total internal reflection (TIR) occurs when:

The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle and the incident material is denser
than the second material

 Therefore, the two conditions for total internal reflection are:

o The angle of incidence > the critical angle
o The incident material is denser than the second material

Critical angle and total internal reflection

 Total internal reflection is utilised in:

o Optical fibres e.g. endoscopes
o Prisms e.g. periscopes

Prisms

 Prisms are used in a variety of optical instruments, including:

o Periscopes
o Binoculars
o Telescopes
o Cameras

 They are also used in safety reflectors for bicycles and cars, as well as posts marking the
side or edge of roads

 A periscope is a device that can be used to see over tall objects

o It consists of two right-angled prisms
 Reflection of light through a periscope

 The light totally internally reflects in both prisms

Single and double reflection through right-angled prisms

Critical Angle
 As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases until
it gets closer to 90°
  When the angle of refraction is exactly 90° the light is refracted along the
boundary
o At this point, the angle of incidence is known as the critical angle c

As the angle of incidence increases it will eventually surplus the critical angle
and lead to total internal reflection of the light

 When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, the refracted ray is
now reflected
o This is total internal reflection

Refractive Index & Critical Angle Equation

EXTENDED

 The critical angle, c, of a material is related to its refractive index, n

 The relationship between the two quantities is given by the equation:

 This can also be rearranged to calculate the refractive index, n:

  This equation shows that:
o The larger the refractive index of a material, the smaller the critical
angle
o Light rays inside a material with a high refractive index are more likely to
be totally internally reflected