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Ashwin Pajankar

Raspberry Pi Image Processing

Programming
With NumPy, SciPy, Matplotlib, and OpenCV
2nd ed.
Ashwin Pajankar
Nashik, Maharashtra, India

ISBN 978-1-4842-8269-4 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-8270-0

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8270-0

© Ashwin Pajankar 2017, 2022

Apress Standard

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Apress imprint is published by the registered company APress

Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY
10004, U.S.A.
This book is dedicated to the memory of Prof. Govindarajulu Regeti(July 9,
1945 to March 18, 2021)

Popularly known to everyone as RGR, Prof. Govindarajulu obtained a

Bachelor of Technology degree in electrical and electronic engineering
from JNTU Kakinada. He also earned a master’s degree and Ph.D. from IIT
Kanpur. Prof. Govindarajulu was an early faculty member of IIIT
Hyderabad and played a significant role in making IIIT Hyderabad the
top-class institution that it is today. He was by far the most loved and
cheered for faculty member of the institute. He was full of energy to teach
and full of old-fashioned charm. There is no doubt he cared for every
student as an individual, taking care to know about and to guide them.
He has taught, guided, and mentored many batches of students at IIIT
Hyderabad (including the author of this book).
Introduction
I want to keep this introduction short, concise, and precise. I have been
working with the domain of image processing for quite a while now. I
was introduced to Python more than 15 years ago. When I first worked
with image processing using Raspberry Pi, I found it a bit tedious to
comb through all the literature available as printed books, video
tutorials, and online tutorials, as most lacked a step-by-step yet
comprehensive guide for a beginner getting started. It was then that I
resolved to write a book, and then I published the first edition of this
book. It has been almost five years since the first edition was published
and it needed a lot of updates.
This book is the fruit of my efforts and cumulative experience of
thousands of hours (apart from the ones spent writing the actual book)
spent going through technical documentation, watching training videos,
writing code with the help of different tools, debugging faulty code
snippets, posting questions, and participating in discussions on various
question-answer and technical forums online, and referring to various
code repositories for directions. I have written this edition of the book
in such a way that beginners will find it easy to understand the topics.
This book has hundreds of code examples and images (of outputs of
code execution and screenshots) so readers can understand each
concept perfectly. All the code examples are adequately explained.
The book begins with a general discussion of Raspberry Pi and
Python programming. It is followed by a discussion of concepts related
to the domain of image processing. Then, it explores the libraries Pillow
and TKinter. The following few chapters focus on the scientific Python
ecosystem and image processing with libraries such as NumPy, SciPy,
and Matplotlib. The last chapter discusses how OpenCV can be used for
applying image-processing routines on a live webcam feed. The
appendix briefly discusses the pgmagik library, which can be used for
generating sample images. It also has plenty of tips and tricks for using
a Raspberry Pi board effectively.
As a final note, we started and finished working on this project at a
very turbulent time (early 2022) when much of the world was facing
yet another wave of fresh infections brought by new variants of the
virus causing the COVID pandemic. Everyone around us is still
recovering from the impact of the pandemic. This book offered me a
sense of purpose. I hope that all the readers enjoy reading this book as
much as I enjoyed writing it.
Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the
author in this book is available to readers on GitHub
(github.com/apress) For more detailed information, please visit
http://www.apress.com/source-code.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my friend Anuradha for encouraging me to share
my knowledge with the world. I would like to thank my longtime
mentors from Apress, Celestin and Aditee, for giving me an opportunity
to share my knowledge and experience with readers. I thank Mark
Powers and James Markham for helping me to shape this book as per
Apress standards. I am in debt to the technical reviewer, Lentin Joseph.
I also thank Prof. Govindrajulu Sir’s family, Srinivas (son) and Amy
(daughter-in-law), for allowing me to dedicate this book to his memory
and sharing with us Govindrajulu Sir’s biographical information and his
photograph for publication. I would also like to thank all the people
associated with Apress who have been instrumental in bringing this
project to reality.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:​Introduction to Single-Board Computers and Raspberry
Pi
Single-Board Computers (SBCs)
Differences Between SBCs and Regular Computers
System on Chips (SoCs)
SoC versus Regular CPU
History of SBCs
Popular SBC Families
The Raspberry Pi
Raspberry Pi Setup
Prepare the microSD Card
Booting Up Raspberry Pi
Accessing Raspberry Pi Remotely
Configuring Raspberry Pi
The Raspberry Pi OS
The config.​txt File
Updating the RPi
Summary
Chapter 2:​Introduction to Python and Digital Image Processing
A Brief History of the Python Programming Language
Features of Python
Python 3
Python 2 and Python 3 on Raspberry Pi OS
Running a Python Program and Python Modes
IDEs for Python
 IDLE
Geany
Thonny IDE
Introduction to Digital Image Processing
Signal Processing
Image Processing
Using Raspberry Pi and Python for Digital Image Processing
(DIP)
Exercise
Summary
Chapter 3:​Getting Started
Image Sources
Using a Webcam
guvcview
fswebcam
The Pi Camera Module
raspistill
Python 3 for Digital Image Processing
Working with Images
Summary
Chapter 4:​Basic Operations on Images
Image Module
Image Channels
Colorspace Conversion
Image Blending
Resizing an Image
 Rotating an Image
Crop and Paste Operations
Copying and Saving Images to a File
Knowing the Value of a Particular Pixel
Mandelbrot Set
Julia Set
Noise and Gradients
ImageChops Module
ImageOps
Summary
Chapter 5:​Advanced Operations on Images
ImageFilter Module
The ImageEnhance Module
Color Quantization
Histograms and Equalization
Histogram Equalization
Summary
Chapter 6:​Introduction to the Scientific Python Ecosystem
The Scientific Python Ecosystem
Simple Examples
Matplotlib
Image Channels
Conversion Between PIL Image Objects and NumPy ndarrays
Summary
Chapter 7:​Transformations and Measurements
Transformations
 Measurements
Summary
Chapter 8:​Filters
Kernels, Convolution, and Correlation
Low-Pass Filters
Blurring
Noise Reduction
High-Pass Filters
Fourier Filters
Summary
Chapter 9:​Morphology, Thresholding, and Segmentation
Distance Transforms
Morphology and Morphological Operations
Structuring Element
Binary Morphological Operations
Grayscale Morphological Operations
Thresholding and Segmentation
Summary
Chapter 10:​Video Processing
Introduction to OpenCV Library
Converting the Colorspace of Image
Separating Color Channels in Live Webcam Stream
More Operations on Live Webcam Stream
Geometric Transformation
Convolution
Correlation
 Filtering
Morphological Operations
Summary
Conclusion
Appendix
pgmagick Image Processing
Connecting a Display
Using a VGA Display
Booting Up After Connecting a Display
Connecting to Ethernet/​Wired Network
Remote Desktop with VNC
Index
About the Author
Ashwin Pajankar
earned a master of technology in computer science engineering from
IIIT Hyderabad and has over 25 years of experience in the area of
programming. He started his journey in programming and electronics
at the tender age of seven with an MS-DOS computer and BASIC
programming language. He is now proficient in Assembly
programming, C, C++, Java, shell scripting, JavaScript, Go Programming,
HTML, and Python. His other technical expertise includes single-board
computers such as Raspberry Pi and Banana Pro, microcontroller
boards such as Arduino, and embedded boards such as BBC Micro Bit.
He has extensively worked on domains such as software/product
testing, software automation, databases, data analytics and
visualization, computer vision, and web development.
He is currently a freelance online instructor teaching programming
and electronics to more than 82,000 professionals. He also regularly
conducts live programming bootcamps for software professionals. His
growing YouTube channel has an audience of more than 11,000
subscribers. He has published more than 20 books on programming
and electronics with many international publishers and is writing more
books with Apress. He also regularly reviews books on the topics of
programming and electronics written by other authors.
Apart from his work in the area of technology, he is active in the
community as a leader and volunteer for many social causes. He has
won several awards at his university (IIIT Hyderabad) and also at past
workplaces for his leadership in community service for uplifting the
underpriviledged with education and skill-based training and
employment assistance. He has also participated in many industry
institute linkage programs and connected his past employers with his
alma maters. During the COVID-19 pandemic (which was continuing at
the time of writing of this book), he participated in and led many
initiatives to distribute essential supplies such as food, clothes, and
medicine to the needy people in his local community. He regularly
conducts initiatives for assisting homeless people with clothes,
essential supplies, and medical care.
About the Technical Reviewer
Lentin Joseph
is an author, roboticist, and robotics
entrepreneur from India. He runs a
robotics software company called
Qbotics Labs in Kochi/Kerala. He has ten
years of experience in the robotics
domain, primarily in the Robot
Operating System, OpenCV, and PCL.
He has authored ten books on ROS,
namely, Learning Robotics Using Python,
first and second editions; Mastering ROS
for Robotics Programming, first and
second editions; ROS Robotics Projects,
first and second editions; ROS
Programming: Building
Powerful Robots; and Robot
Operating System (ROS) for Absolute
Beginners first and second editions.
He is also co-editor of the book
Autonomous Driving and Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems (ADAS):
Applications, Development, Legal Issues, and Testing.
He obtained his masters in robotics and automation from India and
has also worked at the Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon University,
USA. He is also a TEDx speaker.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer
Nature 2022
A. Pajankar, Raspberry Pi Image Processing Programming
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8270-0_1

1. Introduction to Single-Board
Computers and Raspberry Pi
Ashwin Pajankar1

(1) Nashik, Maharashtra, India

Let’s start this exciting journey of exploring the scientific domain of

digital image processing with Raspberry Pi. To begin, we must be
comfortable with the basics of single-board computers (SBCs) and the
Raspberry Pi. This chapter discusses the definition, history, and
philosophy of SBCs. It compares SBCs to regular computers, then moves
toward the most popular and bestselling SBC of all time, the Raspberry
Pi. By the end of this chapter, we will have adequate knowledge to
independently set up our own Raspberry Pi. This chapter aims to make
us comfortable with the basic concepts of SBCs and Raspberry Pi setup.

Single-Board Computers (SBCs)

A single-board computer (referred to as an SBC from now on) is a fully
functional computer system built around a single printed circuit board.
An SBC has a microprocessor(s), memory, input/output, and other
features required of a minimally functioning computer. Unlike with
desktop personal computers (PC), most SBCs do not have expansion
slots for peripheral functions or expansion. As all components—
processor(s), RAM, GPU, etc.—are integrated on a single printed circuit
board (PCB), we cannot upgrade an SBC.
 Few SBCs are made to plug into a backplane for system expansion.
SBCs come in many varieties, sizes, shapes, form factors, and feature
sets. Due to advances in electronics and semiconductor technologies,
most SBC prices are very low. With a price of around $50 a piece, we
have in our hands a development tool suitable for new applications,
hacking, debugging, testing, hardware development, and automation
systems.
SBCs are usually manufactured with the following form factors:
Pico-ITX
PXI
Qseven
VMEbus
VPX
VXI
AdvancedTCA
CompactPCI
Embedded Compact Extended (ECX)
Mini-ITX
PC/104
PICMG

Differences Between SBCs and Regular Computers

Table 1-1 lists the differences between SBCs and regular computers.

Table 1-1 Differences Between SBCs and Regular Computers

Single-Board Computer Regular Computer

Not modular Modular
Components cannot be upgraded or Components can be upgraded or
replaced replaced
A system on chip Not a system on chip
Has a small form factor Has a large form factor
Is mostly non-portable or semi-
Is portable
portable
Consumes less power Consumes more power
Single-Board Computer Regular Computer
Cheaper than a regular computer Costs more than an SBC

System on Chips (SoCs)

SBCs are predominantly systems on chips (SoCs). A system on a chip
(SoC) is an integrated circuit (IC) that has all the components of a
computer on a single chip. SoCs are very common with mobile
electronic devices because of their low power consumption and
versatility. SoCs are widely used in mobile phones, SBCs, and embedded
hardware. An SoC includes all the hardware and software needed for its
operation.

SoC versus Regular CPU

The biggest advantage of using an SoC is its size. If we use a CPU, it’s
very hard to make a compact computer because of the number of
individual chips and other components that we need to arrange on a
board. However, when using SoCs, we can place complete application-
specific computing systems in smartphones and tablets, and still have
plenty of space for batteries, the antenna, and other add-ons required
for remote telephony and data communication.
Due to the very high level of integration and the compact size, an
SoC uses considerably less power than a regular CPU. This is a
significant advantage of SoCs when it comes to mobile and portable
systems. Also, reducing the number of chips by eliminating redundant
ICs on a computer board results in a compact board size.

History of SBCs
Dyna-Micro was the first true SBC. It was based on the Intel C8080A
and used Intel’s first EPROM, the C1702A. The Dyna-Micro was
rebranded and marketed by E&L Instruments of Derby, Connecticut, in
1976 as the MMD-1 (Mini-Micro Designer 1). It became famous as the
leading example of a microcomputer. SBCs were very popular in the
earlier days of computing, as many home computers were actually
SBCs. However, with the rise of PCs, the popularity of SBCs declined.
Since 2010, there has been a resurgence in the popularity of SBCs due
to their lower production costs.
Apart from the MMD-1, here are a few other popular historical
SBCs:
The BBC Micro was built around an MOS technology 6502A
processor running at 2MHz.
The Ferguson Big Board II was a Zilog Z80-based computer running
at 4MHz.
The Nascom was another Zilog Z80-based computer.

Popular SBC Families

Based on their manufacturers and designers, SBCs are grouped into
families, models, and generations. Here are a few popular SBC families:
Raspberry Pi by the Raspberry Pi Foundation
Banana Pi and Banana Pro
Intel Up Squared Kits
CubieBoard
BeagleBone

The Raspberry Pi
The Raspberry Pi is a family of credit card–sized SBCs developed in the
United Kingdom by the Raspberry Pi Foundation. The Raspberry Pi
Foundation was formed by Eben Upton in 2009. The aim in developing
the Raspberry Pi was to promote the teaching of basic computer
science in schools and developing countries by providing a low-cost
computing platform.
Raspberry Pi Foundation’s Raspberry Pi was released in 2012. It
was a massive hit and sold over two million units in two years.
Subsequently, the Raspberry Pi Foundation released revised versions of
the Raspberry Pi. They also released other accessories for the Pi.
More information about the Raspberry Pi Foundation can be found
on their website at https://www.raspberrypi.org.
The product page for Raspberry Pi's current production models and
other accessories can be found at
https://www.raspberrypi.org/products.
 I have written, executed, and tested all the code examples in this
book on Raspberry Pi 4 Model B units with 8GB RAM. Table 1-2 lists the
specifications of the Raspberry Pi 4 Model B.
Table 1-2 Specifications of the Raspberry Pi 4 Model B

Release Date June 2019

Architecture ARMv8
SoC broadcom BCM2711
CPU Quad core Cortex-A72 (ARM v8) 64-bit SoC @ 1.5GHz
GPU Broadcom VideoCore IV
Memory 2GB, 4GB or 8GB LPDDR4-3200 SDRAM (depending on model)
USB 2 USB 3.0 ports, 2 USB 2.0 ports
2 × micro-HDMI ports (up to 4kp60 supported)
Video output
2-lane MIPI DSI display port
On-board storage Micro SDHC slot
2.4 GHz and 5.0 GHz IEEE 802.11ac wireless
On-board network Bluetooth 5.0, BLE
Gigabit Ethernet
Power source 3A 5V via MicroUSB

Figure 1-1 shows the front view of the Raspberry Pi 4 Model B.

Figure 1-1 The front view of Raspberry Pi 4 Model B board1
The image clearly shows all the important components of the board.
It shows USB ports, Ethernet port, micro-HDMI ports, 3.5mm audio
jack, USB type C port for power, and connectors for CSI and DSI.
Figure 1-2 shows the top view of the board.
Figure 1-2 The top view of Raspberry Pi 4 Model B board2
We can see the microSD card slot clearly in the bottom view (Figure
1-3).
Figure 1-3 The bottom view of a Raspberry Pi 4 Model B board with a microSD card
Raspberry Pi Setup
We have to set up Raspberry Pi before we can use it for exploration and
adventure. As mentioned earlier, I am using a Raspberry Pi 4 Model B
for this setup. Make sure that you use a model of RPi board that has
built-in Wi-Fi. The setup process is almost the same for all models.
We are going to use the Raspberry Pi board in headless mode. This
means that we will not connect any keyboard, mouse, or display. We
will just connect it to the Wi-Fi network and access it remotely. So, we
are not going to need a lot of hardware for this. Apart from the RPi
board itself, we will need the following things:
A computer – We will need a computer with a Windows, macOS,
Linux, UNIX, or BSD operating system. We need it for preparing the
microSD card for the RPi board.
Wi-Fi connection with internet – We need the internet to install the
operating system on the microSD card. We will need it further to
connect the RPi to the internet and install necessary software on the
RPi.
microSD card – We will need a microSD card. I usually recommend
at least a 32GB Class 10 microSD card for the best experience. If you
wish to know more about the classes of microSD cards, please visit
the following URL on the web:
https://www.sdcard.org/developers/sd-standard-
overview/speed-class/
microSD card reader – We need this so that the computer can read
from and write to the microSD card. We need to modify the contents
of the microSD card for headless setup. There are many variations of
microSD card reader. The following (Figure 1-4) is an image of a
universal card reader.
Figure 1-4 Universal card reader3
A power supply – We need a power supply to power the RPi board.
RPi 4B uses a USB Type C power supply like the one at
https://www.raspberrypi.com/products/type-c-
power-supply/, and a few other models use a micro USB power
supply like the one at
https://www.raspberrypi.com/products/micro-usb-
power-supply/.
We can procure all these things and the RPi boards at online
marketplaces or local hobby electronics stores.

Prepare the microSD Card

Following are the steps to prepare the card:
1) Insert the card into the card reader and connect it to the computer.

2) Install the Raspberry Pi Imager software from

https://www.raspberrypi.com/software/. For Debian
and derivatives, run the following command in the terminal
emulator:
sudo apt install rpi-imager

3) Open the installed Raspberry Pi Imager program. It looks as

shown in Figure 1-5.

Figure 1-5 Raspberry Pi Imager

4) Click on the CHOOSE OS button. It opens options as shown in

Figure 1-6.
Figure 1-6 Choosing the OS
Choose the option Raspberry Pi OS (other) by clicking on it. It
shows another list of options, as shown in Figure 1-7.
Figure 1-7 Choosing the OS
Choose Raspberry Pi OS (Legacy). It is a very well-maintained
flavor of Debian Buster that supports command-line utilities for the
Raspberry Pi camera.
5) Now, click on the CHOOSE STORAGE button. It will show the
microSD card connected to the computer, as shown in Figure 1-8.
Figure 1-8 Choosing the storage
6) It will enable the WRITE button, as shown in Figure 1-9.
Figure 1-9 Write button enabled
Click the WRITE button. It will show a warning message, as shown
in Figure 1-10.
Figure 1-10 Warning message
Don’t worry about the message. Click the YES button. It starts
downloading the files from the internet and writing them to the
microSD card. A progress bar will appear, as shown in Figure 1-11.
Figure 1-11 Progress bar
Once the entire process completes, it shows the following (Figure 1-
12) message.
Figure 1-12 Final message
Click the CONTINUE button. Disconnect the card reader and
reconnect it again.
7) Once we reconnect it, it will show in the filesystem as a drive
labeled boot. The OS may automatically assign a letter to that.
Create an empty file in the location boot and name it ssh. Don’t use
any extension. This will enable remote login.

8) Create another file and name it wpa_supplicant.conf. It is

necessary to connect the RPi board to the Wi-Fi after booting up.
Add the following contents to the file and save it:

country=IN
ctrl_interface=DIR=/var/run/wpa_supplicant
GROUP=netdev
update_config=1

network={
scan_ssid=1
 ssid="TP-Link_710E"
psk="internet1"
}
Remember to change the SSID and PSK sections with the name
and the password of your Wi-Fi.

9) Now, safely disconnect the microSD card reader.

Booting Up Raspberry Pi
This is the easiest part. Following these steps:
1) Remove the microSD card from the card reader and insert it into
the microSD card slot of the RPi board.

2) Make sure that the main power switch is in the OFF position at this
point. Connect the RPi to the power supply.

3) Switch on the power switch.

We can see the lights on the RPi board blinking at this point. This
means that the RPi is booting up. Wait for a couple of minutes for the
boot process to complete.

Accessing Raspberry Pi Remotely

We have booted up the RPi board in headless mode. This means that we
have not directly connected any I/O devices such as display, keyboard,
or mouse to it. Let’s connect to it remotely. First, we must know its IP
address. Since we enabled the SSH and provided it the settings of our
Wi-Fi before booting up, it is connected to the Wi-Fi at the time of the
booting process. There are many ways to find out the IP address. If you
are a part of an organization (workplace, research lab, or university),
check with your network/system administrator to find out the IP
address of the RPi board. If it is your personal Wi-Fi, then on all the
UNIX-like systems (Linux, BSD, macOS), you can run a command to find
out the IP address. For Debian and derivatives (Ubuntu, Raspberry Pi
OS, etc.), we can install the following command:
sudo apt install nmap -y
This utility (NMAP) scans the network. The command to find out all
the IP addresses connected to the network is as follows:

sudo nmap -sn 192.168.0.*

Change the numbers to represent your own network. It produces

the following output:

Starting Nmap 7.80 ( https://nmap.org ) at 2022-

02-01 11:26 IST
Nmap scan report for 192.168.0.1
Host is up (0.0025s latency).
Nmap scan report for 192.168.0.100
Host is up (0.0023s latency).
Nmap scan report for 192.168.0.102
Host is up (0.091s latency).
Nmap done: 256 IP addresses (3 hosts up) scanned
in 2.72 seconds

You can find the IP address of your own system with the commands
ipconfig (Windows) or ifconfig (UNIX-like systems). From this
list, we can eliminate all the known devices with known IP addresses. If
there are too many devices attached to the home network, then turn off
the Wi-Fi of all the unnecessary devices. In my case, the IP address of
the RPi board is 192.168.0.100.
On a Windows computer, we can install the Zenmap utility, which is
the graphical interface for the nmap. We can download and install it
from https://nmap.org/zenmap/. It is also available for UNIX-like
systems. Install the utility and open it. It looks as shown in Figure 1-13.
Figure 1-13 Zenmap GUI
We can easily use it. Mention 192.168.0.* in the Target text box.
Mention the command that we used earlier (nmap -sn 192.168.0.*) in
the Command text box. And then click the Scan button. It takes some
time for the scan to finish. Sometimes the scan fails prematurely. In
such cases, keep trying, and it will work after a couple of attempts. It is
all open source and free, so we cannot complain. It produces the result
shown in Figure 1-13 once finished. Sometimes, it also shows the
names of the manufacturers of the connected devices beside their MAC
addresses. This makes it easy to identify the RPi board.
Once we have the IP address of the RPi board, we can log in
remotely. We can use a variety of SSH tools, such as the built-in ssh
utility on UNIX-like operating systems, to remotely log in to the RPi
board. Just run the following command in the terminal emulator of your
operating system:

ssh [email protected]

The pi is the username. It will prompt for the password. It is

raspberry. This way, we can remotely log in to the RPi board and run
commands.
PuTTY and Bitvise SSH clients are a few popular ones on Windows.
However, I find MobaXterm very handy for this. It has the options for
remote terminal, file transfer, and X-11 forwarding. We do not have to
install anything else if we have this tool. Install it from
https://mobaxterm.mobatek.net/. Once installed, open it. The
window looks as shown in Figure 1-14.

Figure 1-14 MobaXterm

In this window, click on the Start local terminal button. It launches

a local terminal window. There, we can run the following command to
connect to the RPi board:

ssh [email protected]

The pi is the username. It will prompt for the password. It is

raspberry. This way, we can remotely log in to the RPi board and run
commands.
Now, it is time to brush up on the UNIX concepts and commands
that we learned in school. We can run all the Linux/UNIX commands on
this remote terminal. One of the best things about the MobaXterm is it
has a built-in XServer program that is automatically launched when we
launch this utility. We can see the symbol for that in the top-right
corner of the window. UNIX-like systems allow us to access the GUI
applications remotely with X-11 forwarding. In RPi, it is enabled by
default. We just need an XServer utility at the other end (the computer
from which we are connecting to the RPi, or any other UNIX-like
system). As discussed already, we have it with the MobaXterm. Just run
the following command in the terminal:

nohup pcmanfm &

It opens a window for the File Explorer utility, as shown in Figure
1-15.

Figure 1-15 File Explorer accessed with X-11 forwarding

Keep in mind that this File Explorer utility is running on the RPi.
We are accessing its GUI using X-11 Forwarding. This way, with the
combination of nohup (no hangup) and &, we can launch any GUI
utility from the terminal. & makes sure that the control of the terminal
is returned back to us, and nohup keeps the process running even
when the user logs out.

Configuring Raspberry Pi
Now, type sudo raspi-config in the prompt and press Enter. It
opens the tool raspi-config, which is the configuration tool for the
Raspberry Pi OS. First, update it, as shown in Figure 1-16.

Figure 1-16 Updating the raspi-config tool

It will take some time to update. Once updated, go to the fifth option
for Localization. It looks as follows (Figure 1-17).
Figure 1-17 Localization
Set all these options as per your choice, and in the main menu
choose Finish. It will ask to reboot. Choose Yes, and it will reboot the
RPi.

The Raspberry Pi OS
An operating system is the set of basic programs and utilities that make
a computer work. It is an interface between the user and the computer.
Raspberry Pi OS is a free operating system based on the popular Linux
distribution Debian. It is optimized for the Raspberry Pi family of SBCs.
It is even ported to the other, similar SBCs like Banana Pro.

The config.txt File

Raspberry Pi does not have a conventional BIOS or UEFI. The BIOS
(basic input/output system) is the program that a computer’s
microprocessor uses to get the computer system started after it is
turned on. It also manages data flow between the computer’s operating
system and attached peripheral devices, such as the hard disk, video
adapter, keyboard, mouse, and printer.
Since the Raspberry Pi does not have a BIOS/UEFI, the various
system configuration parameters that are normally stored and modified
using the BIOS/UEFI are instead stored in a text file called config.txt.
The Raspberry Pi config.txt file is on the boot partition of the
Raspberry Pi. It is normally accessible as /boot/config.txt from Linux.
However, from Windows and MacOS, it is seen as a file in the accessible
part of the microSD card. The accessible part of the card, as we already
know, is labeled boot.
On a Raspberry Pi, you can edit this file with the following
command:

sudo nano /boot/config.txt

Note nano is a simple and easy-to-learn terminal-based text editor

for Linux. Visit its home page at https://www.nano-
editor.org to learn more about it. I find it easier to use than vi or
vim editors.
To learn more about config.txt, visit the page
http://elinux.org/RPiconfig. A sample configuration can
also be found at http://elinux.org/R-
Pi_configuration_file.

Updating the RPi

The Raspberry Pi must be connected to the internet in order to update
it successfully. Let’s update the firmware and the Raspberry Pi OS.

Updating the Firmware

To update the firmware, run the command sudo rpi-update.

Updating and Upgrading Raspberry Pi OS

We will use APT for this. APT (Advanced Package Tool) is a program
that handles the installation and removal of software on Debian and
other Debian derivatives. APT simplifies the process of managing
software on Debian systems by automating the fetching, configuration,
and installation of software packages. We need an internet connection
for this too.
First, update the system’s package list by entering the following
command in the terminal:

sudo apt update

 This downloads the package lists from the respective remote
repositories and updates them in the local computer so that
information on the newest versions of packages and their dependencies
is available for the installation and update. It should be run before
running the install or upgrade commands.
Next, upgrade all the installed packages to their latest versions
using this command:

sudo apt full-upgrade -y

This fetches new versions of the packages on the local machine that
are marked for upgrade. It also detects and installs any dependencies. It
also removes obsolete packages.
Doing this regularly will keep the Raspberry Pi OS up to date. After
entering these commands, it will take a while to update the OS, because
these commands fetch the data and the packages from remote
repositories on the internet.

Note The command apt help will list all the options associated
with the APT utility.

Shutting Down and Restarting RPi

We can shut down the RPi safely using either of the following
commands:

sudo shutdown -h
sudo init 0

We can reboot the RPi using either of the following commands:

sudo reboot -h
sudo init 6

Summary
In this chapter, we learned how to set up and access RPi in headless
mode over Wi-Fi. We are comfortable with this part now.
 The next chapter will focus on the concepts involved with digital
image processing. We will also write basic programs with Python 3.

Footnotes
1 Image provided by Laserlicht under a CC-by-SA 4.0 license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en)

2 Image provided by Laserlicht under a CC-by-SA 4.0 license

(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en)

3 Image provided by Alen under a CC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0) license
(https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/)
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer
Nature 2022
A. Pajankar, Raspberry Pi Image Processing Programming
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8270-0_2

2. Introduction to Python and Digital

Image Processing
Ashwin Pajankar1

(1) Nashik, Maharashtra, India

In the last chapter, we explored the amazing world of single-board

computers and Raspberry Pi. We booted up the Raspberry Pi,
connected it to the internet, and updated the Raspberry Pi OS.
In this chapter, we will get started with Python and the concepts of
digital image processing (DIP). Let’s begin with an introduction to
Python. I personally find Python amazing and have been enchanted by
it. Python is a simple yet powerful programming language. When
programmers use Python, it’s easy to focus on solving a given problem
as they do not have to worry about the syntax. Python perfectly fits the
philosophy of Raspberry Pi, which is programming for everyone. That’s
why it’s the most preferred programming platform for Raspberry Pi
and other computers.
The following is a list of topics we will learn in this chapter:
History of Python
Features of Python
Python 3
IDEs for Python
Introduction to digital image processing
By the end of this chapter, we will be comfortable with the concepts
of digital image processing and Python 3 basics.
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There was quite a large fall of glass.
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