[Type

DESIGNhere]
OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES [Type here] [Type
MODULE 5 here]

DESIGN OF
HYDRAULICS
STRUCTURES –
CE302 MODULE V

SYLLABUS:
Arch dams-types, methods for design (list only)-Thin cylinder theory.
Earth dams-types, causes for failure and design criteria.
Spillways-Types. Effective length of spillway- Ogee type spillway profile.
Energy dissipation below spillways - Stilling basins- Indian standard Type I
and Type II (design not necessary).
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5
Dams –Arch Dams

An arch dam is a dam curved in plan and carries a major part of its water load
horizontally to the abutments by arch action. The part of the water load depends primarily upon
the amount of curvature. The balance of the water load is transferred to the foundation by
cantilever action. The thrust, developed by the water load carried by arch action, essentially
required strong side walls of the canyon to resist the arch forces. Many early arch dams were
built of rubble, ashlar etc. However, practically all arch dams constructed during recent years
have been built of concrete. E.g., Hoover dam of USA,

The arch dams may be divided in to the following three classes:

1. Constant radius dam
2. Variable radius dam
3. Constant angle dam

1. Constant radius arch dam (fig 9.1). A constant radius arch dam is the one in which the
radius to some prominent feature (such as upstream face, or the downstream face, or the arch
axis) is constant. In most cases, however, the constant radius refers to the upstream side. In a
constant radius arch dam, the arch centers for upstream face, downstream face and the center line
of the horizontal arch rings at various elevations lie on a straight vertical line that passes through
the center of the horizontal arch ring of the upstream face at the crest. Hence this type of dam is
also sometimes known as the constant center arch dam. In most of the simple types, the upstream
face is vertical (i.e., its radius is constant at all elevations), and the thickness is proportional to
the height. This makes the central angles of the arch rings of the intrados vary at various
elevations, the maximum being at the top of the dam and a certain minimum at the bottom of the
dam, as shown in Fig 9.1
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

A constant radius arch dam is

particularly adopted to U-shaped canyons
(Fig. 9.2 (a)] as cantilever action will carry
a large proportion of the load at lower
levels. The constant radius arch dam is less
economical than the constant angle arch
dam, and the letter is constructed in
preference to constant radius arch dam.
However, the form work for the constant
radius arch dam is much simpler to
construct.

2. Variable radius arch dam (fig 9.3). A

variable radius arch dam is the one in
which the radii of the extrados curves (i.e.,
arch rings corresponding to upstream face)
and intrados curves (i.e., arch rings
corresponding to downstream face) vary at
various elevations being maximum at the
top and certain minimum at its bottom.
This makes the central angle as large as
possible so that maximum arch efficiency
may be obtained at all elevations. The
variable radius arch dams have often
vertical or even overhanging faces at the
upstream side near the abutments and the
downstream side near the crown, as shown
in Fig. 9.3 (b). The centers of the
horizontal arch rings at various elevation
do not lie on the single vertical line. Hence
it is also known as variable center arch dam.

A variable radius arch dam is often adapted to narrow V-shaped canyons (Fig. 9.2 (b)
since arch action can be depended upon at the lower levels. A variable radius arch dam has
greater arch efficiency, resulting in saving of concrete. Hence it is preferred in comparison to the
constant radius arch dam.
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

3. Constant angle arch dam (Fig. 9.4).

The constant angle arch dam is a special
type of variable radius arch dam in which
the central angle of the horizontal arch
rings is of the same magnitude at all
elevations, as shown in Fig. 9.4. It has
been shown in 9.3 that the volume of
concrete in minimum when the central
angle is 133o 34.
A variable radius arch uses about
58% of the concrete required in constant
radius arch dam. A constant angle arch dam requires about 42.6% of the concrete required in
constant radius arch dam. Hence a constant angle arch dam is the most economical.

9.2 FORCES ON AN ARCH DAM

As in a gravity dam, the various forces acting on an arch dam are:
i. Water pressure
ii. Self-weight of the dam
iii. Silt pressure
iv. Uplift pressure (negligibly small)
v. Ice pressure
vi. Earthquake pressure

However, the relative importance of the above forces is not the same as in gravity dam.
Due to the narrow base width of an arch dam, the uplift pressure is less important than for
gravity dam. The internal stresses caused by ice pressure, temperature changes and yielding of
supports (abutments) are very important in the arch dam. Ice pressure causes a continuous
concentrated load along the arch element at the elevation of the ice. The internal forces caused
by temperature changes move the dam upstream during the summer and downstream during the
winter. Thus, the weather condition is more important in the stress analysis since it acts with the
reservoir loads. The slight yielding of abutments may also cause high internal stresses in the
arch.

9.3 DESIGN METHODS FOR ARCH DAMS

The following are some of the theories for the design of arch dams
1. The thin cylinder theory
2. The elastic theory
3. The trial load analysis
 DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5
CHECK PPT FOR DERIVATION THAT WE DID IN CLASS AS THIS IS FROM A
DIFFERENT TEXT -THOUGH BOTH DERIVATION ARE EXACTLY SAME YOU MAY GET
CONFUSED
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

Earth and Rockfill Dams

INTRODUCTION: TYPES OF EARTH DAMS

Embankment dams come in two types: the earth-filled dam (also called an earthen dam or
terrain dam) made of compacted earth, and the rock-filled dam. A cross-section of an
embankment dam shows a shape like a bank, or hill. Most have a central section or core
composed of an impermeable material to stop water from seeping through the dam. The core can
be of clay, concrete, or asphalt concrete. This dam type is a good choice for sites with wide
valleys. They can be built on hard rock or softer soils. For a rock-fill dam, rock-fill is blasted
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

using explosives to break the rock. Additionally, the rock pieces may need to be crushed into
smaller grades to get the right range of size for use in an embankment dam. The building of a
dam and the filling of the reservoir behind it places a new weight on the floor and sides of a
valley. The stress of the water increases linearly with its depth. Water also pushes against the
upstream face of the dam, a nonrigid structure that under stress behaves semi plastically, and
causes greater need for adjustment (flexibility) near the base of the dam than at shallower water
levels. Thus, the stress level of the dam must be calculated in advance of building to ensure that
its break level threshold is not exceeded

Depending upon the method of construction, earth dams can be divided in to two
categories:

(i) Rolled fill dam (ii) Hydraulic fill dam

In the rolled fill dam, the embankment is constructed in successive, mechanically

compacted layers. The suitable materials are transported from the borrow pits to the construction
site by earth moving machinery. It is then spread by bulldozers, and sprinkled to form layers of
limited thickness having proper water content. They are then thoroughly compacted and bonded
with the preceding layer by means of power operated rollers of proper design and weight.

Hydraulic Fill Earthen Dam: In this type of dams, the construction, excavation and
transportation of the earth are done by hydraulic methods. Outer edges of the embankments are
kept slightly higher than the middle portion of each layer. During construction, a mixture of
excavated materials in slurry condition is pumped and discharged at the edges. This slurry of
excavated materials and water consists of course and fine materials. When it is discharged near
the outer edges, the coarser materials settle first at the edges, while the finer materials move to
 DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

the middle and settle there. Fine particles are deposited in the central portion to form a water
tight central core. In this method, compaction is not required.

Rolled fill earth dams can further be sub-divided in to following types:

1. Homogeneous embankment type

2. Zoned embankment type
3. Diaphragm embankment type.
1. Homogeneous Embankment Type: A purely homogeneous type earth dam is composed of
single kind of material (exclusive of the slope protection). Homogeneous dams have been built
since the earliest times and are used today whenever only one type of material is economically
available. However, they are used only for low to moderate heights. A purely homogeneous
section has been replaced by a modified homogeneous section in which internal drainage
system in the form of horizontal filter drain or rock toe, is provided. This controls the action of
seepage so as to permit much steeper slopes. The drainage system also keeps the phreatic line
well within be body of the dam.
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

Homogeneous dams are usually composed of impervious or semi-impervious soils to

provide an adequate water barrier. However, the upstream slope has to be flatter, to make it safe
during the ‘sudden drawdown condition’. Many successful embankments have been built to
relatively pervious sands and sand-gravel mixtures.

2. Zoned Embankment Type: Zoned embankment type earth dam is the one in which the
dam is made up of more than one material. The most common type of a rolled earth dam
section is that in which a central impervious core is flanked by zones of material considerably
more previous. A suitable drainage system, in the form of a horizontal drain or a rock toe is
also provided at the d/s side. If a variety of soils are readily available, the choice of type of
earth-fill dam should always be zoned embankment type because its inherent advantages will
lead to economy in the cost of construction.

In the zoned embankment type, outer shells are made of previous, freely draining
materials. The shells give stability to the central impervious fill, and at the same time distribute
the load over a larger area in the foundation. Sometimes, a semi pervious zone is provided to
serve as a transition between the outer shell and the central core. The upstream pervious zone
affords stability against rapid drawdown while the downstream pervious zone acts as a drain to
control the line of seepage. The central impervious core checks the seepage.

3. Diaphragm Embankment Type: This is a modification over the homogeneous

embankment type, in which the bulk of the embankment is constructed of pervious
material and a thin diaphragm of impermeable material is provided to check the seepage.
The diaphragm may be of impervious soil, cement concrete, bituminous concrete, or any
other material and may be placed either at the center of the section as a central vertical
core or at the upstream face as a blanket. However, the distinction between a diaphragm
type and zoned type must be clearly known. If the horizontal thickness of the diaphragm
(made of impervious soil) at any elevation is less than 10 m or less than the height of
embankment above any corresponding elevation in the dam, the dam is of the diaphragm
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

type. If the impervious earth diaphragm equals or exceeds these thicknesses, the dam is
considered to be ‘zoned embankment’ type.

CAUSES OF FAILTURES OF EARTH DAMS

In spite of taking great care in construction of earth dams, some failures have occurred in
the past.

On the basis of investigation reports on most of the past failures, it has now been possible
to categorize the types of failures in to three main classes:

1. Hydraulic failures : 40%

2. Seepage failures : 30%
3. Structural failures : 30%

1. HYDRAULIC FAILURES: Hydraulic failures include the following

i. Overtopping
ii. Wave erosion
iii. Toe erosion
iv. Gullying

(i) Overtopping: The earth dam may get overtopped if the design flood is under-estimated, or if
the spillway is of insufficient capacity. Faulty operation of spillway gates, etc. may also
sometimes lead to overtopping. Insufficient free board or settlement of foundation and
embankment may also lead to overtopping. Earth embankments are not designed to be over-
topped and therefore are particularly susceptible to erosion. Once erosion has begun during
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

overtopping, it is almost impossible to stop. A well vegetated earth embankment may withstand
limited over topping

(ii) Wave Erosion. Fig. 10.4 shows failures due to wave erosion. The effects of wave are to
notch out earth from the upstream
slope in absence of proper slope
protection in the form of riprap.
Rollers are developed in the
waves which try to scoop out the
earth. Waves can also cause
upstream slips (Fig. 10.4 (b).

(iii) Toe Erosion: Toe erosion may occur due to two reasons – (a) erosion due to tail water and
(b) erosion due to cross currents that may come from spillway buckets or from exit areas of
outlets. The toe erosion can be avoided by providing thick riprap on the d/s slope, upto a height
slightly above the tail water level. Diaphragm walls of sufficient length and height should be
provided to check the cross flow towards the earth dam.

(iv) Gullying: Downstream slope may fail due to the formation of gullies by heavy downpour.
To eliminate failure due to gullying, proper berms, turfing and good drainage system should be
provided to the downstream side.

2. SEEPAGE FAILURES: Seepage failures may be due to

a) Piping
b) Sloughing

a) Piping: The seepage of water through the body and foundation of the earth dam may lead to
piping or progressive erosion of concentrated leaks, causing a large number of catastrophic
failures. Water seeping through the earth dam may have four bad effects – (i) seeping water
generates erosive forces which dislodge particles from the soil structure and causes
rearrangement or migration of the fines to voids between larger grains. (ii) the flow with its
associated differential pore pressure can lift portion of soil mass causing sand boiling. (iii)
internal erosion of the soil mass, progressive backwards from the point of exit leads to the
formation of an open conduit through the soil (i.e., piping), and (iv) the internal pressures in the
soil water can reduce that part of the soil strength that is developed by internal friction and
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

thereby lead to weakening of the soil mass and even failure by shear. Most of the serious trouble
from piping has resulted from progressive backward erosion of concentrated leaks which develop
through or under the dam.

Leaks in the embankment may also lead to piping failure. Probably the most common
cause of embankment leaks has been poor construction control which can result in inadequately
compacted or pervious layers in the embankment, inferior compaction adjacent to concrete outlet
pipes or other structures, or poor compaction and bond between the embankment and the
foundation or abutments. Embankment leaks through differential settlement cracks have also
been a major source of trouble.
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

(b) Sloughing: Failure due to progressive sloughing or raveling is closely related to piping.
Under the full reservoir condition, the downstream toe remains saturated and may erode,
producing a small slump or miniature slide. This miniature slide leaves a relatively steep face,
which becomes saturated by seepage from the reservoir and slumps again, forming a slightly
higher and more unstable face. This raveling process can continue till the remaining portion of
the dam is too thin to withstand the water pressure and complete failure occurs suddenly as the
reservoir breaks through.

3. STRUCTURAL FAILURES: Structural failures may be due to the following reasons:

i. Upstream and downstream slope failures due to construction pore pressures.

ii. Upstream slope failure due to sudden drawdown
iii. Downstream slope failure during full reservoir condition
iv. Foundation slide: spontaneous liquefaction
v. Failure by spreading
vi. Failure due to earthquake
vii. Slope protection failures
viii. Failure due to damage caused by burrowing animals
ix. Damage caused by water soluble materials

(i) Upstream and Downstream Slope failures due to Construction Pore Pressure : When a
dam is built of relatively impervious compressible soil, the drainage is extremely slow and
excess pore pressures develop during and immediately after construction. When the permeability
is low (less than 10 -6 cm/sec), there may be no substantial drop in pore pressure in the central
zone of the dam by the end of the construction if this lies within the usual range of 2 – 4 years.
An initial pore pressure up to almost 100% of total weight of soil above the point considered has
been measured in the field. Under these circumstances, the construction stage in many cases,
may be more critical from the point of view of stability and the slopes may fail. Experience
indicates that there are two types of construction slides, which differ primarily in speed and
magnitude of the movement. The first type of slide occurs slowly and continues at a uniform rate
for a period usually of one to two weeks. The second type of slide occurs rapidly and suddenly.
The major part of the sliding (magnitude of movement) usually equal to one half or more of the
total height of the dam is over in few minutes.

(ii) Upstream Slope Slide During Sudden Drawdown: For the upstream slope, the critical
condition is when the reservoir is suddenly emptied without allowing any appreciable change in
water level within the saturated soil mass. This stage is known as sudden draw-down. With
complete drawdown, the hydrostatic force acting along the upstream slope at the time of full
reservoir is removed without the hydrostatic pressure on the slope to counteract it. Upstream
slides have not caused complete failures or loss of water from the reservoir, although they have
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

occasionally blocked the entrances to outlet conduits and made these useless for further lowering
of the reservoir.

When the upstream slide occurs due to sudden drawdown, the pore pressure along the surface of
slide is dissipated to a large extent. Hence there is lesser tendency for the continued sloughing
and sliding, and there is small likelihood of catastrophic failure even though a large earth
movement has taken place.

(iii) Downstream Slope Slide during Full Reservoir Condition: Critical condition for
downstream slope occurs when the reservoir is full and percolation is at its maximum
rate. The direction of seepage forces tends to decrease stability. Or, in other words,
the pore water pressure acting on the soil mass below the saturation line reduces the
effective stress responsible for mobilizing shearing resistance. There are two types of
d/s slides: (a) deep slides, and (b) shallow slides. The deep slides generally pass
through the clay foundation and frequently reduce the free board by extending further
upstream than the upstream edge of the crest. When such slide occurs, there is no
relief of pore pressure and the unstable vertical slide scarp left standing often sloughs
or slides again until it breaches the dam and releases the reservoir water in one great
flood wave. Shallow slides do not as a rule extend in the embankment in a direction
normal to the slope more than 1 to 2 m.
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

(iv) Foundation Slides: Spontaneous Liquefaction – When the earth dam has foundation of
fine silt or soft soil it can slide wholly. Sometimes a soft and week clayey seam exists under the
foundation and the dam can slide over it causing the failure. Excess water pressure on confined
sand and silt seams in the foundation may also cause unbalanced conditions causing foundation
failure. Expansion of soils on saturation may cause lifting of the slopes and thus may cause
failure of foundation. One of the most difficult problems facing the earth dam designer is the
analysis of the stability of loose sand foundations against the possibility of liquefaction or flow
slides.

(v) Failure by Spreading: Failures by spreading have been observed only in connection with
fills located above stratified deposits that contain layers of soft clay.

(vi) Failure due to Earthquake: Most of the failures due to earthquake have occurred only with
respect to those dams which were constructed before 1920 with inferior design details and
construction methods. The accumulation of experience concerning the behavior or performance
of dams when shaken by earthquakes is small. However, we can speculate with some degree of
assurance that most serious damages and failures may be due to the following effects due to
earthquake: (i) Cracks in the core of dam leading to leakage and piping failure, (2) Settlement of
the crest due to compression of foundation and/or embankment, thereby reducing the free board
and increasing the chances of overtopping. (3) Shaking of reservoir bottom causing slow waves
(seiches) and hence the failure due to overtopping (4) Sliding of natural hill side causing
overtopping and damaging appurtenant structures, (5) Liquefaction of sand below foundation. (6)
Acceleration forces on embankment may cause shear slide of appreciable point of the slope of
the dam and (7) Fault movement causing reduction in the reservoir capacity and consequent
overtopping.

(vii) Slope Protection Failure: Slopes are generally protected by riprap (either hand placed or
dumped) over a layer of gravel or filter blanket. During a heavy storm, the waves on the surface
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

of the reservoir beat repeatedly against the slope just above the reservoir level. The wave energy
is dissipated in turbulent action on and within the rocks of the riprap layer. This action may have
two effects: (1) the
waves may pass
through the voids of
riprap and may wash
away the filter layer,
setting the riprap
layer and exposing
the embankment to
wave erosion, and
(2) if the average
size of rock
comprising riprap is not heavy, it may be washed out of the layer by the hydraulic forces
generated by the waves. However, failure of filter layer is more common.

(viii) Failure due to Damage caused by Burrowing Animals: Burrowing animals may cause
piping failure of small dams only. Animals like muskrats burrow in to embankment either to
make homes or to dig passage from one pond to another as shown in Fig. 10.10(a) and (b). If
many muskrats are involved, their holes may dangerously honeycomb a small earth dam, making
it extremely weak. Ground squirrels normally dig only in dry soil and stop at the point where
seepage is encountered. However, if the water level in the dam is very low for a number of years,
the squirrels may completely dig dam.
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

(ix) Damage caused by Water Soluble Materials: The leaching of natural deposits of water-
soluble materials, such as gypsum, has created trouble at many dams. Where considerable
foundation leakage occurs, leaching of gypsum of the foundation may cause excessive
settlement. The disposition of soluble material previously leached from the natural soil may tend
to plug specially designed filters.

CRITERIA FOR SAFE DESIGN OF EARTH DAM

An earth dam must be safe and stable during phases of construction and operation of the
reservoir. The practical criteria for the design of earth dams may be stated briefly as follows.

1. The embankment must be safe against overtopping during occurrence of the inflow
design flood by the provision of sufficient spillway and outlet works capacity.
2. The dam must have sufficient free board so that it is not overtopping by wave action.
3. The seepage line should be well within the d/s face so that no sloughing of the slope takes
place.
4. Seepage flow through the embankment, foundation and abutments must be controlled by
suitable design provisions so that no internal erosion takes place. The amount of water
lost through seepage must be controlled so that it does not interfere with planned project
functions.
5. There should be no opportunity for the free passage of water from upstream to the
downstream either through the dam or through the foundation.
6. The portion of the downstream of the impervious core should be properly drained.
7. The upstream and downstream slopes should be so designed that they are safe during and
immediately after the construction.
8. The downstream slope should be so designed that it is safe during steady seepage case
under full reservoir condition.
9. The upstream slope should be stable during rapid drawdown condition.
10. The upstream and downstream slopes of the dam should be flat enough so that shear
stress induced in the foundation is enough less than the shear strength of the material in
the foundation to ensure a suitable factor of safety
11. The dam as a whole should be earthquake resistant
12. The upstream slope must be protected against erosion by wave action, and the crest and
downstream slope must be protected against erosion due to wind and rain.

Design of Earthen Dam

The preliminary design of earthen dam is done on the basis of past experiences. For designing
purpose several parameters, given below should be considered.

1. Top Width: Minimum top width (W) should be such that it can enhance the practicability and
protect it against the wave action and earth wave shocks. Sometimes it is also used for
transportation purposes
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

2. Free Board: It is the vertical distance between the top of the dam and the full supply level of
the reservoir or the added height. It acts as a safety measure for the dam against high flow
condition that is waves and runoff from storms greater than the design frequency from
overtopping the embankment

3. Settlement Allowance: is the result of the settlement of the fill and foundation material
resulting in the decrease of dam storage. It depends upon the type of fill material and the method
and speed of construction. It varies from 10% of design height for hand compacted to 5% for
machine compacted earth fill

4. Casing or Outer Shell: Its main function is to provide stability and protection to the core

5. Cut-off Trench; t is provided to reduce the seepage through the foundation and also to reduce
the piping in the dam. It should be aligned in a way that its central line should be within the
upstream face of the impervious core.

6. Downstream Drainage System: It is performed by providing the filter material in the earthen
dam which is more pervious than the rest of the fill material. It reduces the pore water pressure
thus adding stability to the dam

SPILLWAYS:
Spillway is the most important component of the dam which serves to release excess flood from
a reservoir efficiently and safely. It is the most expensive of all the appurtenances’ structure. Its
capacity is determined from the hydrological studies over the drainage area.

Spillways are structures constructed to provide safe release of flood waters from a dam to a
downstream area - normally the river on which the dam has been constructed. Every reservoir
has a certain capacity to store water. If the reservoir is full and flood waters enter the same, the
reservoir level will go up and may eventually result in overtopping of the dam. To avoid this
situation, the flood has to be passed to the downstream and this is done by providing a spillway
which draws water from the top of the reservoir. A spillway can be a part of the dam or separate
from it. Spillways can be controlled or uncontrolled. A controlled spillway is provided with gates
which can be raised or lowered. When a reservoir is full, its water level will be the same as the
crest level of the spillway. This is the normal reservoir level. If a flood enters the reservoir at this
time, the water level will start going up and simultaneously water will start flowing out through
the spillway. The rise in water level in the reservoir will continue for some time and so will the
discharge over the spillway. After reaching a maximum, the reservoir level will come down and
eventually come back to the normal reservoir level. The top of the dam will have to be higher
than the maximum reservoir level corresponding to the design flood for the spillway, while the
effective storage available is only up to the normal reservoir level. The storage available between
the maximum reservoir level and the normal reservoir level is called the surcharge storage and is
only a temporary storage in uncontrolled spillways. Thus, for a given height of the dam, part of
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

the storage the surcharge storage is not being utilized. In a controlled spillway, water can be
stored even above the spillway crest level by keeping the gates closed. The gates can be opened
when a flood has to be passed. Thus, controlled spillways allow more storage for the same height
of the dam

It is normally composed of three major components:

1. The approach facility admits flow to the spillway

2. The discharging conduit evacuates the flow from the approach facility to an outlet structure.

3. The outlet structure (tail water channel) dissipates the excessive energy of the flow from the
discharging conduits and convey tranquil flow to the downstream

Types of Spillways
1. Free overfall (straight drop) spillway

2. Ogee (overflow) spillway

3. Chute (open channel or trough) spillway

4. Side channel spillway

5. Drop inlet (shaft or morning glory) spillway

6. Siphon spillway

7.Saddle spillway

8. Labyrinth Spillway

1) Free Overfall / Straight drop Spillway:

This is the simplest type of spillway and may/ be constructed on small bunds or on thin
arch dams, etc. It is a low weir and simple vertical fall type structure, as show in fig. The
downstream face of the structure may be kept vertical or slightly inclined. The crest is
sometimes extended in the form of an overhanging lip, which keeps small discharges
away from the face of the overfall section. The water falls freely from the crest under the
action of Free overfall Serious erosion is caused here if no apron etc. Since vacuum gets
created in the underside portion of the falling jet, sufficient ventilation of the nappe is
required in order to avoid pulsating and fluctuating effects of the jet Sometimes, a
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

secondary dam of low height is constructed on the downstream side to create an artificial
pool of water so as to dissipate the energy of the falling water.

2. Side Channel Spillway: Side channel spillways are located just upstream and to the side of
the dam. The water after flowing over a crest enters a side channel which is nearly parallel to the
crest. This is then carried by a chute to the downstream side. Sometimes a tunnel may be used
instead of a chute. A side channel spillway is one in which the control weir is placed
approximately parallel to the upper portion of the discharge channel, as may be seen in fig. The
flow over the crest falls into a narrow trough opposite to the weir, turns an approximate right
angle, and then continues into the main discharge channel. The discharge carrier may be an open
channel type or a conduit type. The side channel design is concerned only with the hydraulic
action in the upstream reach of the discharge channel and is more or less independent of the
details selected for the other spillway components. Discharge characteristics of a side channel
spillway are similar to those of an ordinary overflow spillway.
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

3. Chute (Open Channel/Trough) Spillway: A chute spillway, variously called as open channel
or trough spillway, is one whose discharge is conveyed from the reservoir to the downstream
river level through an open channel, placed either along a dam abutment or through a saddle. The
control structure for the chute spillway need not necessarily be an overflow crest, and may be of
the side-channel type, as has been shown in Figure. Generally, the chute spillway has been
mostly used in conjunction with embankment dams, like the Tehri dam. Chute spillways are
simple to design and construct and have been constructed successfully on all types of foundation
materials, ranging from solid rock to soft clay. Chute spillways ordinarily consist of an entrance
channel, a control structure, a discharge channel, a terminal structure, and an outlet channel.
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

4. Shaft (Drop Inlet/Morning Glory) spillway: A Shaft spillway is a type of spillway which
consists of a vertical shaft followed by a horizontal conduit. A Shaft Spillway is one where water
enters over a horizontally positioned lip, drops through a vertical or sloping shaft, and then flows
to the downstream river channel through a horizontal or nearly horizontal conduit or tunnel. The
surplus water enters into the vertical shaft and then to the horizontal conduit and finally reaches
the downstream of the channel. A Shaft spillway is used at the sites where the conditions are not
favorable for an overflow or a chute spillway. A drop inlet spillway can be used advantageously
at dam sites that are located in narrow gorges where the abutments rise steeply. This type of
spillway attains maximum discharging capacity at relatively low heads. But for larger heights,
reinforced cement concrete may be used. For smaller heights, no special inlet design is
necessary, but on large projects, a flared inlet called morning glory is often used. The horizontal
tunnel or the conduit may be taken either through the body of the dam or below the foundations.
A gradual transition must be provided between the vertical shaft and the horizontal conduit, in
order to avoid danger of cavitation.

5. Siphon Spillway: As the name indicates, this spillway works on the principle of a siphon. A
hood provided over a conventional spillway forms a conduit. With the rise in reservoir level
water starts flowing over the crest as in an "ogee" spillway. The flowing water however, entrains
air and once all the air in the crest area is removed, siphon action starts. Under this condition, the
discharge takes place at a much larger head. The spillway thus has a larger discharging capacity.
The inlet end of the hood is generally kept below the reservoir level to prevent floating debris
from entering the conduit. This may cause the reservoir to be drawn down below the normal
level before the siphon action breaks and therefore arrangement for de-priming the siphon at the
normal reservoir level is provided.
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

6. Saddle spillway: -This type is mainly used when other types are not favorable. In some basins
formed by a dam, there may be one or more natural depressions or saddles in the rim of the
basin, which can be used as spillway. It is essential that the bottom of the depression should be at
full reservoir level. It is usually necessary for the saddle to be on firm rock

7. Labyrinth spillway is a type of spillway in which the weir wall is constructed in a zigzag
manner in order to increase the effective length of the weir crest with respect to the channel
width. This increase in effective length raises the discharge capacity of the weir and hence higher
water flow at small heads can be conveyed to the downstream easily.

8. Overflow (Ogee) Spillway: This type of spillway is the most common type adopted in the
field. It divides naturally into three zones i.e., Crest, spillway face and the toe. The overflow type
spillway has a crest shaped in the form of an ogee or S-shape. The upper curve of the ogee is
made to conform closely to the profile of the lower nappy of a ventilated sheet of water falling
from a sharp crested weir (figure). Flow over the crest of an overflow spillway is made to adhere
to the face of the profile by preventing access of air to the underside of the sheet of flowing
water. Naturally, the shape of the overflow spillway is designed according to the shape of the
lower nappe of a free-flowing weir conveying the discharge flood any discharge higher than the
design flood passing through the overflow spillway would try to shoot forward and get detached
from the spillway surface, which reduces the efficiency of the spillway due to the presence of
negative pressure between the sheet of water and spillway surface.
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

For discharges at designed head, the spillway attains near-maximum efficiency. The profile of
the spillway surface is continued in a tangent along a slope to support the sheet of flow on the
face of the overflow. A reverse curve at the bottom of the slope turns the flow in to the apron of a
sliding basis or in to the spillway discharge channel.

The ogee shape which approximates the profile of the lower nappe of a sheet of water flowing
over a sharp-crested weir provides the ideal form for obtaining optimum discharges. The shape
of such a profile depends upon the head, the inclination of the upstream face of the flow section,
and the height of the overflow section above the floor of the entrance channel (which influences
the velocity of approach to the crest). The ogee profile to be acceptable should provide maximum
possible hydraulic efficiency, structural stability Ogee crested control structures are also
sensitive to the upstream shape and hence, three types of ogee crests are commonly used and
shown in Figure. These are as follows:

1. Ogee crests having vertical upstream face

2. Ogee crests having inclined upstream face

3. Ogee crests having over hang on upstream face

DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

OGEE PROFILE AND EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF SPILLWAY:

The Ogee spillway is generally provided in rigid dams and forms a part of the main dam itself if
sufficient length is available. The crest of the spillway is shaped to conform to the lower nappe
of a water sheet flowing over an aerated sharp crested weir. The profile has been studied
extensively by the United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR).
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

The profile to the right of the crest is given by

where the value of k and n depends on the slope of the upstream face of the spillway and is
available in the form of curves, being 0.5 and 1.87 respectively for a vertical upstream face. HD
is the design head which is taken as 0.75 H max, being maximum expected head over the
spillway.

The profile to the left of the crest is given by a double circle as shown in the figure. The values
of the parameters defining these circles can also be read from curves given by USBR.

The profile given by the above equation to the right is continued till a point at which the tangent
to the curve has a slope equal to the slope of the downstream face of the dam. Thereafter it
continues at the same slope and given a reverse curve near the bottom.

The discharge over an ogee crest is given by

DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

Where L is the effective length of the crest, H the head over the crest and C is a coefficient
which depends- besides other factors – on the ratio of H to the design head HD.

If the spillway is operated at heads less than the design head, the sheet of water will have a
tendency to press against the spillway surface resulting in positive pressures over the surface and
in reducing the value of C. At the design head, the pressures over the surface will be atmospheric
and at larger heads, these will be below atmospheric i.e., negative. The negative pressures will
result in increased value of C and thus are advantageous from the discharging capacity point of
view. Large negative pressures could however cause stability problems. The operating head
therefore is not allowed to exceed the design head by more than a certain amount. This can be
ensured by designing the crest for a head which is about 75-80 % of the head expected for the
design flood.
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

EMERGENCY SPILLWAY

Emergency spillways are also called as breaching section and are provided in the
earthen dam or rock-fill dam. It is constructed to dispose of the excess flood water
more them the designed flood. Under normal reservoir conditions, the emergency
spillway is not required to function. The top of the emergency spillway is kept
below the top of the main dam but slightly above the H.F.L. when abnormal high
flood water through it. However, it can be reconstructed afterwards. Thus it helps
the main spillway in an emergency, otherwise, the water level will rise above the
H.F.L. and overtop the dam causing its failure.
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

This type of a secondary safety arrangement is generally provided on large dams

especially on earth and rockfill dams, and is known as Subsidiary Spillway or
Emergency Spillway or Breaching Section. The main spillway is constructed to
dispose of the designed flood above the normal. pool level and up to the maximum
reservoir level. It is situated either within the dam, or at one end of it, or
independently in a saddle away from the main dam. A separate independent
spillway is generally preferred for earthen dams, although due to nonavailability of
sites, a concrete spillway is sometimes constructed within or at one of the ends of
an earth dam. If the main spillway is situated in a flank, a secondary. emergency
spillway may be situated in another flank as shown in Fig

TERMINAL STRUCTURES – ENERGY DISSIPATION:

The water flowing over a spillway loses a large amount of its potential energy. A good
percentage of this is converted into kinetic energy and subsequently the flow at the toe of the
spillway is a high velocity flow. If allowed as such to flow in the river, it is likely to cause
considerable bed erosion and as such some sort of energy dissipation is required before allowing
this flow into the river. Energy dissipation device kills most of the energy of the flowing water.
These devices, commonly called as Energy Dissipators, are required to prevent the river surface
from getting dangerously scoured by the impact of the out falling water

CLASSIFICATION

1. Based on hydraulic action: Turbulence and internal friction as in hydraulic jump stilling
basins, roller buckets, and impact and pool diffusion as with ski jump buckets and plunge pools.

2. Based on the mode of dissipation: Horizontal as in the hydraulic jump, vertical as with ski
jump buckets/free jets, and oblique as with spatial and cross flows. The vertical dissipation may
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

be in the downward direction as with free jets and plunge pools and in upward direction as with
roller buckets.

3. Based on geometry or form of the main flow: Situations involving sudden expansion,
contraction, counter acting flows, impact, etc.

4. Based on the geometry or form of the structure: Stilling basin employs hydraulic jump with or
without appurtenances like chute blocks, baffle piers, etc. Buckets (ski jump or flip buckets)
include special shapes like serrated, dentated buckets, and roller buckets that are either solid
roller bucket or slotted buckets.

Bucket Type Energy Dissipators

These are used when the tailwater depth is either too low or too high for the formation of a
hydraulic jump, rendering a jump type basin uneconomical. The bucket can be a ski-jump bucket
or a roller bucket.

1. Ski Jump Bucket: This type of bucket is used when the tailwater depth is quite low for the
formation of a jump. The water leaves the bucket as an upturned jet and strikes the river bed
somewhat downstream of the spillway. During its trajectory, the jet splits into smaller jets and
part of the energy is dissipated due to air friction. The bulk of the energy dissipation however
takes place due to the impact of the jet on the water and river bed downstream. This also requires
that the river bed be comprised of hard rock to withstand the impact of the jet.

2. Roller Bucket: This type of bucket is used when the tailwater depth is too large for the
formation of a jump. The water entering the bucket forms a roller- called the bucket roller within
the bucket and another one – called the
ground roller- just downstream of the bucket.
While the former is anticlockwise, the latter
moves in a clockwise direction. Energy
dissipation takes place because of the
interaction between the two rollers and the
intermingling of the inflow with the same.
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

The ground roller has a tendency to pile up loose material against the bucket lip and if some of
this enters the bucket, it will keep moving with the bucket roller and can cause objectionable
abrasion in the concrete surface. To avoid this, a slotted bucket is sometimes used instead of a
solid bucket. The slotted bucket has teeth and gaps and leads to better flow conditions
downstream, besides allowing any material that may enter the bucket to leave through the gaps.

3. Ski jump: A ski jump can also direct water horizontally and eventually down into a plunge
pool or two ski jumps can direct their water discharges to collide with one another.

STILLING BASIN
In general, a stilling basin may be defined, as a structure in which the energy dissipating action is
confined. If the phenomenon of hydraulic jump is basically used for dissipating this energy; it
may be called a hydraulic jump type of stilling basin. The auxiliary devices may be used as
additional measures for controlling the jump, etc. Stilling basins are placed at the ends of dam
spillways and at the ends of steep-sloped canal sections where elevation change has generated
high kinetic energy. Stilling basin come in a variety of types and can either contain a straight
drop to a lower elevation or an inclined chute. These basins are not simple concrete aprons but
are generally provided with auxiliary devices such as chute blocks, sills, baffle walls, etc. These
devices can help in dissipating the energy of flow by offering resistance to flow and may
stabilize the flow in a shorter length of the basin, thus affecting economy.

Due to the hydraulic jump of water, the water falling on the ground may cause cavitation on the
ground. This cavitation can be avoided by providing the stilling basin. The stilling basin consists
of water which reduces some part of energy of water.

The designs are selected based on the Froude Number of the flow and the flow velocity:
The Froude number is a ratio of inertial and gravitational forces

Greater the value of Froude’s number greater will be the energy dissipation. Real problem in the
design of stilling basins, is not the absolute dissipation of energy, but is the dissipation of this
energy in as short a length as possible

The positioning of a hydraulic jump on an unobstructed horizontal surface is very sensitive to the
close match of sequent depths. If the downstream depth matches the sequent depth y2, the
hydraulic jump will occur as desired on the apron. If the downstream depth is less than y2, y3<
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

y2, the jump will be submerged. Although a submerged jump is preferable to a swept-out jump,
much of the initial kinetic energy remains in the form of a submerged jet, which alone can result
in considerable scour

Elements of Stilling Basin

 Chute Blocks.

Chute blocks are a kind of serrated device (i.e., row of small projections like teeth of saw) and
provided at the entrance of the stilling basin. The incoming jet of water is furrowed and partly
lifted from the floor, producing a shorter length of jump than what would have been without
them. They also help in stabilizing the flow and thus improve the jump performance

 Sills and Dentated Sills.

Sill or more preferably dentated sill is generally provided at the end of the stilling basin. The
dentated sill diffuses the residual portion of high velocity jet reaching the end of the basin. They,
therefore, help in dissipating residual energy and to reduce the length of the jump or the basin.

 Baffle Piers.

They are the blocks placed within the basin, across the basin floor. They help in breaking the
flow and dissipate energy mostly by impact. These baffle piers, sometimes called friction blocks,
are very useful in small structures, such as low spillways and weirs, etc. They, however, give
way due to cavitation, under the influence of high velocity jets, and hence are unsuitable for
large works.

U.S.B.R. Basins.
U.S.B.R. has standardized stilling basins for different ranges of Froude numbers. The important
of these basins, are
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

(1) U.S.B.R. stilling basin II. This is recommended for use on large structures; such as dam
spillways: large canal structures, etc.; when the incoming Froude number (F1) is more than 4.5

(2) U.B.S.R. stilling basin IV. This type of stilling basin is used for Froude 'number varying
between 2.5 and4.5, which generally occurs in canal weirs, canal falls, diversion dams, etc.

I.S.I. STANDARDIZED BASINS.

Indian Standard Institution has also standardized certain stilling basins for uses under different
conditions. The different types available are

 Stilling basin, I and II with horizontal aprons

 Stilling basins III and IV with sloping aprons

When the tail-water rating curve approximately follows the hydraulic jump curve or is only
slightly above or below it, then hydraulic jump type stilling basin with horizontal apron provides
the best solution for energy dissipation. In this case the requisite depth may be obtained on a
proper apron near or at the ground level so that it is quite economical, for spillways on weak bed
rock conditions and weirs and barrages on sand or loos: gravel, hydraulic jump stilling basins are
recommended. Hydraulic jump type stilling basin with horizontal apron may be classified into
the following two categories:

 Stilling basins in which the Froude number of the incoming flow is less than 4.5,
generally encountered on weirs and barrages are called as Basin I.
 Stilling basins in which the Fronde number of the incoming flow is greater than 4.5. as
seen in for dams are called as Basin II
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5

Hydraulic jump type stilting basins with sloping apron

When the tail-water is too deep as compared to the sequent depth Dg, the jet left at the natural
ground level would continue to a strong current near bed forming a drowned jump which is
harmful to the river bed, in such a case, a hydraulic jump with sloping apron it would allow an
efficient jump to be formed.

 Basin III is recommended for the case where tail-water curve is higher than the Dg,
curve at all discharges
 Basin IV is suitable for the case where the tail-water depth at maximum discharge
exceeds considerably but is equal to or slightly greater than Dg. at lower discharges.
DESIGN OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES MODULE 5