UNIT-I

Operating Systems

Introduction:

A computer system has many resources (hardware and software), which may
be required to complete a task. The commonly required resources are input/output
devices, memory, file storage space, CPU,etc. The operating system acts as a manager
of the above resources and allocates them to specific programs and users, whenever
necessary to perform a particular task. Therefore the operating system is the resource
manager i.e. it can manage the resource of a computer system internally. The
resources are processor, memory, files, and I/O devices.In simple terms, an operating
system is an interface between the computer user and the machine.
It is very important for you that every computer must have an operating
system in order to run other programs. The operating system mainly coordinates the
use of the hardware among the various system programs and application programs for
various users.
An operating system acts similarly like government means an operating
system performs no useful function by itself; though it provides an environment
within which other programs can do useful work. Below we have an abstract view of
the components of the computer system:

In the above picture:

The Computer Hardware contains a central processing unit(CPU), the memory,
and the input/output (I/O) devices and it provides the basic computing resources for
the system.
 The Application programs like spreadsheets, Web browsers, word processors,
etc. are used to define the ways in which these resources are used to solve the
computing problems of the users. And the System program mainly consists of
compilers, loaders, editors, OS, etc.
The Operating System is mainly used to control the hardware and coordinate its
use among the various application programs for the different users.
Basically, Computer System mainly consists of hardware, software, and data.

OS is mainly designed in order to serve two basic purposes:

1. The operating system mainly controls the allocation and use of the computing
System’s resources among the various user and tasks.
2. It mainly provides an interface between the computer hardware and the
programmer that simplifies and makes feasible for coding, creation of application
programs and debugging

Two Views of Operating System

1. User's View
2. System View

Operating System: User View

The user view of the computer refers to the interface being used. Such systems
are designed for one user to monopolize its resources, to maximize the work that the
user is performing. In these cases, the operating system is designed mostly for ease of
use, with some attention paid to performance, and none paid to resource utilization.

Operating System: System View

The operating system can be viewed as a resource allocator also. A computer
system consists of many resources like - hardware and software - that must be
managed efficiently. The operating system acts as the manager of the resources,
decides between conflicting requests, controls the execution of programs, etc.

Types of Operating System :

Given below are different types of Operating System:
1. Simple Batch System
2. Multiprogrammed
3. Time-Shared
4. Personal Computer
5. Parallel
6. Distributed Systems
7. Real Time Systems

Simple Batch System

In a Batch Operating System, the similar jobs are grouped together into
batches with the help of some operator and these batches are executed one by one. For
example, let us assume that we have 10 programs that need to be executed. Some
programs are written in C++, some in C and rest in Java. Now, every time when we
run these program’s individually then we will have to load the compiler of that
particular language and then execute the code. But what if we make a batch of these
10 programmes. The benefit with this approach is that, for the C++ batch, you need to
load the compiler only once. Similarly, for Java and C, the compiler needs to be
loaded only once and the whole batch gets executed. The following image describes
the working of a Batch Operating System.

Advantages:
1. The overall time taken by the system to execute all the programs will be reduced.
2. The Batch Operating System can be shared between multiple users.

Disadvantages:
1. Manual interventions are required between two batches.
2. The CPU utilization is low because the time taken in loading and unloading of
batches is very high as compared to execution time. Multi-programming Sharing
the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is
referred as multi-programming. Multi-programming assumes a single shared
processor. Multi-programming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that
the CPU always has one to execute.
The following figure shows the memory layout for a multi-programming system.
 An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.
 The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.
 This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
 The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.
 Multi-programming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs
and system resources using memory management programs to ensures that the
CPU is never idle, unless there are no jobs to process.
Advantages
 High and efficient CPU utilization.
 User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.
Disadvantages
 CPU scheduling is required.
 To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.

Time-Sharing Operating System

In a Multi-tasking Operating System, more than one processes are being
executed at a particular time with the help of the time-sharing concept. So, in the
time-sharing environment, we decide a time that is called time quantum and when the
process starts its execution then the execution continues for only that amount of time
and after that, other processes will be given chance for that amount of time only. In
the next cycle, the first process will again come for its execution and it will be
executed for that time quantum only and again next process will come. This process
will continue. The following image describes the working of a Time-Sharing
Operating System.

Advantages:
1. Since equal time quantum is given to each process, so each process gets equal
opportunity to execute.
2. The CPU will be busy in most of the cases and this is good to have case.

Disadvantages:
1. Process having higher priority will not get the chance to be executed first because
the equal opportunity is given to each process.

Personal Computers :
Personal computer operating system provides a good interface to a single user.
Personal computer operating systems are widely used for word processing,
spreadsheets and Internet access.
Personal computer operating system are made only for personal.You can say
that your laptops, computer systems, tablets etc. are your personal computers and the
operating system such as windows 7, windows 10, android, etc. are your personal
computer operating system. And you can use your personal computer operating
system for your personal purposes, for example, to chatting with your friends using
some social media sites, reading some articles from internet, making some projects
through Microsoft PowerPoint or any other, designing your website programming
something, watching some videos and movies, listening to some songs and many
more.

Parallel Processing :
Parallel processing requires multiple processors and all the processor works
simultaneously in the system. Here, the task is divided into subparts and these sub
parts are then distributed among the available processors in the system. Parallel
processing completes the job on the shortest possible time.
All the processors in the parallel processing environment should run on the same
operating system.
All processors here are tightly coupled and are packed in one casing. All the
processors in the system share the common secondary storage like the hard disk. As
this is the first place where the programs are to be placed. There is one more thing that
all the processors in the system share i.e. the user terminal (from where the user
interact with the system). The user need not to be aware of the inner architecture of
the machine. He should feel that he is dealing with the single processor only and his
interaction with the system would be the same as in a single processor.
Advantages
1. It saves time and money as many resources working together will reduce the time
and cut potential costs.
2. It can be impractical to solve larger problems on Serial Computing.
3. It can take advantage of non-local resources when the local resources are finite.
4. Serial Computing ‘wastes’ the potential computing power, thus Parallel Computing
makes better work of the hardware.

Disadvantages
1. It addresses such as communication and synchronization between multiple sub-
tasks and processes which is difficult to achieve.
2. The algorithms must be managed in such a way that they can be handled in a
parallel mechanism.
3. The algorithms or programs must have low coupling and high cohesion. But it’s
difficult to create such programs.
4. More technically skilled and expert programmers can code a parallelism-based
program well.

Distributed Operating System :

These types of the operating system is a recent advancement in the world of
computer technology and are being widely accepted all over the world and, that too,
with a great pace. Various autonomous interconnected computers communicate with
each other using a shared communication network. Independent systems possess their
own memory unit and CPU. These are referred to as loosely coupled systems or
distributed systems. These system’s processors differ in size and function. The major
benefit of working with these types of the operating system is that itis always possible
that one user can access the files or software which are not actually present on
his system but some other system connected within this network i.e., remote access is
enabled within the devices connected in that network.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems are
independent from each other
 Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable Load on
host computer reduces
 These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the
network , Delay in data processing reduces.
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:
 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
 To establish distributed systems the language which is used are not well defined
yet, these types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive.

Real-Time Operating System:

It is developed for real-time applications where data should be processed in a
fixed, small duration of time. It is used in an environment where multiple processes
are supposed to be accepted and processed in a short time. RTOS requires quick input
and immediate response, e.g., in a petroleum refinery, if the temperate gets too high
and crosses the threshold value, there should be an immediate response to this
situation to avoid the explosion. Similarly, this system is used to control scientific
instruments, missile launch systems, traffic lights controlsystems, air traffic
controlsystems, etc.
This system is further divided into two types based on the time constraints:
Hard Real-Time Systems:
These are used for the applications where timing is critical or response time is
a major factor; even a delay of a fraction of the second can result in a disaster. For
example, airbags and automatic parachutes that open instantly in case of an accident.
Besides this, these systems lack virtual memory.
Soft Real-Time Systems:
These are used for application where timing or response time is less critical.
Here, the failure to meet the deadline may result in a degraded performance instead of
a disaster. For example, video surveillance (cctv), video player, virtual reality, etc.
Here, the deadlines are not critical for every task every time.
Advantages of real-time operating system:
o The output is more and quick owing to the maximum utilization of devices and
system.
o Task shifting is very quick, e.g., 3 microseconds, due to which it seems that several
tasks are executed simultaneously.
o Gives more importance to the currently running applications than the queued
application.
o It can be used in embedded systems like in transport and others.
o It is free of errors.
Memory is allocated appropriately.

Disadvantages of real-time operating system:

o A fewer number of tasks can run simultaneously to avoid errors.
o It is not easy for a designer to write complex and difficult algorithms or proficient
programs required to get the desired output.
o Specific drivers and interrupt signals are required to respond to interrupts quickly.
o It may be very expensive due to the involvement of the resources required to work.

An operating system is an interface which provides services to both the

user and to the programs. It provides an environment for the program to execute. It
also provides users with the services of how to execute programs in a convenient
manner. The operating system provides some services to program and also to the
users of those programs. The specific services provided by the OS are off course
different.
Structures of Operating Systems:

1) Simple structure
Such operating systems do not have well defined structure and are small,
simple and limited systems. The interfaces and levels of functionality are not well
separated. MS-DOS is an example of such operating system. In MS-DOS application
programs are able to access the basic I/O routines. These types of operating system
cause the entire system to crash if one of the user programs fails.
Diagram of the structure of MS-DOS is shown below.

Advantages of Simple structure:

It delivers better application performance because of the few interfaces between the
application program and the hardware.
Easy for kernel developers to develop such an operating system.

Disadvantages of Simple structure:

The structure is very complicated as no clear boundaries exists between modules.
It does not enforce data hiding in the operating system.

2) Layered structure
An OS can be broken into pieces and retain much more control on system. In
this structure the OS is broken into number of layers (levels). The bottom layer (layer
0) is the hardware and the topmost layer (layer N) is the user interface. These layers
are so designed that each layer uses the functions of the lower level layers only. This
simplifies the debugging process as if lower level layers are debugged and an error
occurs during debugging then the error must be on that layer only as the lower level
layers have already been debugged.
The main disadvantage of this structure is that at each layer, the data needs to
be modified and passed on which adds overhead to the system. Moreover careful
planning of the layers is necessary as a layer can use only lower level layers. UNIX is
an example of this structure.
Advantages of Layered structure:
Layering makes it easier to enhance the operating system as implementation of a
layer can be changed easily without affecting the other layers.
It is very easy to perform debugging and system verification.

Disadvantages of Layered structure:

In this structure the application performance is degraded as compared to simple
structure.
It requires careful planning for designing the layers as higher layers use the
functionalities of only the lower layers.

3)Micro-Kernel Structure

Micro-Kernel structure designs the operating system by removing all non-

essential components from the kernel and implementing them as system and user
programs. This results in a smaller kernel called the micro-kernel. Advantages of this
structure are that all new services need to be added to user space and does not require
the kernel to be modified. Thus it is more secure and reliable as if a service fails, then
rest of the operating system remains untouched. Mac OS is an example of this type of
OS.

Advantages of Micro-kernel Structure:

1. It makes the operating system portable to various platforms.
2. As microkernels are small so these can be tested effectively.

Disadvantages of Micro-kernel Structure

Increased level of inter module communication degrades system performance.

4)Monolithic Structure
A monolithic structure is a type of operating system architecture where the
entire operating system is implemented as a single large process in kernel mode.
Essential operating system services, such as process management, memory
management, file systems, and device drivers, are combined into a single code block.

Advanatages of Monolithic Structure

Performance of Monolithic structure is fast as since everything runs in a single block,
therefore communication between components is quick.
It is easier to build because all parts are in one code block.

Disadvanatges of Monolithic Architecture

It is hard to maintain as a small error can affect entire system.
There are also some security risks in the Monolithic architecture.

5)Modular Structure
It is considered as the best approach for an OS. It involves designing of a
modular kernel. The kernel has only a set of core components and other services are
added as dynamically loadable modules to the kernel either during runtime or boot
time. It resembles layered structure due to the fact that each kernel has defined and
protected interfaces, but it is more flexible than a layered structure as a module can
call any other module. For example Solaris OS is organized as shown in the figure.

System Components:
An Operating system is an interface between users and the hardware of a
computer system. It is a system software that is viewed as an organized collection of
software consisting of procedures and functions, providing an environment for the
execution of programs. The operating system manages system software and computer
hardware resources. It allows computing resources to be used in an efficient way.
Programs interact with computer hardware with the help of operating system. A user
can interact with the operating system by making system calls or using OS commands.

Important Components of the Operating System:

I. Process Management
II. File Management
III. Command Interpreter
IV. System Calls
V. Network Management
VI. Security Management
VII. I/O Device Management
VIII. Secondary Storage Management
IX. Main Memory Management

Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It consists of the followings:

a) Executable program
b) Program data
c) Stack and stack pointer
d) Program counter and other CPU registers
e) Details of opened files
A process can be suspended temporarily and the execution of another process
can be taken up. A suspended process can be restarted later. Before suspending a
process, its details are saved in a table called the process table so that it can be
executed later on. An operating system supports two system calls to manage processes
Create and Kill –
 Create a system call used to create a new process.
 Kill system call used to delete an existing process.

A process can create a number of child processes. Processes can communicate

among themselves either using shared memory or by message-passing techniques.
Two processes running on two different computers can communicate by sending
messages over a network.

Files Management
Files are used for long-term storage. Files are used for both input and output.
Every operating system provides a file management service. This file management
service can also be treated as an abstraction as it hides the information about the disks
from the user. The operating system also provides a system call for file management.
The system call for file management includes:

 File creation
 File deletion
 Read and Write operations
 Files are stored in a directory. System calls provide to put a file in a directory
or to remove a file from a directory. Files in the system are protected to maintain the
privacy of the user. Below shows the Hierarchical File Structure directory.

Command Interpreter
There are several ways for users to interface with the operating system. One of
the approaches to user interaction with the operating system is through commands.
Command interpreter provides a command-line interface. It allows the user to enter a
command on the command line prompt (cmd). The command interpreter accepts and
executes the commands entered by a user. For example, a shell is a command
interpreter under UNIX. The commands to be executed are implemented in two ways:

I) The command interpreter itself contains code to be executed.

II) The command is implemented through a system file. The necessary system file is
loaded into memory and executed.

System Calls
System calls provide an interface to the services made by an operating system.
The user interacts with the operating system programs through System calls. These
calls are normally made available as library functions in high-level languages such as
C, Java, Python etc. It provides a level of abstraction as the user is not aware of the
implementation or execution of the call made. Details of the operating system is
hidden from the user. Different hardware and software services can be availed
through system calls.

System calls are available for the following operations:

 Process Management
 Memory Management
 File Operations
 Input / Output Operations

Network Management
The complexity of networks and services has created modern challenges for IT
professionals and users. Network management is a set of processes and procedures
that help organizations to optimize their computer networks. Mainly, it ensures that
users have the best possible experience while using network applications and services.

Network management is a fundamental concept of computer networks.

Network Management Systems is a software application that provides network
administrators with information on components in their networks. It ensures the
quality of service and availability of network resources. It also examines the
operations of a network, reconstructs its network configuration, modifies it for
improving performance of tasks.

Security Management
The security mechanisms in an operating system ensure that authorized
programs have access to resources, and unauthorized programs have no access to
restricted resources. Security management refers to the various processes where the
user changes the file, memory, CPU, and other hardware resources that should have
authorization from the operating system.

I/O Device Management

The I/O device management component is an I/O manager that hides the
details of hardware devices and manages the main memory for devices using cache
and spooling. This component provides a buffer cache and general device driver code
that allows the system to manage the main memory and the hardware devices
connected to it. It also provides and manages custom drivers for particular hardware
devices.

The purpose of the I/O system is to hide the details of hardware devices from
the application programmer. An I/O device management component allows highly
efficient resource utilization while minimizing errors and making programming easy
on the entire range of devices available in their systems.

Secondary Storage Management

Broadly, the secondary storage area is any space, where data is stored
permanently and the user can retrieve it easily. Your computer’s hard drive is the
primary location for your files and programs. Other spaces, such as CD-ROM/DVD
drives, flash memory cards, and networked devices, also provide secondary storage
for data on the computer. The computer’s main memory (RAM) is a volatile storage
device in which all programs reside, it provides only temporary storage space for
performing tasks. Secondary storage refers to the media devices other than RAM (e.g.
CDs, DVDs, or hard disks) that provide additional space for permanent storing of data
and software programs which is also called non-volatile storage.

Main Memory Management

Main memory is a flexible and volatile type of storage device. It is a large

sequence of bytes and addresses used to store volatile data. Main memory is also
called Random Access Memory (RAM), which is the fastest computer storage
available on PCs. It is costly and low in terms of storage as compared to secondary
storage devices. Whenever computer programs are executed, it is temporarily stored
in the main memory for execution. Later, the user can permanently store the data or
program in the secondary storage device.
Operating System Services :

Following are the common services provided by an operating system:

1. Program execution
2. I/O operations
3. File system manipulation
4. Communication
5. Error detection
6. Resource allocation
7. Protection

1) Program Execution
An operating system must be able to load many kinds of activities into the memory
and to run it. The program must be able to end its execution, either normally or
abnormally.
A process includes the complete execution of the written program or code. There
are some of the activities which are performed by the operating system:
o The operating system Loads program into memory
o It also Executes the program
o It Handles the program’s execution
o It Provides a mechanism for process synchronization
o It Provides a mechanism for process communication.

2) I/O Operations
The communication between the user and devices drivers are managed by the
operating system.
I/O devices are required for any running process. In I/O a file or an I/O devices can
be involved.
I/O operations are the read or write operations which are done with the help of
input-output devices.
Operating system give the access to the I/O devices when it required.

3) File system manipulation

 The collection of related information which represent some content is known as a
file. The computer can store files on the secondary storage devices. For long-term
storage purpose. examples of storage media include magnetic tape, magnetic disk and
optical disk drives like CD, DVD.
A file system is a collection of directories for easy understand and usage. These
directories contain some files. There are some major activities which are performed
by an operating system with respect to file management.
o The operating system gives an access to the program for performing an operation on
the file.
o Programs need to read and write a file.
o The user can create/delete a file by using an interface provided by the operating
system.
o The operating system provides an interface to the user creates/ delete directories.
o The backup of the file system can be created by using an interface provided by the
operating system.

4) Communication
In the computer system, there is a collection of processors which do not share
memory peripherals devices or a clock, the operating system manages communication
between all the processes. Multiple processes can communicate with every process
through communication lines in the network. There are some major activities that are
carried by an operating system with respect to communication.
Two processes may require data to be transferred between the process.
 Both the processes can be on one computer or a different computer, but are
connected through a computer network.

5) Error Handling
An error is one part of the system that may cause malfunctioning of the
complete system. The operating system constantly monitors the system for detecting
errors to avoid some situations. This give relives to the user of the worry of getting an
error in the various parts of the system causing all functioning.
The error can occur anytime and anywhere. The error may occur anywhere in
the computer system like in CPU, in I/O devices or in the memory hardware. There
are some activities that are performed by an operating system:
The OS continuously checks for the possible errors.
The OS takes an appropriate action to correct errors and consistent computing.

6) Resource Management
When there are multiple users or multiple jobs running at the same time
resources must be allocated to each of them. There are some major activities that are
performed by an operating system:
The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.
CPU scheduling algorithm is used for better utilization of CPU.

7) Protection
The owners of information stored in a multi-user computer system want to
control its use. When several disjoints processes execute concurrently it should not be
possible for any process to interfere with another process. Every process in the
computer system must be secured and controlled. Operating system can be
implemented with the help of various structures. The structure of the OS depends
mainly on how the various common components of the operating system are
interconnected and melded into the kernel.

System Calls :
System Calls provide an interface to the services made available by an
operating system.

 System call is the programmatic way in which a computer program requests a

service from the kernel of the operating system.
 These system calls are generally available as routines written in C and C++.

Example of a system call request for writing a simple program to read data from one
file and copy them to another file:
Types of System Calls:

Windows Linux
CreateProcess() fork()
Process Control ExitProcess() exit()
WaitForSingleObject() wait()
CreateFile() open()
File Management ReadFile() read()
WriteFile() write()
CloseHandle() close()
SetConsoleMode() ioctl()
Device Management ReadConsole() read()
WriteConsole() write()
GetCurrentProcessID() getpid()
Information Maintenance SetTimer() alarm()
Sleep() Sleep()
CreatePipe() pipe()
Communication CreateFileMapping() shmget()
MapViewOfFile() mmap()
 Process

Definition:
A program under execution is known as process.
The process scheduling is the activity of the process manager that handles the
removal of the running process from the CPU and the selection of another process on
the basis of a particular strategy.
Process scheduling is an essential part of a Multi-programming operating
systems. Such operating systems allow more than one process to be loaded into the
executable memory at a time and the loaded process shares the CPU using time
multiplexing.

Process States:

New: This state represents a newly created process that hasn’t started running yet. It
has not been loaded into the main memory, but its process control block (PCB)
has been created, which holds important information about the process.

Ready: A process in this state is ready to run as soon as the CPU becomes available.
It is waiting for the operating system to give it a chance to execute.

Running: This state means the process is currently being executed by the CPU. Since
we’re assuming there is only one CPU, at any time, only one process can be
in this state.

Waiting: This state means the process cannot continue executing right now. It is
waiting for some event to happen, like the completion of an input/output
operation (for example, reading data from a disk).

Terminated: A process in this state has finished its execution or has been stopped by
the user for some reason. At this point, it is released by the operating
system and removed from memory.
Process Control Block:

Process Control Block is a data structure that contains information of the

process related to it. The process control block is also known as a task control block,
entry of the process table, etc.

It is very important for process management as the data structuring for

processes is done in terms of the PCB. It also defines the current state of
the operating system.

Structure of the Process Control Block:

The process control stores many data items that are needed for efficient
process management. Some of these data items are explained with the help of the
given diagram −

The following are the data items −

Process State

This specifies the process state i.e. new, ready, running, waiting or terminated.

Process Number

This shows the number of the particular process.

Program Counter

This contains the address of the next instruction that needs to be executed in
the process.
Registers

This specifies the registers that are used by the process. They may
include accumulators, index registers, stack pointers, general purpose registers etc.

List of Open Files

These are the different files that are associated with the process

CPU Scheduling Information

The process priority, pointers to scheduling queues etc. is the CPU

scheduling information that is contained in the PCB. This may also include any other
scheduling parameters.

Memory Management Information

The memory management information includes the page tables or the segment
tables depending on the memory system used. It also contains the value of the base
registers, limit registers etc.

I/O Status Information

This information includes the list of I/O devices used by the process, the list
of files etc.

Accounting information

The time limits, account numbers, amount of CPU used, process numbers etc.
are all a part of the PCB accounting information.

Process Scheduling Queues:

The OS maintains all PCBs in Process Scheduling Queues. The OS maintains
a separate queue for each of the process states and PCBs of all processes in the same
execution state are placed in the same queue. When the state of a process is changed,
its PCB is unlinked from its current queue and moved to its new state queue.

The Operating System maintains the following important process scheduling queues :
 Job queue − This queue keeps all the processes in the system.
 Ready queue − This queue keeps a set of all processes residing in main memory,
ready and waiting to execute. A new process is always put in this queue.
 Device queue- The processes which are blocked due to unavailability of an I/O
device constitute this queue.
 The OS can use different policies to manage each queue (FIFO, Round Robin,
Priority, etc.). The OS scheduler determines how to move processes between the
ready and run queues which can only have one entry per processor core on the system;
in the above diagram, it has been merged with the CPU.

Schedulers:
Schedulers are special system software which handle process scheduling in
various ways. Their main task is to select the jobs to be submitted into the system and
to decide which process to run.
Schedulers are of three types −
 Long-Term Scheduler
 Short-Term Scheduler
 Medium-Term Scheduler

Long Term Scheduler

It is also called a job scheduler. A long-term scheduler determines which
programs are admitted to the system for processing. It selects processes from the
queue and loads them into memory for execution. Process loads into the memory for
CPU scheduling.
The primary objective of the job scheduler is to provide a balanced mix of jobs,
such as I/O bound and processor bound. It also controls the degree of
multiprogramming. If the degree of multiprogramming is stable, then the average rate
of process creation must be equal to the average departure rate of processes leaving
the system.
On some systems, the long-term scheduler may not be available or minimal.
Time-sharing operating systems have no long term scheduler. When a process
changes the state from new to ready, then there is use of long-term scheduler.

Short Term Scheduler

It is also called as CPU scheduler. Its main objective is to increase system
performance in accordance with the chosen set of criteria. It is the change of ready
state to running state of the process. CPU scheduler selects a process among the
processes that are ready to execute and allocates CPU to one of them.
Short-term schedulers, also known as dispatchers, make the decision of which
process to execute next. Short-term schedulers are faster than long term schedulers.
 Medium Term Scheduler
Medium-term scheduling is a part of swapping. It removes the processes from
the memory. It reduces the degree of multiprogramming. The medium term
scheduler is in-charge of handling the swapped out-processes.
A running process may become suspended if it makes an I/O request. A
suspended processes cannot make any progress towards completion. In this condition,
to remove the process from memory and make space for other processes, the
suspended process is moved to the secondary storage. This process is called swapping,
and the process is said to be swapped out or rolled out. Swapping may be necessary to
improve the process mix.

Comparison among Scheduler:

S.No Long-Term Scheduler Short-Term Scheduler Medium-Term Scheduler

1 It is a job scheduler It is a CPU scheduler It is a process swapping
scheduler.
2 Speed is lesser than Speed is fastest among Speed is in between both
short other two short and long term
term scheduler scheduler.
3 It controls the degree of It provides lesser control It reduces the degree of
multiprogramming over degree of multiprogramming.
multiprogramming
4 It is almost absent or It is also minimal in time It is a part of Time sharing
minimal in time sharing sharing system systems.
system
5 It selects processes from It selects those processes It can re-introduce the
pool and loads them into which are ready to process into memory and
memory for execution execute execution can be
continued.

Context Switch
A context switch is the mechanism to store and restore the state or context of a
CPU in Process Control block so that a process execution can be resumed from the
same point at a later time. Using this technique, a context switcher enables multiple
processes to share a single CPU. Context switching is an essential part of a
multitasking operating system features.
When the scheduler switches the CPU from executing one process to execute
another, the state from the current running process is stored into the process control
block. After this, the state for the process to run next is loaded from its own PCB and
used to set the PC, registers, etc. At that point, the second process can start executing.
Context switches are computationally intensive since register and memory state must
be saved and restored. To avoid the amount of context switching time, some hardware
systems employ two or more sets of processor registers. When the process is switched,
the following information is stored for later use.
 Program Counter
 Scheduling information
 Base and limit register value
 Currently used register
 Changed State
 I/O State information
 Accounting information

Cooperating Process:
Cooperating processes are those that can affect or affected by other processes
running on the system.Cooperating processes may share data with each other.

Reasons for need for cooperating processes:

There may be many reasons for the requirement of cooperating processes.some of

these are given as follows:
1. Information Sharing
Cooperating processes can be used to share information between various
processes. It could involve having access to the same files. A technique is necessary
so that the processes may access the files concurrently.
2. Modularity

Modularity refers to the division of complex tasks into smaller subtasks.

Different cooperating processes can complete these smaller subtasks. As a result, the
required tasks are completed more quickly and efficiently.

3. Computation Speedup
Cooperating processes can be used to accomplish subtasks of a single task
simultaneously. It improves computation speed by allowing the task to be
accomplished faster. Although, it is only possible if the system contains several
processing elements.

4. Convenience
There are multiple tasks that a user requires to perform, such as printing,
compiling, editing, etc. It is more convenient if these activities may be managed
through cooperating processes.
Concurrent execution of cooperating processes needs systems that enable
processes to communicate and synchronize their actions.

Methods of Cooperating Process:

Cooperating processes may coordinate with each other by sharing data or messages.
The methods are given below:

1. Cooperation by sharing
The processes may cooperate by sharing data, including variables, memory, databases,
etc. The critical section provides data integrity, and writing is mutually exclusive to
avoid inconsistent data.

Here, in above diagram that shows cooperation by sharing. In this diagram,

Process P1 and P2 may cooperate by using shared data like files, databases, variables,
memory, etc.

2. Cooperation by Communication
The cooperating processes may cooperate by using messages. If every process
waits for a message from another process to execute a task, it may cause a deadlock.
If a process does not receive any messages, it may cause starvation.
Here, you have seen a diagram that shows cooperation by communication. In this
diagram, Process P1 and P2 may cooperate by using messages to communicate.

Example: Producer-Consumer Problem

Let's take an example of two cooperating processes. It is referred to as the
Producer-Consumer Problem, and it involves two processes: the producer and the
consumer.

Producer Process: It generates information that the consumer would consume.

Consumer Process: It consumes the information that the producer produces.

Both processes run simultaneously. The customer waits if there is nothing to consume.
There is a producer and a consumer; the producer creates the item and stores
it in a buffer while the consumer consumes it. For example, print software generates
characters that the printer driver consumes. A compiler can generate assembly code,
which an assembler can use. In addition, the assembler may produce object modules
that are used by the loader.

Producer Process
while(true)
{
produce an item &
while(counter = = buffer-size);
buffer[int] = next produced;
in = (in+1) % buffer- size;
counter ++;
}
Consumer Process
While(true)
{
while (counter = = 0);
next consumed = buffer[out];
out= (out+1) % buffer size;
counter--;
 }
Where,
 The producer uses the in variable to determine the next empty slot in the buffer.
 The out variable is used by the consumer to determine where the item is located.
 The counter is used by producers and consumers to determine the number of
filled slots in the buffer.

Shared Resources
There are two shared resources:
1.Buffer
2.Counter
Inconsistency occurs when the producer and consumer are not executed on time. If
both the producer and the consumer execute concurrently without any control, the
value of a counter used by both will be incorrect. These processes share the following
variables:
var n;
type item = .....;
var Buffer : array [0,n-1] of item;
In, out:0..n-1;
The variables in and out are both set to 0 by default. The shared buffer contains two
logical pointers, in and out, which are implemented as a circular array. The In
variables point to the buffer's next free position, while the Out variables point to the
buffer's first full position. The buffer is empty when in = out, and it is filled when
in+1 mod n = out.

Operations on Processes:

1) Creating a Process
Creating a new process is a common task in software development. It involves
duplicating an existing process to create a new instance that can execute
independently.
The following steps outline the process creation operation:
Forking:The parent process creates a copy of itself, known as the child process.
Memory Allocation: The child process is allocated its own memory space.
Initialization: The child process is initialized with the necessary resources and
starts executing.
2)Terminating a Process
Terminating a process involves stopping the execution of a running process
and cleaning up its resources. It is important to handle process termination gracefully
to avoid undesired consequences. The following steps outline the process termination
operation:
Signal Handling- The parent process sends a termination signal, such as SIGTERM,
to the child process.
Cleanup- The child process performs any necessary cleanup operations, such as
releasing allocated memory or closing open files.
Exit- The child process exits and returns control to the parent process or the operating
system.
Threads:
A process is divide into number of light weight process, each light weight process is
said to be a Thread.
The Thread has a program counter (Keeps track of which instruction to execute next),
registers (holds its
current working variables), stack (execution History).
Thread States:
1. born State : A thread is just created.
2. ready state : The thread is waiting for CPU.
3. running : System assigns the processor to the thread.
4. sleep : A sleeping thread becomes ready after the designated sleep time expires.
5. dead : The Execution of the thread finished.
Example: Word processor.
Typing, Formatting, Spell check, saving are threads.

Differences between Process and Thread :

S.no Process Thread

1 Process takes more time to create. Thread takes less time to create.
2 it takes more time to complete Less time to terminate
execution & terminate.
3 Execution is very slow. Execution is very fast.

4 It takes more time to switch b/w It takes less time to so switch b/w two
two processes. Threads.
5 Communication b/w two processes Communication b/w two threads is
is difficult . Easy.

6 Process can’t share the same Threads can share same memory area.
memory area.
7 System calls are requested to System calls are not required.
communicate each other.

8 Process is loosely coupled. Threads are tightly coupled.

9 It requires more resources to Requires few resources to execute.
execute.

Multithreading:
A process is divided into number of smaller tasks each task is called a Thread.
Number ofThreads with in a
Process execute at a time is called Multithreading.
If a program, is multithreaded, even when some portion of it is blocked, the whole
program isnot blocked.
The rest of the program continues working If multiple CPU’s are available.
Multithreading gives best performance. If we have only a single thread, number of
CPU’s available, No performance benefits achieved.
Process creation is heavy-weight while thread creation is light-weight Can simplify
code, increase,efficiency.
Kernels are generally multithreaded
CODE- Contains instruction
DATA- holds global variable
FILES-opening and closing files
REGISTER- contain information about CPU state
STACK-parameters, local variables, functions