Work, Energy and Power

Work
Work is done on an object when energy is transferred to the object. In other words, work is done when a force
acts on something that undergoes a displacement from one position to another. Forces can vary as a function of
position, and displacements can be along various paths between two points.
The work done by a force is the integral of the force with respect to displacement along the path of the
displacement:

Work is a scalar quantity; the derived unit is the Newton-meter (N m)

Since N = kg-m/s2, a N-m also equals a kg-m2/s2 or joule (J).

Work done by a constant force

“Work done is the product of a force applied to a body and the displacement of the body in the direction of the
applied force”
F
ϴ
F
d d

W = Fd W = Fd cos ϴ

Work done = Force x distance moved in the direction of the force

Work done against gravity

The increase in gravitational potential energy ΔEp when an object of mass m is raised vertically through a
distance Δh near the Earth’s surface.
The acceleration of free fall near the Earth’s surface is g.
Weight/force = mg
ΔEp = mg x Δh

h
W = Fd = mg x h = mgh

mg 1
Work Done by Forces that Vary
In general, forces may vary in magnitude and direction at points in space, and paths between two points may be
curved. The infinitesimal work done by a variable force can be expressed in terms of the components of the
force and the displacement along the path,

Here, the components of the force are functions of position along the path, and the displacements depend on the
equations of the path.
Work can be positive, negative, or zero. The sign of the work depends on the direction of the force relative to
the displacement.
 Work is positive i.e. W ˃ 0 if the object moves in the same direction as the direction of the force (force
and displacement are in the same direction). That is 90o ˃ θ ˃ 0o.

The energy of the system is increased.

 Work is negative i.e. W ˂ 0 if the object moves in the direction opposite the direction of the force (force
and displacement are in opposite directions). i.e 180o ˃ θ ˃ 90o.

The energy of the system is reduced.

 Work is zero i.e W = 0 if the object moves in the direction perpendicular to the direction of the force
(force and displacement are at right angles), i.e. θ = 90o (cos 90o = 0)

The energy of the system is unchanged.

No acceleration occurs since no component of force acts in the direction of displacement.
No work is done by the normal force or the force of gravity.
 Work is maximum: if θ = 0o
 Work is minimum: if θ = 180o

3 things necessary for the performance of work

- There must be a force applied
- There must be a displacement
- The force must have a component in the direction of the displacement.

2
Worked Example
1. A +60 N force is applied to an object that moves 15 m in the same direction during the time that the
force is applied. How much work is done to the object?
Solution
Given: F = +60 N, d = 15 m

2. A 50 N force is applied to an object that moves 10 m in the opposite direction of the force during the
time that the force is applied. How much work is done to the object?
Solution
Given: F = -50 N, d = 10 m
Since the force is in the opposite direction of the motion, we set the force equal to -50 N so that the work will
be negative.

Energy
Energy is a measure of the change imparted to a system. It can be defined as the ability or capacity (of someone
or something) to do work. It is given to an object when a force does work on the object. Thus, an object is said
to possess energy only if it can do work. The amount of energy transferred to the object equals the work done.
When an object does work, it loses an amount of energy that equals the work it does. Energy and work have the
same units, joules. Energy, like work, is a scalar quantity.

Some Things You Should Know About Energy

• For anything to happen there must be a conversion of energy from one type to another or a transfer of
energy from one place (or area or body) to another.
• Energy always moves from a "higher concentration” to a "lower concentration”.
• There are two ways that energy can be transferred - by work or by heat flow.
• Energy never appears from nowhere or disappears into nothingness.

Some common forms of energy

• Mechanical (kinetic and potential)
• Heat
• Chemical
• Solar
• Electrical
• Nuclear

3
 • Sound
• Wind
• Sea (tidal and wave)
• Geothermal

Mechanical Energy
1. Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is the energy a body possess by virtue of its motion. e.g. translational KE of a moving car and
rotational KE of a spinning top.
If an object of mass m is moving with a speed v, it has translational KE given by

When m is in kg and v is in m/s, the units of KE are joules.

Kinetic energy of a particle can be expressed in terms of its mass and momentum:

2. Potential – Gravitational, elastic, chemical, nuclear, electrical (electrostatic & electrodynamic)

 Potential energy is the energy stored (in a body or in a system due to its position in a force field or due
to its configuration) available to do work.
 Potential energy exists when a restoring force acts upon an object that tends to restore it to a lower
energy configuration.
 e.g. Gravitational PE of a brick held up in the air (due to the height/position of its mass in the
gravitational field of the earth), Elastic PE of a wound-up clock spring (due to change of shape)
Chemical PE in fuel (related to the structural arrangement of atoms or molecules).
Derivation of equations for PE & KE
 GPE = mgh, where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Notice that mg is the weight of the object. The
units of GPE are joules when m is in kg, g is in m/s2 and h is in m.
• EPE = ½Ke2 = ½Fe
• TKE = ½mv2  Doubling speed quadruples the KE

Interconversions of energy
Falling water releases stored gravitational potential energy, which can become the kinetic energy associated
with a coherent motion of matter. The harnessed mechanical energy can be used to spin turbines and alternators,
doing work to generate electrical energy, transmitted to consumers along power lines. When you use any
electrical device, the electrical energy is transformed into other forms of energy.

4
 Sources of energy
• Renewable – source that cannot be exhausted, or will not run out e.g. geothermal, solar, wind, ocean
tides.
• Non-renewable – could be exhausted, or will eventually run out e.g. coal, oil, (natural) gas etc. - finite
resource.

Energy as Heat Flow

 Energy as heat flow always moves from a higher temperature to a lower temperature.
 Heat will flow as long as one temperature is higher than another.

Heat energy and work

• Thermodynamics is the study of heat transfer involving mechanical work and other aspects of energy
transfer. Thermodynamics laws are used in the design of heat engines e.g. steam engines, internal
combustion engines, jet engines & rocket engines etc.
• Thermodynamics deals with the relation between heat, internal energy of a gas and work done by
a gas.
Work done by vs work done on
Distinguish between work done by a force (positive work) and work done on a force (negative work). e.g.
calculating the work done by a gas that is expanding against a constant external pressure: W = pΔV.
Noting that when a gas expands, work is done by the gas; if it contracts, then another agency must be doing
work on the gas.
F
Work done by gas
Gas Pressure
Assuming F is constant, also P.
P
Work done when the gas expands is given by

V
5
W = F.l = PA.l = P.V = Area under PV curve generally.
where V = increase in volume corresponding to
shifting of the piston position through length l.
A = cross-sectional area of the piston.
The product of pressure and volume, in general,
therefore represents the work done by a gas
which is expanding against a constant external pressure: W = PV.

First law of thermodynamics

“The total energy in a closed system is constant” or “the change in internal energy of a system is equal to the
heat added to the system minus the work done by the system”

Principle of conservation of energy.

“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can be transformed from one form to another or transferred
from one body to another”.
This is one of the key unifying principles in Science. It was later modified by Albert Einstein as “The sum total
of mass plus energy in the universe is fixed” – Giving the relationship between energy and mass as E = mc2 in
his theory of relativity.

Application of principle of conservation of energy to simple mechanical systems

1. A swinging pendulum.
2. A body lifted up in the earth’s gravitational field and allowed to fall freely.

Work-Energy Theorem
The net work done on a particle equals the change in the particle’s kinetic energy:

According to this theorem, when an object slows down, its final kinetic energy is less than its initial kinetic
energy, the change in its kinetic energy is negative, and so is the net work done on it. If an object speeds up, the
net work done on it is positive.
Power
Power is defined as the time rate of doing work. (Work done per unit time) Unit – Joule/second or Watt
The work-energy theorem relates how work can be transformed into kinetic energy. We can also define power
as the rate of transfer of energy.

6
Power isdefined as the time rate of doing work. (Work done per unit time)
work done
Power =
time taken
for a force moving at constant velocity, for example a car travelling
at constant velocity doing work against air resistance.
The car's engine is working at a constant rate (constant power)
Force x distance dis an ce
 Power = = Force x = Force x velocity
time time
The unit of power is Watt or Joule/second.
1 horsepower is equivalent to 746W.

Example
An advertisement claims that a certain 1200kg car can accelerate from rest to speed of 25m/s in a time of 8.0s.
What average power must the motor produce to cause the acceleration? Ignore friction losses.

Solution
The work done in accelerating the car is given by

Converting from watts to horsepower, we have