BECE317L Wireless and Mobile Communications

Dr. Ramesh R
AB1 504 Cabin 6
Good Morning to all
 Module:1 Mobile Radio Propagation: Large Scale
Fading
Overview of Wireless Communication, Cellular concept – Frequency reuse – Channel

assignment strategies – Handoff strategies – Interference and system capacity – Trunking and

grade of service – Improving coverage and capacity in cellular system. Propagation

mechanisms, Free space model, Two ray model, Outdoor and indoor propagation

models,Link budget design.

 Wireless and Mobile Communications
Wireless communication systems may be classified as simplex, half-duplex or
full-duplex.
Simplex Mode
In simplex mode, Sender can send the data but the sender unable receive the
data. It is a type of on way communication in which communication happens in
only one direction. Example of this kind of mode is Keyboard, Traditional
Monitors, etc.
 Advantages of Simplex Mode
Simplicity: Simplex mode is simple to implement because data travels in only
one direction. This reduces the difficulty of the communication system.

Cost-Effective: Since communication is single directional, the hardware

required (e.g., cables, connectors) can be less costly compared to more
complex modes like half-duplex or full-duplex.

No Collision : As data travels in only one direction, there’s no risk of data

collision, making the communication secure and consistent.

Efficient Use for Specific Applications: Ideal for applications where only
one-way communication is necessary, such as broadcasting, keyboard input to
a computer, or sending data to a printer.
 Disadvantages of Simplex Mode
Lack of Bidirectional Communication: The most significant disadvantage is
the incapacity to send data back in the opposite way. This limitation makes it
unsuitable for interactive communication.
Inefficiency for Complex Tasks: Simplex mode is not suitable for tasks
requiring response or acknowledgment, such as error-checking or data
authentication, which are crucial in many communication systems.
Limited Flexibility: Simplex systems lack flexibility because they cannot be
easily adjusted to situations where bidirectional communication might become
necessary.
Not Ideal for Modern Networks: Most advanced communication systems
require bidirectional data flow, making simplex mode largely antiquated in
networking scenarios.
Half-Duplex Mode
• In half-duplex mode, Sender can send the data and also receive the data one
sequentially. It is a bidirectional communication but limited to only one at a
time. Example , Walkie-Talkie, in which information is sent one at a time but
in bi-directions.
• Half-duplex mode is a balance between simplex and full-duplex modes,
providing dual communication but with some compromises in speed and
performance.
Advantages of Half-Duplex Mode
Efficient Use of Channel: Half-duplex allows for bidirectional communication
over a single channel, making it effective for scenarios where parallel
transmission isn’t required.
Cost-Effective: It requires less complicated and less costly hardware than full-
duplex systems, as only one device conveys at a time.
Simplified Collision Handling: Since only one device can transmit at a time,
crashes are reduced, reducing the need for complicated collision detection and
management protocols.
Suitable for Periodic Communication: Optimal for situations where
communication doesn’t need to happen concurrently in both directions, such as
walkie-talkies or specific network protocols.
Disadvantages of Half-Duplex Mode
Slower Data Transmission: Since data can only run in one direction at a time,
communication is naturally delayed compared to full-duplex systems where data
can be delivered and received simultaneously.
Increased Latency: The need to exchange between sending and receiving
modes introduces delay, which can affect performance in congestion
applications.
Not Ideal for High-Traffic Networks: In networks with congestion or
applications requiring constant communication, half-duplex mode can become a
restriction.
Inefficient for Complex Communications: For tasks that require frequent two
way communication, half-duplex can be less effective as it forces devices to wait
their turn, which can lead to pauses.
Full Duplex Mode
• Full-duplex mode, Sender can send the data and also can receive the data
simultaneously. It is dual way communication that is both way of
communication happens at a same time. Example of this kind of transmission
is Telephone Network, where communication happens parallel.
Advantages of Full-Duplex Mode
High-Speed Communication: Data transfer is quicker because there is no
delaying for the channel to clear before sending or receiving data.

Reduced Latency: Since communication is parallel, time lag is minimized,

which is critical for real-time applications like web conferencing.

Better Utilization of Bandwidth: The available transmission capacity is used

more efficient because both directions of communication can occur at once.
Disadvantages of Full-Duplex Mode

Complexity and Cost: Executing full-duplex systems requires more

complicated hardware and can be more costly than simplex or half-duplex
systems.

Requires Quality Infrastructure: Full-duplex communication demands a

advanced quality of architecture, such as better cabling and more refined
networking equipment, to avoid interference and assure smooth data flow.
Parameters Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex

Half Duplex mode is a dual Full Duplex mode is a two-way

Simplex mode is a uni-directional
The direction of communication directional communication but one directional communication
communication.
at a time. simultaneously.

In simplex mode, sender can send In Half Duplex mode, sender can In Full Duplex mode, sender can
Sender and Receiver the data but that sender can’t send the data and also can receive send the data and also can receive
receive the data. the data but one at a time. the data simultaneously.

Usage of one channel for the Usage of one channel for the Usage of two channels for the
Channel usage
transmission of data. transmission of data. transmission of data.

The simplex mode provides less Full Duplex provides better

The Half Duplex mode provides
Performance performance than half duplex and performance than simplex and half
less performance than full duplex.
full duplex. duplex mode.

The Half-Duplex involves lesser The Full-Duplex doubles the

Simplex utilizes the maximum of a
Bandwidth Utilization utilization of single bandwidth at utilization of transmission
single bandwidth.
the time of transmission. bandwidth.

It is suitable for those It is suitable for those

It is suitable for those
transmissions when there is transmissions when there is
transmissions when there is
Suitable for requirement of sending data in requirement of sending and
requirement of full bandwidth for
both directions, but not at the same receiving data simultaneously in
delivering data.
time. both directions.

Example of simplex mode are: Example of half duplex mode is: Example of full duplex mode is:
BECE317L Wireless and Mobile Communications

Dr. Ramesh R
AB1 504 Cabin 6
Good Morning to all
Evolution Of Wireless Technologies 1G To 5G In Mobile
Communication
The evolution of cellular mobile communications.
 History of wireless technology

• Marconi, an Italian inventor, transmitted Morse code signals using

radio waves wirelessly to a distance of 3.2 KMs in 1895.

• Martin Cooper, an engineer at Motorola during the 1970s working on

a handheld device capable of two-way communication wirelessly,
invented the first-generation mobile phone.

• It was initially developed to use in a car; the first prototype was

tested in 1974.
1G – First-generation mobile communication system
• The first generation of mobile networks was deployed in Japan by
Nippon Telephone and Telegraph Company (NTT) in Tokyo in 1979.
• At the beginning of the 1980s, it gained popularity in the US,
Finland, the UK, and Europe. This system used analog signals, and it
had many disadvantages due to technology limitations.
 Most popular 1G system during the 1980s
• Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)

• Nordic Mobile Phone System (NMTS)

• Total Access Communication System (TACS)

• European Total Access Communication System (ETACS)

 Key features (technology) of the 1G system
• Frequency 800 MHz and 900 MHz

• Bandwidth: 10 MHz (666 duplex channels with a bandwidth of 30

KHz)

• Technology: Analogue switching

• Modulation: Frequency Modulation (FM)

• Mode of service: voice only

• Access technique: Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

 Disadvantages of 1G system
• Poor voice quality due to interference

• Poor battery life

• Large-sized mobile phones (not convenient to carry)

• Less security (calls could be decoded using an FM demodulator)

• A limited number of users and cell coverage

• Roaming was not possible between similar systems

 2G – Second generation communication system GSM
• GSM standard was capable of supporting up to 14.4 to 64kbps
(maximum) data rate, which is sufficient for SMS and email services.

• Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) systems developed by

Qualcomm were also introduced and implemented in the mid-1990s.

• CDMA has more features than GSM regarding spectral efficiency,

number of users, and data rate.
Key features of the 2G system
• The digital system (switching)

• SMS services are possible

• Roaming is possible

• Enhanced security

• Encrypted voice transmission

• First internet at a lower data rate

Disadvantages of the 2G system

• Low data rate

• Limited mobility

• Less features on mobile devices

• Limited number of users and hardware capability

 2.5G and 2.75G system
• In order to support higher data rates, General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
was introduced and successfully deployed. GPRS was capable of data rates
up to 171kbps (maximum).

• EDGE – Enhanced Data GSM Evolution was also developed to improve the
data rate for GSM networks. EDGE was capable of supporting up to
473.6kbps (maximum).

• CDMA2000 was also introduced to support higher data rates for CDMA
networks. This technology has the ability to provide up to 384 kbps data rate
(maximum).
 3G – Third-generation communication system

• Third-generation mobile communication started with the introduction of

UMTS – Universal Mobile Terrestrial / Telecommunication Systems.

• UMTS has a data rate of 384kbps, and it supports video calling for the first
time on mobile devices.

• After the introduction of the 3G mobile communication system, smartphones

became popular across the globe.

• Specific applications were developed for smartphones that handle multimedia

chat, email, video calling, games, social media, and healthcare.
Key features of the 3G system
• Higher data rate

• Video calling

• Enhanced security, more users, and coverage

• Mobile app support

• Multimedia message support

• Location tracking and maps

• Better web browsing

• TV streaming

• High-quality 3D games
 3.5G to 3.75 Systems
• In order to enhance the data rate in existing 3G networks, two
technology improvements are introduced to the network.
• HSDPA – High-Speed Downlink Packet Access and HSUPA – High-
Speed Uplink Packet Access, developed and deployed to the 3G
networks.
• 3.5G network can support up to 2Mbps data rate.
• 3.75 system is an improved version of the 3G network with HSPA+
High-Speed Packet Access Plus. Later this system will evolve into a
more powerful 3.9G system known as LTE (Long Term Evolution).
 Disadvantages of 3G systems

• Expensive spectrum licenses

• Costly infrastructure, equipment, and implementation

• Higher bandwidth requirements to support a higher data rate

• Costly mobile devices

• Compatibility with older generation 2G systems and frequency bands

 4G – Fourth-generation communication system
• 4G systems are enhanced version of 3G networks developed by IEEE, offers higher
data rate, and are capable of handling more advanced multimedia services. LTE and
LTE advanced wireless technology used in 4th generation systems.

• Simultaneous transmission of voice and data is possible with an LTE system, which
significantly improves the data rate. All services, including voice services, can be
transmitted over IP packets. Complex modulation schemes and carrier aggregation
are used to multiply uplink/downlink capacity.

• Wireless transmission technologies like WiMax are introduced in 4G systems to

enhance data rate and network performance.
 Key features of the 4G system
• Much higher data rate up to 1Gbps

• Enhanced security and mobility

• Reduced latency for mission-critical applications

• High-definition video streaming and gaming

• Voice over LTE network VoLTE (use IP packets for voice)

 Disadvantages of the 4G system

• Expensive hardware and infrastructure

• Costly spectrum (in most countries, frequency bands are too expensive)

• High-end mobile devices compatible with 4G technology are required, which

is costly

• Wide deployment and upgrade are time-consuming

 5G – Fifth-generation communication system
• 5G network is using advanced technologies to deliver ultra-fast internet and
multimedia experience for customers.
• G network will function in non-standalone mode and standalone mode. In
non-standalone mode, both LTE spectrum and 5G-NR spectrum will be used
together. Control signaling will be connected to the LTE core network in
non-standalone mode.
• In order to achieve a higher data rate, 5G technology will use millimeter
waves and unlicensed spectrums for data transmission. A complex
modulation technique has been developed to support massive data rates for
the internet of things
 Key features of 5G technology
• Ultra-fast mobile internet up to 10Gbps

• Low latency in milliseconds (significant for mission-critical applications)

• Total cost deduction for data

• Higher security and reliable network

• Uses technologies like small cells and beamforming to improve efficiency

• Forward compatibility network offers further enhancements in future

• Cloud-based infrastructure offers power efficiency, easy maintenance, and upgrade of

hardware
Cellular Terminology
Cell shape and Frequency Reuse
Concept
Basic Cellular Architecture
Shape of Cells- Circle
Shape of Cells- Square
A square cell has four neighbors at distance d and four at
distance Root 2 d
• Better if all adjacent antennas equidistant
Shape of Cells- Square
Frequency Reuse
Frequency Reuse
Frequency Reuse
Frequency Reuse condt…..
Frequency Reuse condt…..
Frequency Reuse
To understand the frequency reuse concept, consider a cellular system which has
a total of S duplex channels available for use. If each cell is allocated a group of k
channels (k < S), and if the S channels are divided among N cells into unique and
disjoint channel groups which each have the same number of channels, the total
number of available radio channels can be expressed as
S = kN
The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available frequencies is
called a cluster. If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the total
number of duplex channels, C, can be used as a measure of capacity and is given
by
C = MkN = MS
 • Due to the fact that the hexagonal geometry of Figure has exactly six
equidistant neighbors and that the lines joining the centers of any cell
and each of its neighbors are separated by multiples of 60 degrees,
there are only certain cluster sizes and cell layouts which are possible.
• In order to tessellate—to connect without gaps between adjacent
cells—the geometry of hexagons is such that the number of cells per
cluster, N, can only have values which satisfy

where i and j are non-negative integers. To find the nearest co-channel

neighbors of a particular cell, one must do the following: (1) move i cells along
any chain of hexagons and then (2) turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and
move j cells.
In Frequency reuse there are several cells that use the same set of frequencies.
These cells are called Co-Channel Cells. These Co-Channel cells results in
interference. So, to avoid the Interference cells that use the same set of channels or
frequencies are separated from one another by a larger distance. The distance
between any two Co-Channels can be calculated by the following formula:
D = R * (3 * N)1/2
Where, R = Radius of a cell N = Number of cells in each cluster
Frequency Reuse Patterns

• Cluster Patterns: Cell clusters are constructed using patterns such as 1/3, 1/4,
1/7, and so on, depending on the desired reuse factor. Each pattern specifies the
number of cells in a cluster and the minimum distance necessary between cells
with the same frequencies to avoid interference.

• Interference Management: Frequency reuse patterns must be carefully

planned to minimize co-channel interference, which happens when cells using
the same frequency are too near together.
Advantages of Frequency Reuse
• Improved Spectral Efficiency: By reusing the same frequency in different
geographic areas, spectral efficiency can be improved, enabling more efficient
spectrum usage.
• Better Quality of Service: With the ability to reuse the same frequency in different
cells, the interference between cells can be minimized, leading to better quality of
service.
• Cost-Effective: Frequency reuse can reduce the cost of building a cellular network
since fewer frequency bands are required.
Scalability: Frequency reuse enables the network to be easily scaled by adding more
cells as needed.
• Increased Network Capacity: Frequency reuse allows more cells to be served with
the same amount of spectrum, resulting in increased network capacity.
• Scalability: Frequency reuse enables the network to be easily scaled by adding more
cells as needed.
Method of locating co-channel cells in a cellular system
This is illustrated in Figure for i = 3 and j = 2 (example, N = 19).
A total of 24MHz bandwidth is allocated to a particular cellular telephone system,
that uses 30kHz duplex channels. Find out the capacity of the system, if a
frequency reuse factor of 5 is used to cover a geography of 300 sq.km.
No. of channels in the system (S) = Total bandwidth / Channel bandwidth
= 24×106 / 30×103 = 800
Given Frequency reuse factor (N) = 5

No. of channels in a single cell (k) = Total no. of channels in the system/ Frequency
reuse factor
=800 / 5 = 160
No. of clusters reqd. to cover the geography (M) = 300/5 = 60
Write the expression for system capacity (C) in terms of total number of channels (S).
C = S × M = N ×k × M
C = 800 × 60 = 48000
If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular FDD cellular
telephone system which uses two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full duplex
voice and control channels, compute the number of channels available per cell if a
system uses (a) four-cell reuse, (b) seven-cell reuse, and (c) 12-cell reuse.
Solution
Given:
Total bandwidth = 33 MHz
Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz × 2 simplex channels = 50 kHz/duplex channel
Total available channels = 33,000/50 = 660 channels
(a) For N = 4,
total number of channels available per cell = 660/4 ≈ 165 channels.
(b) For N = 7,
total number of channels available per cell = 660/7 ≈ 95 channels.
(c) For N = 12,
total number of channels available per cell = 660/12 ≈ 55 channels.
Handoff in Mobile Connections

➢In cellular communications, the handoff is the process of transferring an active

call or data session from one cell in a cellular network or from one channel to
another.

➢In satellite communications, it is the process of transferring control from one

earth station to another.

➢ Handoff is necessary for preventing loss of interruption of service to a caller

or a data session user. Handoff is also called handover.
Handoff in Mobile Connections
Handoff Scenario
Types of Handoffs
• Hard Handoff − In a hard handoff, an actual break in the connection
occurs while switching from one cell to another. The radio links from the
mobile station to the existing cell is broken before establishing a link with
the next cell. It is generally an inter-frequency handoff. It is a “break
before make” policy.
Hard Handoff
Soft Handoff − In soft handoff, at least one of the links is kept when radio links
are added and removed to the mobile station. This ensures that during the
handoff, no break occurs. This is generally adopted in co-located sites. It is a
“make before break” policy.
Soft Handoff
Consider a single high-power transmitter that can support 40 voice channels
over an area of 140 km² with the available spectrum. If this area is equally
divided into seven smaller areas (cells), each supported by lower power
transmitters so that each cell supports 30% of the channels, then determine
(a) coverage area of each cell
(b) total number of voice channels available in cellular system
Comment on the results obtained.
Total service area to be covered = 140 km (given)
Total number of channels available = 40 (given)
Number of cells = 7 (given)
(a) To determine coverage area of each cell
Step 1. Coverage area of a cell = Total service area / Number of cells
Hence, coverage area of a cell = 140 km / 7 = 20 km
(b) To determine total number of voice channels available in the cellular
system
Step 2. Number of voice channels per cell = 30% of original channels (given)
Number of voice channels per cell = 0.3 × 40 = 12 channels/cell
Total number of voice channels available in cellular system is given by the
number of channels per cell
multiplied by the number of cells in the service area.
Hence, total number of voice channels = 12 × 7 = 84 channels
Comment on the results
• Thus, there is a significant increase in the number of available channels
(84 channels as calculated above)
to cellular system as compared to a non-cellular system (40 channels as
given).
• This means the system capacity is increased.
• However, care has to be taken in allocation of channels to various cells
in such a way so as to prevent interference between the channels of one
cell and that of another cell.
• Adjacent cells should not be allocated the same channels, whereas cells
located far apart can be allocated the same channels using frequency reuse
scheme.
A mobile communication system is allocated RF spectrum of 25 MHz and
uses RF channel bandwidth of 25 kHz so that a
total number of 1000 voice channels can be supported in the system.
(a) If the service area is divided into 20 cells with a frequency reuse factor of
4, compute the system capacity.
(b) The cell size is reduced to the extent that the service area is now covered
with 100 cells. Compute the system capacity while keeping the frequency
reuse factor as 4.
(c) Consider the cell size is further reduced so that the same service area is
now covered with 700 cells with the frequency reuse factor of 7. Compute the
system capacity.
Comment on the results obtained.
Solution
Number of available voice channels, N = 1000 (given)
Step 1. To determine the cluster capacity
We know that in a cellular system based on frequency-reuse concept, all the given
available channels, that is, 1000, are allocated to each cluster uniformly.
Therefore, each cluster can serve 1000 active users simultaneously.
In other words, the capacity of a cluster = 1000
(a) To compute the system capacity for given K
Number of cells covering the area = 20 (given)
Frequency reuse factor or cluster size = 4 (given)
Step 2. To determine number of clusters
Number of clusters = number of cells/cluster size
Therefore, number of clusters = 20/4 = 5
Step 3. To determine the system capacity
The capacity of a cluster = 1000 (as calculated is Step 1)
Number of clusters = 5 (as calculated is Step 2)
Thus, number of channels in all 5 clusters = 1000 × 5 = 5000
Hence, the system capacity = 5000 users
(b) To compute new system capacity for increased number of cells.
Number of cells covering the area = 100 (given)
Frequency reuse factor or cluster size = 4 (given)
Step 4. To determine number of clusters
Therefore, number of clusters = 100/4 = 25
Step 5. To determine new system capacity
Thus, number of channels in all 25 clusters = 1000 × 25 = 25000
Hence, the new system capacity = 25000 users
(c) To compute new system capacity for increased number of cells and cluster size.
Number of cells covering the area = 700 (given)
Frequency reuse factor or cluster size = 7 (given)
Step 6. To determine number of clusters
Therefore, number of clusters = 700/7 = 100
Step 7. To determine new system capacity
Thus, number of channels in 100 clusters = 1000 × 100 = 100,000
Hence, the new system capacity = 100 000 users
Comments on the results
It is observed that as the number of cells covering a given service area is
increased, the number of clusters having all available number of channels
increases. This results into significant increase in the number of active users
in the system or the system capacity. Hence, it is concluded that frequency
reuse enhances system capacity.
Calculate the number of times the cluster of size 4 have to be replicated
in order to approximately cover the entire service area of 1765 km2 with
the adequate number of uniform-sized cells of 7 km2 each.
• Solution
Size of the cluster, K = 4 (given)
Area of a cell, Acell = 7 km2 (given)
Step 1. To determine area of the cluster
Area of a cluster, Acluster = K × Acell
Therefore, Acluster = 4 × 7 km2 = 28 km2
Step 2. To determine number of clusters in the service area
Total service area, Asystem = 1765 km2 ( given)
Number of clusters in service area = Asystem / Acluster
Number of clusters in service area = 1765 km2 / 28 km2
Number of clusters in service area = 63
Hence, the number of times the cluster of size 4 has to be replicated is 63.
Consider that a geographical service area of a cellular system is 4200 km2. A total
of 1001 radio channels are available for handling traffic. Suppose the area of a
cell is 12 km2.

(a) How many times would the cluster of size 7 have to be replicated in order to
cover the entire service area? Calculate the number of channels per cell and
the system capacity.

(b) If the cluster size is decreased from 7 to 4, then does it result into increase in
system capacity? Comment on the results
obtained.
Service area of a cellular system, Asys = 4200 km2 (given)
Coverage area of a cell, Acell = 12 km2 (given)
Total number of available channels, N = 1001 (given)
(a) To calculate number of clusters, cell capacity, and system capacity
Cluster size, K = 7 (given)
Step 1. To calculate the coverage area of a cluster
The coverage area of a cluster, Acluster = K × Acell
Therefore, Acluster = 7 × 12 km2 = 84 km2
Step 2. To calculate the number of clusters
The number of times that the cluster has to be replicated tocover the entire service area of
cellular system = Asys Acluster Or, number of clusters, M = 4200 84
Hence, number of clusters, M = 50 clusters
Step 3. To calculate cell capacity
Since total number of available channels are allocated to one cluster, therefore,
the number of channels per cell, J = N K
Or, cell capacity, J = 1001 7
Hence, cell capacity, J = 143 channels/cell
Step 4. To calculate system capacity
The system capacity, C = N × M
Or, system capacity, C = 1001 × 50
Hence, the system capacity, C = 50 050 channels
• (b) To calculate new system capacity for reduced K
• New cluster size, K = 4 (given)
• Step 5. To calculate the coverage area of a new cluster
• The coverage area of a cluster, Acluster = K × Acell
• Therefore, Acluster = 4 × 12 km2 = 48 km2
• Step 6. To calculate increased number of clusters
• The number of times that the cluster has to be replicated to
• cover the entire service area of a cellular system = Asys Acluster
• 110 Wireless Communications
• Or, number of clusters, M = 4200 48
• Hence, number of clusters, M = 87 (approx.)
• Step 7. To calculate new system capacity
• The system capacity, C = N × M
• Or, system capacity, C = 1001 × 87
• Hence, the system capacity, C = 87 000 channels
Comments on the results
From (a) and (b) above, it is seen that for decrease in cluster size from 7 to 4
results into an increase in number of clusters from 50 to 87 for a given service
area.
The system capacity is increased from 50,050 channels to 87,000 channels.
Therefore, decreasing the cluster size does increase the system
capacity.
However, the average signal-to-cochannel interference also increases which
has to be kept at an acceptable level in order to achieve desirable signal
quality.
Practical Handoff Considerations

The umbrella cell approach

Practical Handoff Considerations
High speed vehicles pass through the coverage region of a cell within a matter of
seconds, whereas pedestrian users may never need a handoff during a call.
Particularly with the addition of microcells to provide capacity, the MSC can
quickly become burdened if high speed users are constantly being passed between
very small cells.
Several schemes have been devised to handle the simultaneous traffic of high speed
and low speed users while minimizing the handoff intervention from the MSC.
 Practical Handoff Considerations
• By using different antenna heights (often on the same building or tower) and different power
levels, it is possible to provide “large” and “small” cells which are co-located at a single
location.
• This technique is called the umbrella cell approach and is used to provide large area coverage
to high-speed users while providing small area coverage to users traveling at low speeds.

• Figure with Umbrella illustrates an umbrella cell which is collocated with some smaller
microcells. The umbrella cell approach ensures that the number of handoffs is minimized for
high-speed users and provides additional microcell channels for pedestrian users.

• If a high-speed user in the large umbrella cell is approaching the base station, and its velocity
is rapidly decreasing, the base station may decide to hand the user into the co-located
microcell, without MSC intervention.
cell dragging
• Another practical handoff problem in microcell systems is known as cell dragging. Cell
dragging results from pedestrian users that provide a very strong signal to the base station.
Such a situation occurs in an urban environment when there is a line-of-sight (LOS) radio
path between the subscriber and the base station.
• As the user travels away from the base station at a very slow speed, the average signal
strength does not decay rapidly. Even when the user has traveled well beyond the designed
range of the cell, the received signal at the base station may be above the handoff threshold,
thus a handoff may not be made.
• This creates a potential interference and traffic management problem, since the user has
meanwhile traveled deep within a neighboring cell. To solve the cell dragging problem,
handoff thresholds and radio coverage parameters must be adjusted carefully.
Co-channel Interference and System Capacity
• Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area there are several cells
that use the same set of frequencies.

• These cells are called co-channel cells, and the interference between signals
from these cells is called co-channel interference.

• This is because an increase in carrier transmit power increases the interference

to neighboring co-channel cells. To reduce co-channel interference, co-channel
cells must be physically separated by a minimum distance to provide sufficient
isolation due to propagation.
Co-channel Interference and System Capacity contd…
• When the size of each cell is approximately the same and the base stations transmit
the same power, the co-channel interference ratio is independent of the transmitted
power and becomes a function of the radius of the cell (R) and the distance between
centers of the nearest co-channel cells (D).

• By increasing the ratio of D/R, the spatial separation between co-channel cells
relative to the coverage distance of a cell is increased. Thus, interference is reduced
from improved isolation of RF energy from the co-channel cell.

• The parameter Q, called the co-channel reuse ratio, is related to the cluster size.

• For a hexagonal geometry

Co-channel Reuse Ratio for Some Values of N
Co-channel Interference and System Capacity contd…
• A small value of Q provides larger capacity since the cluster size N is small,
whereas a large value of Q improves the transmission quality, due to a smaller
level of co-channel interference.

• Let i0 be the number of co-channel interfering cells. Then, the signal-to-

interference ratio (S/I or SIR) for a mobile receiver which monitors a forward
channel can be expressed as
Co-channel Interference and System Capacity contd…
where S is the desired signal power from the desired base station and

• Ii is the interference power caused by the ith interfering co-channel cell base
station.

• If the signal levels of co-channel cells are known, then the S/I ratio for the
forward link can be found using Equation
Co-channel Interference and System Capacity contd…
• Propagation measurements in a mobile radio channel show that the average
received signal strength at any point decays as a power law of the distance of
separation between a transmitter and receiver. The average received power
Pr at a distance d from the transmitting antenna is approximated by
Co-channel Interference and System Capacity contd…

where P0 is the power received at a close-in reference point in the far field
region of the antenna at a small distance d0 from the transmitting antenna and
n is the path loss exponent
Co-channel Interference and System Capacity contd…
• consider the forward link where the desired signal is the serving base station
and where the interference is due to co-channel base stations.

• If Di is the distance of the ith interferer from the mobile, the received power at
a given mobile due to the ith interfering cell will be proportional to (Di)–n.

• The path loss exponent typically ranges between two and four in urban cellular
systems.
Co-channel Interference and System Capacity contd…
• When the transmit power of each base station is equal and the path loss exponent is the same
throughout the coverage area, S/I for a mobile can be approximated as

• Considering only the first layer of interfering cells, if all the interfering base stations are
equidistant from the desired base station and if this distance is equal to the distance D between
cell centers, then above equation simplifies to

• Equation relates S/I to the cluster size N, which in turn determines the overall capacity of the
system from the above equation.
Co-channel Interference and System Capacity contd…
• For the U.S. AMPS cellular system which uses FM and 30 kHz channels, subjective tests
indicate that sufficient voice quality is provided when S/I is greater than or equal to 18 dB.

• Using above equation, it can be shown Thus, meet this requirement, the cluster size N
should be at least 6.49, assuming a path loss exponent n = 4.
Thus, a minimum cluster size of seven is required to meet an S/I requirement of 18 dB.
Illustration of the first tier of co-channel cells for a cluster size of N = 7. An approximation of the
exact geometry is shown here, When the mobile is at the cell boundary (point X ), it experiences
worst case co-channel interference on the forward channel. The marked distances between the
mobile and different co-channel cells are based on approximations made for easy analysis.
Co-channel Interference and System Capacity contd…
• Using an exact cell geometry layout, it can be shown for a seven-cell cluster,
with the mobile unit at the cell boundary, the mobile is a distance D – R from
the two nearest co-channel interfering cells and is exactly D + R/2, D, D – R/2,
and D + R from the other interfering cells in the first tier, assuming n = 4, the
signal-to-interference ratio for the worst case can be closely approximated as

• Equation given above can be rewritten in terms of the co-channel reuse ratio Q,
as
• For N = 7, the co-channel reuse ratio Q is 4.6, and the worst-case S/I is
approximated as 49.56 (17 dB).
• Hence for a seven-cell cluster, the S/I ratio is slightly less than 18 dB for the
worst case. To design the cellular system for proper performance in the worst
case, it would be necessary to increase N to the next largest size is found to be 12
(corresponding to i = j = 2).
• significant decrease in capacity, since 12-cell reuse offers a spectrum utilization
of 1/12 within each cell, whereas seven-cell reuse offers a spectrum utilization of
1/7.
• In practice, a capacity reduction of 7/12 would not be tolerable to accommodate
for the worst-case situation which rarely occurs.
• From the above discussion, it is clear that co-channel interference determines
link performance, which in turn dictates the frequency reuse plan and the overall
capacity of cellular systems.
If a signal-to-interference ratio of 15 dB is required for satisfactory forward channel
performance of a cellular system, what is the frequency reuse factor and cluster size that should
be used for maximum capacity if the path loss exponent is (a) n = 4, (b) n = 3? Assume that
there are six cochannel cells in the first tier, and all of them are at the same distance from the
mobile. Use suitable approximations.
Solution
(a) n = 4
First, let us consider a seven-cell reuse pattern.
co-channel reuse ratio D/R = 4.583.
signal-to-noise interference ratio is given by S/I = (1/6) × (4.583)4 = 75.3 = 18.66 dB
Since this is greater than the minimum required S/I, N = 7 can be used.
(b) n = 3
First, let us consider a seven-cell reuse pattern.
the signal-to-interference ratio is given by S/I = (1/6) × (4.583)3 = 16.04 = 12.05 dB
Since this is less than the minimum required S/I, we need to use a larger N.
the next possible value of N is 12, (i = j = 2).
The corresponding co-channel ratio is given by D/R = 6.0
Using Equation (3.3), the signal-to-interference ratio is given by S/I = (1/6) × (6)3 = 36 = 15.56 dB
Since this is greater than the minimum required S/I, N = 12 is used.