Methods of Studying Infant Perception

In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are

used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot
verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic
observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can
see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state
prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately
following the stimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the
researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the response to the
stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed
across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements
of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence
that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly,
changes in the infant's general level of motor activity —turning the head,
blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth — have been used by researchers as
visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities.

Such techniques, however, have limitations. First, the observation may be

unreliable in that two or more observers may not agree that the particular
response occurred, or to what degree it occurred. Second, responses are
difficult to quantify. Often the rapid and diffuse movements of the infant make
it difficult to get an accurate record of the number of responses. The third, and
most potent, limitation is that it is not possible to be certain that the infant's
response was due to the stimulus presented or to a change from no stimulus to
a stimulus. The infant may be responding to aspects of the stimulus different
than those identified by the investigator. Therefore, when observational
assessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities, care
must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or two
studies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of the infant.

Observational assessment techniques have become much more

sophisticated, reducing the limitations just presented. Film analysis of the
infant's responses, heart and respiration rate monitors, and nonnutritive
sucking devices are used as effective tools in understanding infant perception.
Film analysis permits researchers to carefully study the infant's responses
over and over and in slow motion. Precise measurements can be made of the
length and frequency of the infant's attention between two stimuli. Heart and
respiration monitors provide the investigator with the number of heartbeats or
breaths taken when a new stimulus is presented. Numerical increases are used
as quantifiable indicators of heightened interest in the new stimulus. Increases
in nonnutritive sucking were first used as an assessment measure by
researchers in 1969. They devised an apparatus that connected a baby's
pacifier to a counting device. As stimuli were presented, changes in the
infant's sucking behavior were recorded. Increases in the number of sucks
were used as an indicator of the infant's attention to or preference for a given
visual display.

Two additional techniques of studying infant perception have come into

vogue. The first is the habituation-dishabituation technique, in which a single
stimulus is presented repeatedly to the infant until there is a measurable
decline (habituation) in whatever attending behavior is being observed. At that
point a new stimulus is presented, and any recovery (dishabituation) in
responsiveness is recorded. If the infant fails to dishabituate and continues to
show habituation with the new stimulus, it is assumed that the baby is unable
to perceive the new stimulus as different. The habituation-dishabituation
paradigm has been used most extensively with studies of auditory and olfactory
perception in infants. The second technique relies on evoked potentials, which
are electrical brain responses that may be related to a particular stimulus
because of where they originate. Changes in the electrical pattern of the brain
indicate that the stimulus is getting through to the infant's central nervous
system and eliciting some form of response.

Each of the preceding techniques provides the researcher with evidence

that the infant can detect or discriminate between stimuli. With these
sophisticated observational assessment and electro-physiological measures, we
know that the neonate of only a few days is far more perceptive than
previously suspected. However, these measures are only "indirect" indicators
of the infant's perceptual abilities.

Paragraph 1: In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of

techniques are used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because
they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of
naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what
infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an
infant's state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or
immediately following the stimulus. The difference between the two measures
provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the
response to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some
sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive
following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements
provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the
newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant's general level of motor activity —
turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth — have been used by
researchers as visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities.

1. Paragraph 1 indicates that researchers use indirect methods primarily to

observe the
○range of motor activity in neonates
○frequency and duration of various stimuli
○change in an infant's state following the introduction of a stimulus
○range of an infant's visual field

2. The word uniformly in the passage is closest in meaning to

○clearly
○quickly
○consistently
○occasionally

3. Why does the author mention repetitive following movements of the

eye?
○To identify a response that indicates a neonate's perception of a stimulus
○To explain why a neonate is capable of responding to stimuli only through
repetitive movements
○To argue that motor activity in a neonate may be random and unrelated to
stimuli
○To emphasize that responses to stimuli vary in infants according to age

Paragraph 2: Such techniques, however, have limitations. First, the

observation may be unreliable in that two or more observers may not agree
that the particular response occurred, or to what degree it occurred. Second,
responses are difficult to quantify. Often the rapid and diffuse movements of
the infant make it difficult to get an accurate record of the number of
responses. The third, and most potent, limitation is that it is not possible to be
certain that the infant's response was due to the stimulus presented or to a
change from no stimulus to a stimulus. The infant may be responding to aspects
of the stimulus different than those identified by the investigator. Therefore,
when observational assessment is used as a technique for studying infant
perceptual abilities, care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or
to rely on one or two studies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual
ability of the infant.

4. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a problem in

using the technique of direct observation?
○It is impossible to be certain of the actual cause of an infant's response.
○Infants' responses, which occur quickly and diffusely, are often difficult to
measure.
○Infants do not respond well to stimuli presented in an unnatural
 laboratory setting.
○It may be difficult for observers to agree on the presence or the degree of
a response.

5. The word potent in the passage is closest in meaning to

○artificial
○powerful
○common
○similar

6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in

the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the
meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
○Researchers using observational assessment techniques on infants must
not overgeneralize and must base their conclusions on data from many
studies.
○On the basis of the data from one or two studies, it seems that some
infants develop a particular perceptual ability not observed in others.
○To use data from one or two studies on infant's perceptual abilities, it is
necessary to use techniques that will provide conclusive evidence.
○When researchers fail to make generalizations from their studies, their
observed data is often inconclusive.

Paragraph 3: Observational assessment techniques have become much

more sophisticated, reducing the limitations just presented. Film analysis of the
infant's responses, heart and respiration rate monitors, and nonnutritive
sucking devices are used as effective tools in understanding infant perception.
Film analysis permits researchers to carefully study the infant's responses over
and over and in slow motion. Precise measurements can be made of the length
and frequency of the infant's attention between two stimuli. Heart and
respiration monitors provide the investigator with the number of heartbeats or
breaths taken when a new stimulus is presented. Numerical increases are used
as quantifiable indicators of heightened interest in the new stimulus. Increases
in nonnutritive sucking were first used as an assessment measure by
researchers in 1969. They devised an apparatus that connected a baby's
pacifier to a counting device. As stimuli were presented, changes in the infant's
sucking behavior were recorded. Increases in the number of sucks were used
as an indicator of the infant's attention to or preference for a given visual
display.

7. What is the author's primary purpose in paragraph 3?

○To explain why researchers must conduct more than one type of study
when they are attempting to understand infant perception
○To describe new techniques for observing infant perception that overcome
problems identified in the previous paragraph
○To present and evaluate the conclusions of various studies on infant
perception
○To point out the strengths and weaknesses of three new methods for
quantifying an infant's reaction to stimuli

8. The word quantifiable in the passage is closest in meaning to

○visual
○permanent
○meaningful
○measurable

9. Paragraph 3 mentions all of the following as indications of an infant's

heightened interest in a new stimulus EXCEPT an increase in
○sucking behavior
○heart rate
○the number of breaths taken
○eye movements

Paragraph 4: Two additional techniques of studying infant perception have

come into vogue. The first is the habituation-dishabituation technique, in
which a single stimulus is presented repeatedly to the infant until there is a
measurable decline (habituation) in whatever attending behavior is being
observed. At that point a new stimulus is presented, and any recovery
(dishabituation) in responsiveness is recorded. If the infant fails to
dishabituate and continues to show habituation with the new stimulus, it is
assumed that the baby is unable to perceive the new stimulus as different. The
habituation-dishabituation paradigm has been used most extensively with
studies of auditory and olfactory perception in infants. The second technique
relies on evoked potentials, which are electrical brain responses that may be
related to a particular stimulus because of where they originate. Changes in
the electrical pattern of the brain indicate that the stimulus is getting through
to the infant's central nervous system and eliciting some form of response.

10. According to paragraph 4, which of the following leads to the

conclusion that infants are able to differentiate between stimuli in a habituation-
dishabituation study?
○Dishabituation occurs with the introduction of a new stimulus.
○Electrical responses in the infant's brain decline with each new stimulus.
○Habituation is continued with the introduction of a new stimulus.
○The infant displays little change in electrical brain responses.

11. In paragraph 4, what does the author suggest about the way an infant's
brain perceives stimuli?
 ○An infant's potential to respond to a stimulus may be related to the size of
its brain.
○Changes in the electrical patterns of an infant's brain are difficult to
detect.
○Different areas of an infant's brain respond to different types of stimuli.
○An infant is unable to perceive more than one stimulus at a time.

Paragraph 5: Each of the preceding techniques provides the researcher

with evidence that the infant can detect or discriminate between stimuli. With
these sophisticated observational assessment and electro-physiological
measures, we know that the neonate of only a few days is far more perceptive
than previously suspected. However, these measures are only "indirect"
indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities.

12. Paragraph 5 indicates that researchers who used the techniques

described in the passage discovered that
○infants find it difficult to perceive some types of stimuli
○neonates of only a few days cannot yet discriminate between stimuli
○observational assessment is less useful for studying infant perception
than researchers previously believed
○a neonate is able to perceive stimuli better than researchers once
thought

Paragraph 3: Observational assessment techniques have become much

more sophisticated, reducing the limitations just presented. Film analysis of the
infant's responses, heart and respiration rate monitors, and nonnutritive
sucking devices are used as effective tools in understanding infant perception.
■Film analysis permits researchers to carefully study the infant's responses
over and over and in slow motion. ■Precise measurements can be made of the
length and frequency of the infant's attention between two stimuli. ■Heart and
respiration monitors provide the investigator with the number of heartbeats or
breaths taken when a new stimulus is presented. ■Numerical increases are
used as quantifiable indicators of heightened interest in the new stimulus.
Increases in nonnutritive sucking were first used as an assessment measure by
researchers in 1969. They devised an apparatus that connected a baby's
pacifier to a counting device. As stimuli were presented, changes in the infant's
sucking behavior were recorded. Increases in the number of sucks were used
as an indicator of the infant's attention to or preference for a given visual
display.

13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following
sentence could be added to the passage.
The repetition allows researchers to observe the infant's behavior until
they reach agreement about the presence and the degree of the infant's
response.
Where would the sentence best fit?

14．Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage

is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that
express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong
in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or
are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Researchers use a number of techniques to determine how infants

respond to changes in their environment.
●
●
●
Answer choices
○Data from observational methods must be confirmed through multiple
studies.
○New techniques for studying infant perception have improved the accuracy
with which researchers observe and quantify infant responses
○Indirect observation is most accurate when researchers use it to test
auditory and olfactory perception in neonates.
○Visual indicators such as turning the head, blinking the eyes, or crying
remain the best evidence of an infant’s perceptual abilities.
○Pacifiers are commonly used in studies to calm an infant who has been
presented with excessive stimuli.
○Sophisticated techniques that have aided new discoveries about perception
in the neonate continue to be indirect measures.
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参考 答案：
1. ○3
2. ○3
3. ○1
4. ○3
5. ○2
6. ○1
7. ○2
8.○4
9. ○4
10. ○1
11. ○3
12. ○4
13. ○2
14. Data from observational…
New techniques for…
Sophisticated techniques that…
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参考译文：
研究婴儿感知能力的方法

在对婴儿感知能力的研究中，许多技术被应用于确定婴儿对不同刺激的反应，由于他们（婴儿）无法用言语表达或者填写问卷，所以自然观察
的非直接性技术被应用于确定婴儿看，听，感知等的要表达的本意。这些方法都是将在刺激引入前和刺激引入的同时或紧随其后婴儿产生的反应作对
比。对刺激的反应程度和反应持续时间是可以提供给研究人员的两种不同的评判标准。比如说，如果一个移动的物体的通过新生儿的视线『即重复移
动眼睛进行跟随发生的话』。这个眼球移动的现象就说明移动的物体在一定程度上引起的新生儿的注意。同样的，改变新生儿的一般程度的活动，比
如摆头，眨眼，哭或者别的，都可以提供研究人员对于婴儿感知能力的研究提供直观参考。

但这些技术也是有局限性的。第一，两个甚至更多的观察者也许不会察觉到特殊反应的发生或者什么促使他发生，这样的话这种观察就是不可
靠的。第二，反应难以被量化，婴儿的很多反应是发生的在很短的时间内以至于研究人员很难准确记录。第三点也是最重要的一点，不可能非常明确
的说婴儿的反应是由现存的刺激或者后产生的刺激所导致的。婴儿可能只是对刺激所表现的反应可能因观察者的不同而不同。同时必须要注意的是，
用这些技术所产生的观察结果必须过于从资料中概括或者仅仅只是靠一个或两个特殊的婴儿感知能力研究而作为收集到的证据。

观察评估技术变得更加复杂，所受的限制也在减少。膜状婴儿反射分析，心脏和呼息频率的稳定性和奶嘴被作为高效的工具用于理解婴儿的感知
能力。膜状反射分析允许观察者小心的一遍遍的研究婴儿的相对缓慢的反应。通过婴儿在两次刺激之间的注意力的长度和频率可以制造出严谨的数据标
准。心脏和呼吸频率测量仪可以在新的刺激产生时提供给观察者婴儿的心跳次数和呼吸间隙。数值增长被用于一些新刺激的兴趣提升。 1969 年，奶
嘴的吮吸动作的增加次数首次被研究人员作为评估标准。他们设计出了一个连接着仪表的婴儿奶嘴。只要刺激出现，婴儿的吸允习惯就会被记录。吮吸
次数的增加也就变成了对婴儿所表现出的注意力以及喜好的直观展示。

另有两个研究婴儿感知的技术走进人们的视野。第一个就是习惯非习惯性技术，靠的是观察一个单一的重复的对婴儿的刺激，直到婴儿对这一
信号形成习惯并对信号的反应出现可测量的减弱（习惯性）。然后在一个新的刺激的出现时，任何对新刺激的反应的平复也都会被记录下来（非习惯
性）。如果婴儿没有不习惯而是持续表示出对那些新刺激的习惯性，那么就可以假定婴儿没有办法识别出新的刺激有什么不同。这种习惯于非习惯的
实验被广泛应用与听觉与嗅觉的婴儿感知研究上。另一种技术依靠唤醒潜能，脑电波的反应可能与特殊刺激的感受区相关联。改变大脑指示的电讯号
可以让刺激通过中枢神经系统并且唤醒相应的反射区。

以上所说的每一种技术都可以给研究者提供关于婴儿能够探知或区别刺激的依据，通过这些复杂的观察记录和电子生物学的探测，我们知道一
个只有几天的新生儿能探知的要远比我们之前猜测的要多的多。然而，这些标准也只是通过间接的指示器所测量到的婴儿感知的能力。