CENTRE FOR MEDICAL AND RADIATION

PHYSICS
NISER BHUBANESWAR

LABORATORY REPORT
Study of basic OP-AMP Characteristics

Submitted By: Satya Prabodh Nayak

Roll No: 241126004
2nd Semester, Session: 2024-25

Date of Experiment:30th January 2024

Date of Submission:6th February 2024

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Contents
1 Experiment - 1 3

2 Aim 3

3 Apparatus Required 3

4 Theory 3
4.1 Amplifier Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

5 Observation 6
5.1 Table for Summing Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.2 Table for differential Amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

6 Conclusion 11

7 Experiment - 2 12

8 Aim 12

9 Apparatus Required 12

10 Theory 12

11 Circuit Diagram 13

12 Observation 13
12.1 Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
12.2 Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

13 Calculation 18

14 Conclusion 19

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1 Experiment - 1
2 Aim
This study involves analyzing inverting and non-inverting amplifier configurations to determine
their gain, as well as exploring basic mathematical operations such as summing and difference
amplifiers.

3 Apparatus Required
I. OPAMP 741 chip
II. Resistors

III. Function Generator

IV. DC voltage source
V. Breadboard

VI. Oscilloscope
VII. Connecting Wires

4 Theory
An operational amplifier or op amps is a linear device used for ideal DC amplification. It is funda-
mentally a voltage amplifying device that works with external feedback components like resistors
or capacitors.We can connect external resistors or capacitors to the op-amp in a number of different
ways to form basic “building Block” circuits such as, Inverting, Non-Inverting, Voltage Follower,
Summing, Differential, Integrator and Differentiator type amplifiers.

Block Diagram of OP-AMP

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 Here are the key characteristics explained

Open Loop Voltage Gain (A)

An ideal op-amp has an infinite open-loop voltage gain, while real op-amps have values ranging
from 20,000 to 200,000. The output voltage is given by Vout = AVin .
Input Impedance (Zin )
The input impedance of an ideal op-amp is infinite, meaning no current flows in the input circuit.
In real op-amps, a small input current flows, ranging from pico-amps to milli-amps.
Output Impedance (Zout )
An ideal op-amp has zero output impedance, behaving as a perfect voltage source. Real op-amps
have an output impedance of 10–20 kΩ, leading to some internal voltage loss.
Bandwidth (BW)
An ideal op-amp has infinite bandwidth, amplifying signals from DC to high-frequency AC
without loss. In real op-amps, the bandwidth is limited by the gain-bandwidth product (GB),
which defines the frequency where the gain becomes unity.
Offset Voltage (Vio )
For an ideal op-amp, the offset voltage is zero, meaning the output remains zero if both inputs
are grounded. Real op-amps, however, exhibit a small offset voltage.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
CMRR measures an op-amp’s ability to reject common-mode signals applied to both inputs. It
is given by:
AD
CMRR =
ACM
where AD is the differential gain and ACM is the common-mode gain. An ideal op-amp has
infinite CMRR, completely rejecting common-mode signals, whereas real op-amps have a finite
CMRR.

4.1 Amplifier Configurations

(i) Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier consists of an input resistor Rin and a feedback resistor Rf . The input
voltage Vin is applied to the inverting terminal, while the non-inverting terminal is grounded. The
circuit maintains a virtual ground at the inverting input.
The voltage gain is given by:
Rf
Av = −
Rin
Thus, the output voltage is:
Rf
Vout = − Vin
Rin
The output voltage is 180° out of phase with the input.

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 Inverting OP-AMP

(ii) Non-Inverting Amplifier

In a non-inverting amplifier, the input voltage Vin is applied to the non-inverting terminal. A
voltage divider network formed by Rf and Rin determines the feedback voltage.
The voltage gain is given by:
Rf
Av = 1 +
Rin
The output voltage is:
 
Rf
Vout = 1+ Vin
Rin
The input and output voltages are in phase.

NON inverting OP-AMP

(iii) Summing Amplifier

A summing amplifier is an inverting amplifier that sums multiple input voltages. For two input
voltages V1 and V2 , the output voltage is:
 
Rf Rf
Vout = − V1 + V2
R1 R2
If R1 = R2 = Rf = R, then:

Vout = −(V1 + V2 )
The circuit acts as a summing amplifier with inverted output.

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 Summing OP-AMP

(iv) Difference Amplifier

A difference amplifier subtracts two input voltages. The output voltage is given by:
    
R3 + R4 R2 R4
Vout = V1 − V2
R3 R1 + R2 R3
If R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R, then:

Vout = V1 − V2
The circuit functions as a voltage subtractor when all resistances are equal.

DIfferential OP-AMP

5 Observation
Table for Inverting Amplifier

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 When we plot the curve between input vs output voltage from the above table data we got
For Rin = 45.474kΩ

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For Rin = 9.8kΩ

Oscilloscope view of Inverting Amplifier

Then table for Non inverting amplifier

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When we plot the curve between input vs output voltage from the above table data we got

For Rin = 45.474kΩ

For Rin = 9.8kΩ

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Oscilloscope view of Non Inverting Am-
plifier

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5.1 Table for Summing Amplifier

5.2 Table for differential Amplifier

6 Conclusion
In this experiment, we analyzed inverting, non-inverting, summing, and differential operational
amplifiers, confirming their theoretical behaviors. The inverting amplifier provided a phase-inverted
output with a gain based on resistor ratios, while the non-inverting amplifier maintained phase
with a gain greater than unity. The summing amplifier successfully combined multiple inputs,
demonstrating its use in signal processing, and the differential amplifier effectively amplified the
difference between two signals while rejecting common-mode noise. Overall, the results aligned
with theoretical predictions, highlighting the importance of resistor selection in determining gain
and circuit performance for various analog applications.

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7 Experiment - 2
8 Aim
To study the application of an operational amplifier as a comparator and Schmitt trigger, analyzing
their functionality in signal processing.

9 Apparatus Required
1. OPAMP (IC-741) chip
2. A DC power supply
3. Digital multimeter
4. Digital storage oscilloscope
5. Connecting wires
6. Breadboard

10 Theory
Comparator
A voltage comparator is a circuit with two inputs that compares one voltage with another. Typically,
one input serves as a reference voltage while the other is a time-varying signal. When the time-
varying signal exceeds or falls below the reference voltage, the comparator outputs either a high or
low signal, usually corresponding to the supply voltages. Since the operational amplifier is used in
an open-loop configuration, even a small voltage difference between the inputs can drive the output
to saturation.
In a basic comparator circuit, the output reaches its negative saturation level when the input
voltage is greater than the reference and shifts to positive saturation when the input falls below the
reference. If the reference voltage is zero, the circuit functions as a zero-crossing detector. When
the reference voltage is nonzero, it acts as a level detector. However, a simple comparator may
suffer from output instability due to noise when the input voltage is near the reference level. This
issue can be addressed using a Schmitt trigger.

Schmitt Trigger
A Schmitt trigger is a comparator circuit with positive feedback, designed to introduce hysteresis in
its transfer characteristics. This configuration enhances stability by reducing the impact of noise.
As the input voltage rises and crosses an upper threshold voltage (UTP), the output switches to
negative saturation. Conversely, when the input drops below a lower threshold voltage (LTP),
the output transitions to positive saturation. The voltage difference between these two threshold
points ensures that the output remains stable, preventing undesired oscillations caused by noise
fluctuations near the reference voltage.

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11 Circuit Diagram

OPAMP as Comparator

OPAMP as Schmitt Trigger

12 Observation
12.1 Table
Table for ground level comparator

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Table for Comparator Circuit when VT h = 2V

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Table for Schmitt Trigger Circuit

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12.2 Curve
We have plotted input voltage vs output voltage from the above table data

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Ground Level Comparator

Threshold Comparator

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Schmitt Trigger

In the Schmitt trigger circuit, the upper and lower threshold voltages determine the switching points
of the output. Based on our analysis, we obtained the following threshold values:

Upper Threshold Voltage (UTP) = +1.3V

Lower Threshold Voltage (LTP) = −1.3V

Oscilloscope view of Schmitt Trigger

13 Calculation
The threshold voltages for the Schmitt trigger circuit are given by:

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 R1
Vin = Vout (Lower Trip Point, LTP)
R2
R1
Vin = +Vout (Upper Trip Point, UTP)
R2
R2 = 9.81kΩ, R1 = 0.99kΩ, Vsat = ±15V
The threshold voltages are given by:
R1
Vin = Vout
R2
R1
LTP = −Vsat = −1.51V
R2
R1
UTP = +Vsat = +1.51V
R2
Thus, the upper and lower trip points for this Schmitt trigger circuit are ±1.51V . Given:

Calculated Value = 1.51 V, Measured Value = 1.3 V

Substituting the values into the formula:
 
|1.3 − 1.51|
Percentage Error = × 100 ≈ 13.91%
1.51
Thus, the percentage error is approximately 13.91%.

14 Conclusion
In this experiment, we explored the applications of operational amplifiers (op-amps) as comparators
and Schmitt triggers. We observed that the comparator efficiently compares a time-varying input
signal with a reference voltage, producing a high or low output depending on the input’s relationship
with the reference. The study highlighted the issues of output instability due to noise when the input
voltage is near the reference. To mitigate this, we examined the Schmitt trigger, which introduced
hysteresis through positive feedback, providing more stable and noise-resistant performance. By
calculating the threshold voltages for the Schmitt trigger, we confirmed its ability to reduce noise-
triggered oscillations, offering improved reliability in digital signal processing applications. The
experiment reinforced the significance of these op-amp applications in designing circuits that require
precise signal comparisons and stable switching behavior.

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