Lesson 1.

1: Inertial Reference Frames and

Postulates of Relativity

Lesson Summary
The theory of relativity is a concept that deals with a special type of
reference frame, which is known as the inertial reference frame. The idea of
the inertial reference frame was incorporated by Newton's first law of motion,
which is inertia. That is when the magnitude of the force acting on the body is
zero, and the body could either be at rest or moving in constant velocity.
It only means that the acceleration of that body is zero when the inertial
reference frame is used to measure it. The acceleration of rotating bodies, like
the earth-based reference frame which involves centripetal acceleration as the
Earth spins on its axis and revolves around the Sun, are not inertial reference
frames.
But since the effects of these accelerations are minute and can be
neglected. It brings earth-based reference frames as an inertial reference
frame. So as the plane-based reference frame because the plane moves
relative to the Earth.
In this lesson, we will discuss why is inertial reference frames are
essential in the concept of relativity.

Learning Outcomes
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following;
a. Understand the concept of an inertial reference frame.
b. Discuss the two postulates of special relativity.

Motivation Question
If you are at point A and your friend is in point B, what number will you see? If
your friend says it is number nine (9) and from your point of reference you said
that it is number six (6), is he considered wrong?
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Discussion

Reference Frames

The concept of relativity is not entirely a new idea; it goes back to

Galileo's time. Aristotle once said that a body continues to move only if the
force is applied continually; remove the force and the body will come to rest.
This idea of Aristotle prevailed for many years. It gives the notion to Galileo that
a body maintains a constant velocity in the absence of an external force that
will act on it. This idea is the basis of Newton’s law of inertia.
Motion is measured in a certain reference frame, which is usually
represented as sets of coordinates. For instance, two people are walking in a
moving sidewalk in a mall. Their speed while walking is 1.3 m/s with respect
to the moving sidewalk and 2.3 m/s with respect to the moving sidewalk
attached to the building. These two cases, with respect to reference frames,
are equally valid. When we talk about the inertial reference frame, we mean
something with no accelerations are observed and external forces are absent.
On the other hand, noninertial reference frames involve bodies that are
accelerating in the absence of an external force. It is because the reference
frame is accelerating with respect to the inertial reference frame.

Einstein’s First Postulate

The relativity postulate states that;

“The laws of physics are the same in every inertial frame of reference.”

Here are two instances of this postulate. Assume you watch two kids
playing get with a ball while you three are on board on a train that is moving
with constant speed. Your perceptions of the movement of the ball, regardless
of how careful you do your observation, you can't determine how fast it was (or
whether) the train is moving. It is because the laws of motion of Newton are
similar in all inertial frames.
Another model is the electromotive force (emf) induced in a loop of
wire by a close-by moving permanent magnet. The reference frame wherein the
coil is fixed, the moving magnet causes a difference in magnetic flux through
the loop, which prompts an electromotive force.
In another frame of reference wherein, the magnet is fixed, the
movement of the coil through a magnetic field induces the electromotive force.
As per the theory of relativity, both of these reference frames are similarly valid.
Henceforth a similar electromotive force must be induced in both
circumstances. Faraday's law is predictable with the concept of relativity.
Without a doubt, the entirety of the laws of electromagnetism is the equivalent
in each inertial frame of reference.
Similarly, significant is the forecast of the speed of electromagnetic
radiation, which comes from Maxwell's equations. As indicated by this
examination, light and all other electromagnetic waves travel in a vacuum at a
constant speed. As we will see, the speed of light in a vacuum assumes a focal
part of relativity theory.
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Einstein’s Second Postulate

In the 19th century, most physicists had that notion that light is traveling
through a theoretical medium called the ether, similarly as sound waves travel
through the air. Assuming this is the case, the speed of light estimated by the
observer would rely upon their movement comparative with the ether and
would accordingly be diverse in various ways. The Michelson-Morley
experiment was a push to identify the movement of the Earth relative with the
ether.
Einstein's idea was to perceive that on the off chance that Maxwell's
conditions are fixed in all inertial frames, at that point, the speed of light in a
vacuum ought likewise to be the equivalent in all frames of references and
directions. Indeed, Michelson and Morley distinguished no ether movement
over the Earth, and the ether idea has been disposed of. Even though Einstein
might not have thought about this negative outcome, it upheld his strong
speculation of the consistency of the speed of light in a vacuum.

Einstein’s speed of light postulate states that;

“The speed of light in a vacuum is the same in all inertial frames of reference
and is independent of the motion of the source.”

Let’s conceptualize this postulate. Think that two observers measure

the speed of light in a vacuum. The first observer is at rest and is near the light
source, and the second observer is moving away from the light source. Both
are in inertial reference frames. According to the theory of relativity, both must
have the same result, although one is at rest and the other is moving.
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Learning Tasks/Activities
How would you explain the idea of a reference frame and relativity to a
friend who is not in this course? Create an outline of how you will describe it
to your friend.

Assessment
Answer the following problems.

1. Every day you always observe that the Sun rises on the east, travels
across the sky and sets on the west.
a.) Explain this observation based on your reference frame.
b.) Compare these observations to the actual motion of the Sun
and Earth.

2. A person who is walking forward inside a train says that he is moving

1.5 m/s. At the same time, an observer on the platform says that the
man on the train moves at a speed of 10 m/s.
a.) Which person has a correct argument?
b.) How could you get the two men to agree?
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Lesson 1.2: Relativity of Time: Time

Dilation

Lesson Summary
A phenomenon wherein the observer determines that the clock is
moving slowly with respect to the motion of the clock is called time dilation. In
the theory of relativity, an observer that is currently in an inertial reference
frame can determine which events happen simultaneously. On the other hand,
a second observer, whose motion is relative with regards to the first observer,
will disagree with the observation of the first observer regarding the events that
happened simultaneously. Neither of the observers’ observations is wrong.
Their observations are equally valid because of Einstein’s first postulate of
relativity and the concept of simultaneity.

The notion of simultaneity is needed to compare the rates of the clocks

that are carried by two observers. Both observers will see that their clocks are
moving slower compared to the other. Therefore, each inertial observer would
determine that all clocks that are in motion, which is relative to the first
observer, would run slower than that of the second observer’s clock and vice
versa. A related phenomenon called the twin paradox is predicted by special
relativity. Let’s suppose that there are twins, both carrying a clock. One of them
travels on space and the other stayed on Earth and later on, they rejoin.
Regarding the time dilation effect, the time elapsed on the clock by the one who
stayed on the rocket ship is smaller than that of the inertial observer twin on
Earth. It is said that the non-inertial twin will be younger compared to that of
the inertial twin when they rejoin.

In this lesson, we will learn more about how time dilates and what
causes time dilation.

Learning Outcomes
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
1. Describe the idea of time dilation.
2. Explain why the twin paradox is a false paradox.
3. Solve word problems related to time dilation.

Motivation Question
With the advancement of science and technology in the present years, will there
be a chance that man could travel back into time?
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Discussion

What Is Time Dilation?

A well-functioning and accurate clock of the first observer may be

measured with a different rate than the clock of the second observer, which is
equally accurate. This phenomenal effect is not due to the clock’s technical
properties but the space-time itself. The clocks that are brought to the
International Space Station run slower than the clocks that are on Earth. It
explains why astronauts aged slowly and are behind by about 0.007 seconds
every six months; this is called time dilation. The laws of nature, such as time
is bend due to differences in gravity and velocity. This phenomenon has
significant implications for space travel.

What Causes Time Dilation?

The idea of time dilation is affected by the disparities in gravity and

relative velocity. Both of these two factors are in play in the case of the
astronauts staying in space. When there are two observers and they are in
relative uniform motion and not affected by any gravitational mass, the
perception of both observers in each other’s clock is ticking slower compare to
the rate of his clock. Moreover, the faster the relative velocity; the magnitude
of the time dilation increases. This case is termed as the special relativistic
time dilation.

The Twins Paradox

The paradox talks about twins that have been departed from each
other. The other twin traveled in space through a very fast interstellar
spacecraft. In his return, he found out that his twin brother was already dead
years ago. The outcome appears to be confusing because each twin sees there
another twin as traveling; thus, each should have perceived that the other twin
is aging slowly compared to the other. The paradox can be realized and
resolved through the concept of special relativity. The siblings were not equal
because the twin traveling in space experienced an additional acceleration
when it switched direction and decided to go back to Earth.

Figure 1. The Twin Paradox

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Consider an interstellar shuttle going from Earth to Proxima Centauri,

the closest star outside our solar system and four light-years away. At a speed
of 80% of the speed of light, the twins will watch the circumstance as portrayed
in the accompanying sections. To make the math less confusing, the shuttle is
expected to have arrived at its max speed in a split second upon take off from
Earth.
The twin on the interstellar rocket would see low-frequency images for
about three years. During part of the travel, he would see his partner on Earth
in the images become older by 3/3 = 1 year. On the return travel to Earth, he
sees high-frequency pictures for an additional three years. During that time, he
would see his twin on Earth in the images become older by 3 × 3 = 9 years. At
the point when the interstellar trip is finished, the image of the twin on Earth
will appear to have matured by 1 + 9 = 10 years. While his twin brother, for a
long time, observes moderate (low frequency) images of his twin, during which
time the rocket twin ages in the pictures by 9/3 = 3 years. The twin on Earth at
that point sees quick (high frequency) images for the staying one year until the
rocket returns. In the high-frequency images, the twin on the space shuttle ages
by 1 × 3 = 3 years. The absolute maturing of the twin in the images got by Earth
is 3 + 3 = 6 years, so the twin in space returns somewhat younger than the
other.

Time Dilation and Communications with Earth

Based on the theory, time dilation will likewise influence planned

gatherings and meetings between the team on an interstellar mission and the
mission supervisors back on Earth. For instance, the team would need to set
their clocks to tally the exact number of years has gone for them, while mission
control back on Earth would need to tally quite a while more to take into
consideration time dilation. At the current scenario, be that as it may, time
dilation is too minor ever to be a factor in interchanges between the ISS and
Earth.

Implications for Interstellar Travel

Time dilation will have immense implications for the team staying in the
space shuttle and mission supervisors back on Earth. We should consider, for
instance, the age of the mission supervisors for the group getting back to Earth
(or for supposed extraterrestrials getting back to their home planets) and
whether an interstellar mission would be sociologically acknowledged.
Consider, for instance, a rocket going at 99% of the speed of light to the focal
point of the Milky Way. In the case of everything goes right, the group would
have matured around 21 years. Be that as it may, back on Earth, more than
50,000 years would have gone (as seen from Earth). Clearly, each one of those
engaged with the underlying arranging of the mission, just as ages from that
point, would have died long ago.
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Calculating Time Dilation

The occurrence wherein time is passing slower for an observer moving

relative to another observer is called time dilation.

Figure 2. In (a) the time interval ∆𝑡𝑜 between the consecutive “ticks” of the astronaut’s clock.
In (b) the Earth-based observer watches the astronaut’s clock and observes sees pulse travel
a greater distance between “ticks” than that of part a. The earth-based observer measures a
time interval ∆𝑡 between “ticks” that is greater than ∆𝑡𝑜 .
http://www.paradoxbrown.com/relativitytimedialation.jpg

Suppose that there are two identical and accurate clocks were built.
The first clock was placed on Earth and the second one was placed aboard the
spacecraft that is traveling a constant velocity relative to the Earth. The
astronaut is at rest with respect to the clock on the spacecraft; thus, the light
pulse moves along an up and down pattern, as shown in Figure 2(a).
As per the astronaut, the time interval ∆𝑡𝑜 needed for the light to follow
this path is the distance 2D that is divided by the speed of light 𝑐 ; ∆𝑡𝑜 =
2𝐷/𝑐.To the astronaut, the time intervals ∆𝑡𝑜 of the “ticks” of the clock in the
spacecraft is the time interval between the beginning and ending events of the
clock. While the earth-based observer does not measure ∆𝑡𝑜 as the time
interval between two events. Since the spacecraft is moving, the observer sees
a light pulse following a diagonal path.
This kind of path is longer compared to the path that is observed by the
astronaut. But we know that light travels at the same speed 𝑐 according to the
speed-of-light postulate. Therefore, the time interval measured by the earth-
based observer is greater compared to that of the astronaut. In other words,
the earth-based observer, as she uses her clock to measure the movement of
the astronaut’s clock, finds that the astronaut’s clock moves slower compared
to hers.
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The time interval that the observer on Earth measures can be

determined through the following. When the light pulse travel from the source
of light to the detector, the space shuttle is moving a distance 2𝐿 = 𝑣∆𝑡 to the
right. The v stands for the speed of the space shuttle relative to the Earth. In
Figure 2, it is shown that the light pulse travel with a total diagonal distance of
2s during the time interval ∆𝑡. Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we find that;

𝑣∆𝑡 2
√ 2 2 √ 2
2𝑠 = 2 𝐷 + 𝐿 = 2 𝐷 + ( )
2

The distance 2s is also equal to the speed of light multiplied by the time
interval 2𝑠 = 𝑐∆𝑡. Thus,

𝑣∆𝑡 2
√ 2
𝑐∆𝑡 = 2 𝐷 + ( )
2

After squaring the result and solving for ∆𝑡, it gives

2𝐷 1
∆𝑡 =
𝑐 2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐

But, 2𝐷/𝑐 = ∆𝑡0 , wherein 𝑡𝑜 is the time interval during the successive
“ticks” of the clock in the spacecraft as measured by the astronaut. With this
substitution for ∆𝑡, we have;

∆𝒕𝟎
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∆𝒕 =
𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐
𝒄

𝟏
= 𝜸
𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐
𝒄

𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, ∆𝒕 = 𝜸∆𝒕𝟎
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The meaning of the symbols in this formula are as follows;

• ∆𝒕𝟎 = Proper time interval, wherein the interval is measured by an

observer who is at rest and views the events simultaneously.
• ∆𝒕 = The dilated time interval measured by an observer in motion
relative to the two events. The observer here is viewing the events in
different places.
• 𝒗 = The relative speed occurring between two objects.
• 𝒄 = The speed of light in a vacuum.

Sample Problem

A space shuttle is moving past the planet Earth with a constant speed 𝑣 that is
0.92 times the speed of light. The astronaut’s measurement with regards to the
time interval between successive “ticks” of the clock in the space shuttle
is ∆𝑡0 = 1.0𝑠. What is the time interval ∆𝑡 that the earth-based observer
measures between “ticks” of the clock of the astronaut inside the space
shuttle?

Solution
∆𝑡0 1.0𝑠
∆𝑡 = = = 𝟐. 𝟔 𝒔
2 2
√1 − 𝑣2 √1 − (0.92𝑐 )
𝑐 𝑐

Learning Tasks/Activities
On a highway, there is a flashing light to mark the start of a section of
the road where work is being done. Who measures the proper time between
two flashes of light? (a) A worker who is standing still on the road. (b) A driver
in a car that is approaching at a constant velocity. (c) Both the worker and the
driver. (d) Neither the worker nor the driver. Explain and prove your answer.
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Assessment
Answer the following problems.
1. The average lifetime of a muon at rest is 2.2 𝑥 10−6 𝑠. A muon created
in the upper layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, which is thousands of
meters above sea level, travels at a speed of 𝑣 = 0.998 𝑐. Find how long
a muon lives according to an observer on Earth before it disintegrates.
(5 points)

2. A nearby star in the galaxy known as Alpha Centauri is approximately

4.3 light-years away. It means that, as measured by an earth-based
observer, it would take 4.3 light-years to reach the star. If a rocket
leaves for Alpha Centauri and travels at a speed of 𝑣 = 0.95𝑐 relative
to the Earth, by how much will the passengers have aged. According to
their clock, when they reach their destination? Assume that the Earth
and Alpha Centauri are stationary with respect to each other.
(5 points)
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Lesson 1.3: Relativity of Length: Length

Contraction

Lesson Summary
Have you ever tried driving on a street that seems like it goes on until
the end of time and has no end? If you look forward, you may perceive that you
have around 10 km left to go. Another driver may visualize that the road ahead
appears as though it's around 15 km long. If you both measure the length of
the road, in any case, you would agree. Going at constant speeds while
traveling, the separation you both trying to measure would be equal. You will
learn in this lesson; however, this isn't correct at relativistic speeds. Close to
the speed of light, the separation distance measured is not similar when
measured by various observers. This concept is called length contraction.
Length contraction refers to a scenario wherein an object is seen as
shorter and the element of its motion by an observer when the object is moving
with respect to the observer. It is additionally called Lorentz contraction or
Lorentz–Fitzgerald contraction, after physicists Hendrik Lorentz and George
Fitzgerald. As an object moves faster relative to the observer, the more it will
contract from the observer's viewpoint. This impact is so little as to be
irrelevant at speeds people are probably going to experience in everyday life.
However, in objects moving at an obvious part of the speed of light, it turns out
to be more recognizable.
In this lesson, we will be learning how the measurement of length
through different observers changes as the motion of the object increases.

Learning Outcomes
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following:
1. Describe the idea of length contraction.
2. Explain why the length of an object in motion varies at various
observers.
3. Solve word problems related to length contraction.

Motivation Question
What happens to the length of a car as it moves at a high speed?
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Discussion
Let’s assume that an object was launched from a spaceship moving at
5 kilometers per second relative to the Earth, pushing it away from the
spaceship at 1 kilometer per second. An observer in the spaceship will see it
as moving away at 1 kilometer per second, while an observer on Earth will see
it moving at 6 kilometers per second. If an external light on the spaceship is
turned on, the observer in the ship will recognize the light moving away from at
a speed of light c. In contrast, the observer on Earth will likewise see the light
moving at a speed of light c, not c, in addition to the ship’s velocity.
The outcome in that particular moment wherein the spaceship's light
reaches a given location will have different perceptions. It is dependent on their
velocity with respect to the spaceship. Obviously, they will disagree as to
whether the other events occurred at that same moment. It is what is known
as the relativity of simultaneity.
The relationship of simultaneity and how objects’ detected length is
measured is explained through the following thought experiment. Let’s assume
that there is a row of a coordinated clock; each clock is able to measure when
the left and right end of a moving object is passing through it. After the object
passes through the row of clocks, an observer can identify the length through
calculating the distance of the two clocks. It would start from when the object
passes through the first clock and reaches the second clock.
If two observers share the equal reference frame, they will agree on the
length of the object that passes through the row of clocks because the
measurement is based on which of the events occurred simultaneously. But,
observers that are in motion relative to the other observer who is at rest will not
agree on the length of the object. The faster an observer's motion relative to
the clocks, the measurements will differ with those at rest. This phenomenon
is what we called as length contraction.
Its effect grows at higher speeds; the closer the object's motion to
speed of light c, the length contraction grows, though the length never reaches
zero.

Proper Length

The only thing that observers agree with is relative speed. Although the
clocks could measure different elapsed times for a similar process, they will
agree that the relative speed is equal throughout. It only shows that the
distance, too, is dependent on the observer’s relative motion. Suppose that two
observers observed the same events with respect to different points of
reference, then they would also see different distances that have relative speed
similar to each other.

For an observer on Earth, the muon, an elementary particle, travels at

0.950 c for 7.05 × 10−6 s from the time it was released and until the time it
decays. Therefore, the distance traveled is;

L0 = vΔt = (0.950)(3.00 × 108 m/s)km (7.05 × 10 −6 s) = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟏𝐬

with respect to the Earth. The muon’s lifetime, based on its reference frame, is
only 2.20× 10−6 s. This is enough time for it to travel
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L0 = vΔt0 = (0.950) (3.00 × 108 m/s) (2.20 × 10−6 s) = 0.627 km.

The distance between the production and decay of a muon is dependent on the
observer’s measurement and how they move relative to it.

“Proper length L0 is the distance between two points measured by an observer

who is at rest relative to both points.”

Figure 3. In (a) the observer on Earth sees the muon travels at 2.01 km between clouds.
In (b) the muon sees itself travel the same path, but only a distance of 0.627 km. The Earth, air,
and clouds are moving relative to the muon in its frame, and all appear to have smaller lengths
along the direction of travel.
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Length Contraction

For us to develop an equation with regards to the distances that were

measured by the observers, we should take note that the velocity, relative to
the observer on Earth in our muon example, is shown by;

𝐿0
𝑣=
∆𝑡

The time interval relative to the observer on Earth is Δt since the muon
being timed moves with respect to this observer. While the velocity with
respect to the observer that is in motion is;

𝐿0
𝑣=
∆𝑡0

Since the moving observer is moving with the muon and, thus, observes
the proper time Δt0. It only means that two velocities are identical; therefore,

𝐿0 𝐿0
=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡0
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We know that 𝛥t = γ𝛥t o, if we substitute this equation into this relationship

would give us,

𝐿0
𝐿=
𝛾

“Length contraction L pertains to the shortening of the measured length of an

object that is moving with respect to the observer’s reference frame.”

𝒗𝟐
𝑳 = 𝑳𝟎 √𝟏 −
𝒄𝟐

Sample Problem

Solve for the contracted length of an object with an initial length of 15m and
traveled with a velocity 35 m/s.

Solution

2
𝑚
35
𝐿 = 15𝑚 √1 − ( 𝑠 )
3𝑥10 8𝑚
𝑠

1225 2
15𝑚 √1 − ( ) = 15√1 − (1.36 𝑥10−14 )
9𝑥10 16

Learning Tasks/Activities
Put two identical rulers (length, size
and color) in front of you. Let someone
move ruler no. 1 from left to right. Observe
the length to ruler no. 1’s length as it moves
faster from left to right. What happens to
ruler no. 1’s length? Why is this so? Explain
your answer.
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Assessment
Answer the following problems.
1. An astronaut, using a meter stick that is at rest relative to the cylindrical
spacecraft, measures the length and diameter of the spacecraft to be
82 m and 21 m, respectively. The spacecraft moves with a speed of 𝑣 =
0.95𝑐 with respect to the Earth. What are the dimensions of the
spacecraft, as measured by an observer on Earth? (5 points)

2. Suppose the straight-line distance between New York and San

Francisco is 4.1 𝑥 106 𝑚 (neglecting the curvature of Earth). A UFO is
flying between these two cities at a speed of 𝑣 = 0.75𝑐 relative to the
Earth. What do the voyagers aboard the UFO measure for this distance?
(5 points)
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Module 2: Particles and Waves

Module Overview
During the 1600s, Christian Huygens and Isaac Newton proposed contending theories
about light's behavior. Huygens proposed a wave hypothesis of light, while Newton's was a
"corpuscular" (particle) hypothesis of light. Huygens' hypothesis had a few issues in coordinating
perception. For longer than a century, Newton's hypothesis was prevailing.
In the early nineteenth century, problems and issues concerning the corpuscular theory of
light arose. The concept of diffraction was observed, for one thing, for it doesn’t have a concrete
explanation of the phenomenon. Thomas Young's double-slit experiment brings about results
about the properties of light with obvious wave behavior and that it supported the wave theory of
light than Newton's particle theory.
Throughout the 1800s, trials were made to identify the ether or its development directly,
concluding the popular Michelson-Morley experiment. They didn’t succeed in identifying the ether,
bringing about a tremendous discussion as the twentieth century started. Was light a wave or a
particle?
In 1905, Albert Einstein distributed his paper to clarify the photoelectric effect, which
suggested that light went as discrete groups of energy. The energy contained inside a photon
was identified with the frequency of the light. This theory was later on known as the photon theory
of light.
With photons, the ether was not, at this point, fundamental as a method for propagation,
although it left the odd paradox of why wave properties of light were observed. Considerably more
irregular were the quantum variations of Young’s double-slit experiment and the Compton Effect,
which appeared to affirm the particle explanation. As analyses were performed and proof
amassed, the suggestions immediately turned out to be certain that light capacities as both a
particle and a wave.

Motivation Question
Based on your perception about light, is it a wave or a particle? Why?
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Lesson 2.1: Duality Nature: The Wave-Particle

Lesson Summary
Visible light and other kinds of electromagnetic radiation that belongs to the
electromagnetic spectrum are generally described as waves. Refraction and diffraction are
behaviors of light that are only explained through wave mechanics. The wave theory of light was
questioned when scientists discovered the photoelectric effect. The observation shows that light
excites electrons in various metals, so they concluded that the number of electrons was equal to
the number of light quanta, or photons. It recommended that light was a group of particles and
not a wave.
There has been an argument as to whether the light is a wave or a particle. The wave-
particle duality principle states that matter and light exhibit both wave and particle behaviors,
which is dependent on the circumstances of the experiment. It is a compound topic but among
the most interesting in physics. Currently, scientists already embraced the theory of wave-particle
duality, which proposed that matters have both particle and wave properties. The theory was true
and valid to light and other subatomic particles, but still on the process of knowing the details
when it comes to other larger objects.
In this lesson, we will know what particles exhibit wave-particle duality and the pieces of
evidence shown through experiments, proving the duality nature of light.

Learning Outcomes
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following
1. Summarize the pieces of evidence that show how light acts as a wave and as a particle.
2. Define what ‘photon’ is and how it is used to measure energy in light.

Motivation Question
What characteristics are shown by a light that exhibits both wave and particle properties?
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Discussion
Visible light, infrared and ultraviolet light is usually described as a wave. We usually
discuss light as a form of electromagnetic radiation that travels in the form of waves. It is
measured through various wavelengths and frequencies. Using the electromagnetic spectrum,
we will be able to see how the wavelengths and frequencies vary. Red light has a longer
wavelength and lower frequency, while the blue light has a smaller wavelength and higher
frequency. It is where the idea that light possesses the properties of waves. But, when the 20th
century begins, scientists started to question the credibility of light having wave properties. It is
where experiments and investigations were conducted. With this, they found new shreds of
evidence that suggest that light was not a wave, but more likely a particle.
The wave-particle duality depicts the properties of photons and subatomic particles to
display properties of waves and particles. Wave-particle duality is a significant piece of quantum
mechanics as it offers an approach to clarify the ideas of "wave" and "particle," which work in
traditional mechanics, don't cover the conduct of quantum objects. The dual nature of light was
given acknowledgment after 1905 when Albert Einstein depicted light regarding photons, which
displayed properties of particles and afterward introduced his well-known paper on special
relativity, where the light went about as waves.

Light as a Wave

Researchers have known for quite a while that light displays wavelike properties. A large
number of the things that light does are just clarified adequately by considering light as a wave.
Refraction and diffraction are two models. Light refracts when it heads out, starting with one
medium then onto the next because waves travel at various velocities through various media.
Likewise, light diffracts when it goes between or around objects since obstacles make the light
waves bend and twist. Thus, clearly, we're not off-base about light carrying on like a wave. We
even utilize the wave diffraction of light by reading interference patterns of X-beam
crystallography.

Light as a Particle

Researchers started questioning the wavelike properties of light when they initially found
about the photoelectric effect, which portrays how electrons are energized and released from a
matter when they absorb the energy from light. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz saw that a charged object
would make a greater, faster spark on the off chance that it was introduced to ultraviolet light
because the light was energizing the electrons, letting them be in an excited state. Further
examinations by different researchers indicated that electrons truly could be taken out of a metal
because of light emission.
For some time, researchers felt that the electrons were simply retaining the energy in the
light wave and afterward utilizing that energy to leap out of the metal. The more energy the
electrons would absorb, the more energy they could use to leap out.

Researchers took a shot in expanding the intensity of the lights on metals. They calculated
that a higher light intensity would give more energy to the electrons, taking the leap from the
metal to a higher energy level; however, that didn't occur by any means! Rather, the electrons
were produced at a similar energy level as in the past; there was only a greater amount.
Researchers acknowledged they weren't right about their hypothesis.
On the off chance that light was a wave, at that point, the energy of the electrons ought to
have expanded, not the number. The electrons were not taking in energy with respect to the wave
theory of light. Altogether, on the off chance that light wasn't generally a wave, at that point, what
could it possibly be?
Albert Einstein formulated a decent answer to this issue. In 1905, he proposed that we
ought to now and again consider light as a particle rather than a wave. He said that if we envision
light to exist in little bundles of energy, at that point, the entirety of our perceptions makes more
sense. Think about that light emission like it were a surge of a beam of light energy. Every bundle
has a mass of zero, so it doesn't gauge anything. Every bundle contains a specific amount of
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

energy, which it can move to the electrons when it strikes the metal. Einstein called these bundles
light quanta, yet now we call them photons.
A photon is almost a massless particle that carries a limited amount of energy. We use
photons to evaluate the amount of energy in light and other electromagnetic waves. Every photon
can energize and excite just a single electron at a single time. When the intensity of light
increases, the number of photons also increases. Thus, the higher number of electrons are struck
free from the metal.
The energy of the electrons doesn't change because the energy of every photon is
equivalent. Einstein's progressive thought regarding photons wasn't generally affirmed for about
decades. In any case, these days, photons are a significant segment of how light and subatomic
particles are being studied.

Particles that Exhibits Wave-Particle Duality

Wave-particle duality has been exhibited for photons (light), the elementary particles, and
atoms. Although, the wave properties of bigger particles, for example, atoms, have incredibly
short frequencies and are hard to recognize and gauge. Old style mechanics is commonly
adequate for depicting the conduct of naturally visible elements or macroscopic entities.

Evidence of Wave-Particle Duality

Various investigations have approved wave-particle duality, yet there are a couple of
explicit early examinations that finished the discussion about whether light comprises of either
waves or particles:

Photoelectric Effect - Light Behaves as Particles

The photoelectric effect is where metals produce electrons when exposed to light. These
electrons that were emitted from the metals are called photoelectrons. It is a must to understand
that the emission of photoelectrons and the kinetic energy during the process depends on the
frequency of the light that hits on the metal’s surface. How photoelectrons behave couldn't be
clarified by traditional electromagnetic theory. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz noticed that focusing bright
light on cathodes improved their capacity to make electric sparks. While in 1905, Einstein clarified
the photoelectric effect when light is carried in discrete quantized bundles. Robert Millikan's test,
in 1921, affirmed Einstein's idea about the photoelectric effect and prompted Einstein in winning
the Nobel Prize in 1921 for "his discovery of the law of the photoelectric impact" and Millikan
winning the Nobel Prize in 1923 for "his work on the elementary charge of electricity and the
photoelectric effect."

Davisson-Germer Experiment - Light Behaves as Waves

The Davisson-Germer experiment affirmed de Broglie’s hypothesis and establish the

backbone for the concept of quantum mechanics. The study applied the Bragg law of diffraction
to particles. The trial vacuum used in the experiment measured the electron energies that
dispersed from the outside of a wire filament that was exposed to heat and permitted to strike a
nickel-metal surface. The electron bar could be turned to quantify the effect of changing the angle
on the dispersed electrons. The scientists found that the intensity of the dissipated beam peaked
at specific points. It showed wave conduct and could be clarified by applying the Bragg law to the
nickel crystal lattice spacing.

Thomas Young's Double-Slit Experiment

For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Young’s double-slit experiment can be described through utilizing the concept of wave-
particle duality. Discharged light moves from its source as an electromagnetic wave. After
encountering a slit, the wave goes through the cut and partitions into two wavefronts, which
overlap. When it impacts the screen, the wave field "collapses" into a single point and turns into
a photon.
How did he come up with his test? First, the light should interact with something small,
such as the firmly separated slits utilized by Young, to show distinct wave effects. Besides, Young
previously passed light from a single source (the Sun) through a single cut or slit to make the light
coherent. By coherent, we mean waves are in a stage or have a definite phase relationship.
Incoherent means that the waves have arbitrary and random phase relationships.

Figure 4. At the point when monochromatic light goes through two tight slits that illuminates a far-
off screen, a pattern of bright and dim fringes is observed. These patterns is brought about by theFor
superposition of overlapping light waves starting from the double-slits which is called interference.
https://www.britannica.com/science/light/Youngs-double-slit-experiment
what reason
did Young, at
that point, let
the light pass through a double-slit? The response to this inquiry is that two-slit gives two coherent
light sources that create constructive and destructive interference. Young utilized sunlight, where
every wavelength frames its pattern, making the effect harder to see.
We show the double-slit experiment through the use of monochromatic light to elaborate
on the effect. Figure 4 shows the pure constructive and destructive interference of two waves
having a similar amplitude and wavelength. At the point when a light goes through the narrow
slits, it is diffracted into semi-circular waves. Pure constructive interference happens when the
waves are positioned crest to crest or trough to trough. On the other hand, pure destructive
interference happens when the waves are positioned crest to trough. The light should fall on a
screen and be dissipated into our eyes to observe the pattern. Remember that the regions of
constructive and destructive interference move out from the slits at a defined angle to the original
beam.
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Learning Tasks/Activities
Create a table that shows the pieces of evidence with regard to the duality nature of
light. Keep your presentation concrete and concise. Do this in an A4 sized bond paper/yellow
paper.

Assessment
Answer the following questions.
1. How did Young’s double-slit experiment show that light can behave like a wave?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
2. What characteristics of light showed that it behaves like a wave? Cite pieces of evidence.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
3. What characteristics of light showed that it behaves like a particle? Cite pieces of
evidence.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

Instructions on how to submit student output

1. Students will compile all the learning tasks/activities and assessments in their respective
portfolios.
2. All learning tasks/activities and assessments should be compiled in the students'
portfolio and shall be submitted at the end of every module.
3. The teacher will set the schedule of submission.
4. After checking, the portfolio will be sent back to the students as well as their outputs.
5. The same process will apply for all learning tasks/activities and assessments for other
modular activities of the course.
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Lesson 2.2: Photons and Photoelectric Effect

Lesson Summary
The photoelectric effect is concentrated to a limited extent since it tends to be an
introductory portion of wave-particle duality and quantum mechanics. At the point when a surface
is exposed to adequately vigorous electromagnetic energy, the light will be absorbed and
electrons will be produced. The threshold frequency is not equal in every material. It’s the visible
light for alkali base metals, near-ultraviolet rays of light for s metals, and extreme ultraviolet light
for non-metals.
Einstein suggested that light is comprised of quanta, which we call photons. He proposed
that the energy in every quantum of light was equivalent to the product of frequency and Planck’s
constant. And the photon with a frequency over a limited threshold would have adequate energy
to discharge a single electron, delivering the photoelectric effect.
Through various studies about light, they have concluded that light shouldn't be quantized
to clarify the photoelectric effect. However, a few reading materials continued saying that the
photoelectric effect shows the particle properties of light.

Learning Outcomes
In this lesson, you should be able to do the following;
1. Describe the process of the photoelectric effect.
2. Discuss what happened to the X-ray photon and an electron during a collision.

Motivation Question
What will happen to the electrons in metal when the metal was strike by light?
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Discussion
The photoelectric effect is an occurrence wherein electrons are being ejected out from
the metal’s surface when light is struck on it. These catapulted electrons are called
photoelectrons. Remember that the discharge of photoelectrons and the kinetic energy of the
catapulted photoelectrons depends on the frequency of the light that strikes on the metal's
surface. The process in which photoelectrons are catapulted from the metal’s surface because
of the light that strikes it is commonly known as photoemission.

Figure 5. The photoelectric effect happens because the electrons in the metal surface tends to
absorb energy from the incident light. This leads the electrons to be ejected out of the metal
Energy of
surface. Photon
https://byjus.com/jee/photoelectric-effect/#introduction
The
ejected
electrons or photoelectrons move towards a positive electrode known as the collector and cause
the current to be recognized in an ammeter. In 1905, Einstein introduced an explanation about the
photoelectric effect and took advantage of the black body radiation of Planck. The photoelectric
effect is expressed by;

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇

The light frequency f could be regarded as a collection of bundles of energy is called

photons. Each bundle contains an amount of energy E. In the equation, h denotes Planck’s
constant (6.63 𝑥 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠).
For instance, a light bulb, the light energy that it gives off, is carried by photons. The
brighter the bulb, the greater number of photons it emitted per second. It only means that the light
energy is proportional to the light frequency.
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Sample Problem
Suppose that there is an incandescent light bulb with a wattage of sixty watts with 21%
efficiency. Assuming that all the light is green and has a wavelength of 555 𝑥 10−9 𝑚, identify the
number of photons that the light bulb gives off per second.

Solution
At 21 % efficiency, the light energy that the light bulb would release with a wattage of 60
J/s is (0.21)(60 𝐽/𝑠 ) = 12.6 𝐽/𝑠.
To find the number of photons emitted per second, we just need to divide light energy
emitted per second and the E if a single photon.
Let’s find first the value of E since the given is wavelength only; we can use 𝑓 = 𝑐/𝜆 ;
wherein c is the speed of light with a value of 3.00 𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠.

ℎ𝑐 (6.63 𝑥 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠) (3.00 𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠)

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 = = = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱
𝜆 555 𝑥 10−9 𝑚
Thus,
12.6 𝐽/𝑠
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 =
3.58 𝑥10−19 𝐽
𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
= 𝟑. 𝟓 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏
Work Function
Whenever light strikes a metal, a photon can share its energy to an electron in the metal.
If the photon has sufficient energy to do work in removing the electron from the metal, the
electron can be catapulted. The magnitude of work required is dependent on how strong the
electron is being held. For the electrons that least strongly held, has a minimum value that is
called work function (𝑊0 ). In any case that the photon has excess energy to do work to remove
the electron from the metal, the excess serves as a kinetic energy electron that was ejected.
Therefore, the electrons that were least strongly held are catapulted with the maximum kinetic
energy (𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 ).
Albert Einstein applied the concept of conservation of energy and proposed the
following in describing the photoelectric effect.

𝒉𝒇 = 𝑲𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝑾𝟎
Maximum kinetic
Photon energy Minimum work
energy of ejected
needed to
electron
eject electron
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Sample Problem
The surface of silver has a work function of 𝑊0 = 4.73 𝑒𝑉. Identify the minimum light
frequency must have to eject electrons from the surface of the silver.

Solution
The minimum frequency is when the light frequency is equal to the work function of a
certain metal; therefore, the electron is catapulted out of the metal with zero kinetic energy.
Since 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.60 𝑥 10−19 𝐽, the work function is;
1.60 𝑥 10−19 𝐽
𝑊0 = (4.73 𝑒𝑉 ) ( ) = 𝟕. 𝟓𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱
1𝑒𝑉

Using the equation ℎ𝑓 = 𝐾𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑊0 and since KE = 0, we have;

𝑊0 7.57 𝑥 10−19 𝐽
𝑓= = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 𝑯𝒛
ℎ 6.63 𝑥 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠

Compton Scattering

After Einstein introduced the concept of the photoelectric effect, it was in 1923 when the
idea of the photon was slowly being recognized and started having widespread acceptance. The
American Physicists Arthur H. Compton used the photon model to elaborate his research on the
scattering of X-rays through the electrons of graphite.

Figure 6. In the experiment that was done by A.H. Compton, an X-ray photon collides an electron
that is at rest. The scattered photon and recoil electron moved in different direction.
http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/compton.html#c1
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

X-ray is considered a high-frequency electromagnetic wave; it is also composed of

photons like a light. In Figure 6, it shows that happens when an X-ray photon strikes the electron
of graphite. The scenario is like two billiard balls that collide in a pool table. The X-ray photon
scatters in a single direction after the collision, while the electron recoils in a separate direction.
Compton was able to observe that the photons that scattered have a smaller frequency 𝒇′
than the incident photon’s frequency 𝒇. It only shows that during the collision, the photon loses
energy. Moreover, he also found out that the difference between the two frequencies is dependent
on the angle 𝜃 that the photons take after the collision.
This phenomenon in which an X-ray photon is scattered from an electron, wherein the
frequency of the scattered photon is smaller than the frequency of the incident photon, is called
Compton Effect. With this, as per the principle of conservation of energy, we have;

𝒉𝒇 = 𝒉𝐟 ′ + 𝑲𝑬

Incident photon’s Scattered Kinetic energy

energy photon’s of recoil
energy electron

Since the collision of two objects is analyzed using the concept of total kinetic energy and
total linear momentum. A similar analysis can be used to understand the scenario of a colliding
electron and photon. The electron is assumed to be stationary. Thus, conservation of total linear
momentum requires;

⃗
𝒑 = ⃗′
𝒑 + ⃗ 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏
𝒑

Incident photon’s Scattered Momentum of

momentum photon’s recoil electron
momentum
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Learning Tasks/Activities
Create a Venn diagram showing the comparison of the Compton Effect and Photoelectric
effect. Do this activity in an A4 sized bond paper/ yellow paper.

Assessment
Answer the following questions.
1. In the equation E=hf, what happens to the energy of the photon as the frequency of light
increases?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

2. What happens to the photon of an X-ray when it strikes an electron that is at rest?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
3. The surface of gold has a work function of 𝑊0 = 5.30 𝑒𝑉. (a) Identify the minimum light
frequency must have to eject electrons from the surface of the gold. (b) Compare the light
frequency of gold from silver.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

Instructions on how to submit student output

1. Students will compile all the learning tasks/activities and assessments in their respective
portfolios.
2. All learning tasks/activities and assessments should be compiled in the students'
portfolio and shall be submitted at the end of every module.
3. The teacher will set the schedule of submission.
4. After checking, the portfolio will be sent back to the students as well as their outputs.
5. The same process will apply for all learning tasks/activities and assessments for other
modular activities of the course.
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Lesson 2.3: De Broglie’s Wavelength and Nature of

Matter

Lesson Summary
The wave-particle duality includes particles that display both wave and particle
properties. This natural behavior was at first seen in electromagnetic radiation or light, which
can be depicted as either an electromagnetic wave or a particle, which is called the photon.
When it acts as a wave, light observes similar guidelines as other waves. For instance, in a
double-slit experiment of Young, the subsequent examples of wave interference, constructive
and destructive, shows light's wave nature. In different circumstances, light shows particle-like
properties; for example, while watching the photoelectric effect or Compton scattering
between X-ray photon and electron. In these cases, photons seem to move in discrete packets
of kinetic energy, adhering to similar guidelines of motion as some other particle (although
photons are massless).
Louis de Broglie, a French physicist, won the Nobel Prize in 1929 for his amazing work
in quantum mechanics. His work is to show numerically how subatomic particles share some
wavelike nature. The hypothesis of de Broglie proposed that matter (anything with mass) can
likewise display wavelike properties. Also, these matter waves are key to understand the
quantum mechanics of the world – without them, researchers would not have the option to
depict nature on its smallest scale.
Therefore, the wavelike properties of matter are most visible and can be understood in
quantum theory, for instance, if we will study the behavior of subatomic particles like electrons.

Learning Outcomes
In this lesson you should be able to do the following;
a. Describe the de Broglie’s wavelength.
b. Identify how Davisson and Germer proves de Broglie’s claim that particles have wavelike
nature.

Motivation Question
It is possible for a particle like electrons to have a wavelike properties?
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Discussion

De Broglie’s Wavelength

De Broglie proposed that all matters that are moving have a wavelength that is associated
with it, similar to that of waves. He made an explicit proposal that wavelength 𝜆 of a particle is
given by the same relationship that is applied to photon;

𝒉
𝝀=
𝒑

Wherein ℎ stands for the Planck’s constant, and p is the relativistic momentum’s
magnitude of a particle. As of the present, 𝜆 is popularly known as the de Broglie’s wavelength of
the particle.
The affirmation of de Broglie’s proposal about the wavelength of a particle came in 1927.
The experiments conducted by American physicists Clinton J. Davisson and Lester H. Germer
supported de Broglie’s proposal. In their experiment, they directed a beam of electrons onto a
crystal nickel. They observed that the electrons exhibited a diffraction behavior analogous to X-
rays being diffracted by the crystal.
The wavelength of electrons revealed by the diffraction pattern matched that predicted by
de Broglie’s hypothesis 𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝. Recently, Young’s double-slit experiment was performed with
electrons and revealed that wave interference also is shown.
It leads to the idea that particles, other than electrons, can exhibit properties of a wave.
However, de Broglie’s wavelength is exhibited by all moving particles.

Sample Problem
An electron has a mass of 9.1 𝑥 10−31 𝑘𝑔 moving at a speed of 6.0 𝑥 106 𝑚/𝑠. a.)
Determine the value of de Broglie’s wavelength for the electron.

Solution
ℎ ℎ 6.63 𝑥 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠
𝜆= = = = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝒎
𝑝 𝑚𝑣 (9.1 𝑥 10−31 𝑘𝑔)( 6.0 𝑥 106 𝑚/𝑠)

A de Broglie wavelength with a magnitude of 1.2 𝑥 10−10 𝑚 is about the size of an

interatomic spacing in solid, such as the material used by Davisson and Germer, which is the
nickel crystal, thus, leads to the diffraction effects.
For instructional purposes only • 1st Semester SY 2020-2021

Davisson and Germer Experiment

Figure 7. The experimental setup of Davisson and Germer is made up of a particle accelerator,
electron beam, target and a movable detector. The particle accelerator is used to accelerate the
electron towards the electron beam. The electron beam fired electrons normally on the Nickel
crystal. The detector, which moves in a semi-circular arc, is used to capture the scattered
electrons.
https://newbrain.info/davison-and-germer-experiment-68/

Davisson and Germer Experiment demonstrated the wave properties of electrons and
confirmed the de Broglie’s wavelength equation. Louis de Broglie proposed the dual nature idea of
matter in 1924, yet it was just later that Davisson and Germer tested and verified the outcomes. The
outcomes built up the principal trial verification of quantum mechanics. The examination considered
the dispersion and scattering of electrons by a Nickel crystal.
To test the hypothesis of de Broglie that matter acted like waves, Davisson and Germer
created an experimental setup that is fundamentally the same as what may be utilized to observe
the interference from the scattering of X-rays from a crystal surface. The fundamental thought is
that the planar property of crystal structure gives dispersing surfaces with regular intervals;
therefore, waves that scatter from one surface can exhibit constructive or destructive interference
from waves that disperse from a crystal. Their experimental setup is shown in Figure 7.
This simple experimental setup sends an electron beam with energy to the surface of the
crystal. Afterward, it measures the current of electrons that were detected at a specific scattering
angle theta. It shows an indication characterized by both constructive and destructive
interference patterns. It was concrete evidence of the wave properties of matter.