This module will teach the student on how to install, assemble and test computers

and common peripheral.

This module will teach the student on how to configure computer systems and
networks.
This module will teach the student on how to diagnose computer systems and
networks.
This module will teach the student on how to maintain computer systems and
networks.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Essential components of computer ………………………………………………………… pages 1-

3
Input-Process-Output
Input devices
Processing device
Output device
Different types of computers………………………………………………………………… pages4-6
Activity 1.0………………………………………………………………………………………. pages7-8
Computer hardware…………………………………………………………………………… pages9-14
Motherboard
Motherboard form factor
Motherboard Components and Their Functions……………………………………….. pages11-20
Classification of Motherboard………………………………………………………………. pages20-21
Motherboard main buses
Activity 1.1……………………………………………………………………………………… pages22
Central Processing Unit……………………………………………………………………… pages23-26
Random access memory…………………………………………………………………….. pages27-28
Power Supply Unit……………………………………………………………………………. Pages29-32
Binary code
Video cards……………………………………………………………………………………… pages32-34
Hard drives……………………………………………………………………………………… pages34-40
CD/DVD Optical Disk Drive………………………………………………………………… pages41-42
Activity 1.2………………………………………………………………………………………. pages43
Disassembly/Assembly……………………………………………………………………….. pages44-46
Activity 1.3……………………………………………………………………………………….. pages47
Five Common Sense Techniques and strategies…………………………………………
pages48
Flow chart……………………………………………………………………………………….. pages49
Beep codes………………………………………………………………………………………. pages50-54
Software and firmware……………………………………………………………………….. pages54-55
Operating System Installation……………………………………………………………… pages56-58
Activity1.4………………………………………………………………………………………. pages59
Computer Networking………………………………………………………………………… pages60-61
Networking Device…………………………………………………………………………….. pages62-64
Common Types of Network Cabling81-83……………………………………………….. pages65-66
Network Topology……………………………………………………………………………… pages66-68
Local Area Configuration…………………………………………………………………….. pages68-72
Peer to Peer Configuration using xp to xp …………………………………………….. pages73
Activity 1.5……………………………………………………………………………………… pages74
Tools needed by the Students............................................................................ pages75
Computer Dictionary…………………………………………………………………………. Pages76-80
Student Progress Chart……………………………………………………………………… pages81
COMPUTER HARDWARE SERVICING NC II

Mr. Emerson B. Arcita

Course Description:

This program is designed to develop knowledge, skills, and attitudes of a

Computer Service Technician in accordance with industry standards. It covers the
following competencies:

BASIC COMPETENCIES

 Participating in workplace communication

 Working in team environment
 Practicing career professionalism
 Practicing occupational health and safety procedures

COMMON COMPETENCIES

 Applying quality standards

 Performing computer operations
 Performing mensuration and calculation
 Preparing and interpreting technical drawing
 Using hand tools
 Terminating and connecting electrical wiring and electronics

CORE COMPETENCIES

 Install computer systems and networks.

 Diagnose and troubleshoot computer systems.
 Configure computer systems and networks
 Maintain computer systems and networks

The trainees/students should be able perform the unit of competencies

designed for the training, focusing on the core competencies and also should
be able to pass the Assessment and Certification (National Certificate - Level
II) of Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA)

Career Opportunities:

 Work competently in a computer hardware related industry in or out of the country

 Work as a computer and network service technician
 Manage your own computer shop.
Computer
meets

Human
 ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, The student will be able to:

1. Learn the essential components of the computer.

A computer is any device capable of processing information to produce a desired result. No matter
how large or small they are, computers typically perform their works in three well-defined steps:
Accepting input
Processing the unit according to predefined rules (programs)
display output
Processing the unit according to predefined rules (programs)A computer has the following parts no
matter what model, size or what kind it is.
Input-Process-Output

A computer first takes input from the user then process it into C.P.U after that its display the result on
the monitor.

The input device allows you to put in data into the computer. The central processing unit processes
this data. While not all data can be processed at a time, the memory or storage device temporarily
holds some of the data. After processing the data, the memory or storage device again serves as a
repository for this data until such time that everything will be given to be shown via the output device.
Transfer of data through all these devices is done through the buses.

What is input devices?

An input device is a peripheral used to transfer data from the outside world into a
computer system. In other words, it is any machine that feeds data into a computer.

Input devices convert the user's actions and analog data (sound, graphics, pictures) into digital
electronic signals that can be ‘handled’ or ‘read’ by a computer. Digital data (such as from barcode
readers, scanners, etc.) does not require any conversion and is input direct into a computer. It is
through input devices that a user exercises control over a computer, its operations, and outputs.

Examples of input devices are:

Computer keyboard
Computer mouse

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Computer webcam Digital camera

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 Computer
tablet
Computer
scanner

Computer microphone

computer
joystick

Touch screen Bar

code

What is processing device?

The CPU which is responsible for the processing and control of all the data flowing into, out of and
around the system.
The processing hardware in a computer is accountable for storing and retrieving information. This
information is processed using the Central Processing Unit (CPU). This part of the computer takes
information that is inputted by the user and processes the information by calculating, comparing and
copying it and is then saved to the computer's memory (RAM) Random Access Memory.
Examples of processing devices are:

What is output device?

An output device receives information from the computer and translates it from machine
language to a form that humans can read or so that another machine can read the information.
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results

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 of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) to the
outside world.
Electronic output devices can be mechanical, audio, or visual. Mechanical outputs include motors,
solenoids, and other electromagnetic devices. Audio outputs include buzzers, loudspeakers, piezo
transducers, and ultrasonic transmitters. Mechanical and audio outputs tend to have a higher
power demand than other output devices. Visual outputs include lamps, LEDs (light-emitting
diodes), and infrared transmitters.
Examples of output devices are:

Printer TFT lcd

Projector

Plotter

Different types of computers

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 Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:

1. Know and identify different types of computer

What are the Different Types of Computers?

Based on the operational principle of computers, they are categorized as analog, digital and hybrid
computers.
Operational Principle
1. Analog
2. Digital
3. Hybrid

Analog Computers: These are almost extinct today. These are different
from a digital computer because an analog computer can perform
several mathematical operations simultaneously. It uses continuous
variables for mathematical operations and utilizes mechanical or
electrical energy.

Digital Computers: They use digital circuits and are designed to

operate on two states, namely bits 0 and 1. They are analogous to
states ON and OFF. Data on these computers is represented as a series of 0s and
1s. Digital computers are suitable for complex computation and have higher
processing speeds. They are programmable. Digital computers are either general
purpose computers or special purpose ones. General purpose computers, as their
name suggests, are designed for specific types of data processing while general
purpose computers are meant for general use.

Hybrid Computers: These computers are a combination of both digital and

analog computers. In this type of computers, the digital segments perform
process control by conversion of analog signals to digital ones.

This was the classification of computers based on their style of

functioning. Following is a classification of the different types of computers based on their
sizes and processing powers.

Processing Power
1. Mainframe
2. Microcomputers

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 Mainframe Computers: Large organizations use mainframes for highly
critical applications such as bulk data processing and ERP. Most of the
mainframe computers have capacities to host multiple operating
systems and operate as a number of virtual machines. They can
substitute for several small servers.

Microcomputers: A computer with a microprocessor and its central

processing unit is known as a microcomputer. They do not occupy
space as much as mainframes do. When supplemented with a
keyboard and a mouse, microcomputers can be called personal
computers. A monitor, a keyboard and other similar input-output
devices, computer memory in the form of RAM and a power supply
unit come packaged in a microcomputer. These computers can fit on
desks or tables and prove to be the best choice for single-user tasks.

Personal computers come in different forms such as desktops,

laptops and personal digital assistants. Let us look at each of
these types of computers.

Personal Computers
1. Desktop
2. Laptop
3. Netbook
4. PDA
5. Minicomputer
6. Server
7. Supercomputer
8. Wearable Computer
9. Tablet

Desktops: A desktop is intended to be used on a single location. The spare parts of

a desktop computer are readily available at relatively lower costs. Power
consumption is not as critical as that in laptops. Desktops are widely popular for
daily use in the workplace and households.

Laptops: Similar in operation to desktops, laptop computers are miniaturized and

optimized for mobile use. Laptops run on a single battery or an external adapter
that charges the computer batteries. They are enabled with an inbuilt keyboard,
touch pad acting as a mouse and a liquid crystal display. Their portability and
capacity to operate on battery power have proven to be of great help to mobile
users.

Netbooks: They fall in the category of laptops, but are inexpensive and relatively
smaller in size. They had a smaller feature set and lesser capacities in comparison to regular
laptops, at the time they came into the market. But with passing time, netbooks too began
featuring almost everything that notebooks had. By the end of 2008, netbooks had begun to
overtake notebooks in terms of market share and sales.

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COMPUTER HARDWARE SERVICING NC2 Page 7
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 Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs): It is a handheld computer and popularly
known as a palmtop. It has a touch screen and a memory card for storage of
data. PDAs can also be used as portable audio players, web browsers and
smartphones. Most of them can access the Internet by means of Bluetooth or Wi-
Fi communication.

Minicomputers: In terms of size and processing capacity, minicomputers lie in

between mainframes and microcomputers. Minicomputers are also called mid-
range systems or workstations. The term began to be popularly used in the
1960s to refer to relatively smaller third generation computers. They took up
the space that would be needed for a refrigerator or two and used transistor
and core memory technologies. The 12-bit PDP-8 minicomputer of the Digital
Equipment Corporation was the first successful minicomputer.

Servers: They are computers designed to provide services to client machines in a

computer network. They have larger storage capacities and powerful processors.
Running on them are programs that serve client requests and allocate resources
like memory and time to client machines. Usually they are very large in size, as
they have large processors and many hard drives. They are designed to be fail-
safe and resistant to crash.

Supercomputers: The highly calculation-intensive tasks can be effectively

performed by means of supercomputers. Quantum physics, mechanics, weather
forecasting, molecular theory are best studied by means of supercomputers.
Their ability of parallel processing and their well-designed memory hierarchy
give the supercomputers, large transaction processing powers.

Wearable Computers: A record-setting step in the evolution of computers was

the creation of wearable computers. These computers can be worn on the
body and are often used in the study of behavior modeling and human health.
Military and health professionals have incorporated wearable computers into
their daily routine, as a part of such studies. When the users' hands and
sensory organs are engaged in other activities, wearable computers are of
great help in tracking human actions. Wearable computers do not have to be
turned on and off and remain in operation without user intervention.

Tablet Computers: Tablets are mobile computers that are very handy to
use. They use the touch screen technology. Tablets come with an
onscreen keyboard or use a stylus or a digital pen. Apple's iPad redefined
the class of tablet computers.

These were some of the different types of computers used today. Looking
at the rate of advancement in technology, we can definitely look forward to many more types of
computers in the near future.

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Activity 1:0

Fill in the blank:

Give the three defined steps how the computer perform their work.
1.
2.
3
4. A_________ is simply something that is used to interact with, or provide data to, the
computer, as opposed to an output device that displays data for the user.
5. A _________is the component that is responsible for retrieving and storing data and
information on a computer.
6.An __________is the peripheral equipment that converts a computer's output to
a form that can be seen, heard, or used as an input for another device, process,
or system.
7.An ____________ is one which can perform multiple calculations at once and can
cope with infinite fractions of numbers.
8. An___________ is a devices capable of solving problems by processing information
in discrete form. It operates on data, including magnitudes, letters, and symbols, that
are expressed in binary.
9.An___________ is combination of computers that are capable of inputting and
outputting in both digital and analog signals.
10. A __________is a device that accepts information (in the form of digitalized data)
and manipulates it for some result based on a program or sequence of instructions
on how the data is to be processed.

1. These are widely popular for daily use in the workplace and households.
a. Laptop
b. Pda
c. Desktop
d. Wearable computer
2. They fall in the category of laptops, but are inexpensive and relatively smaller in
size.
a. Tablet
b. Notebook
c. Netbook
d. Laptop
3. It is a handheld computer and popularly known as a palmtop. It has a touch screen
and a memory card for storage of data.
a. Netbook
b. Hybrid computer
c. Server
d. Pda
4. They use the touch screen technology. It is come with an onscreen keyboard or use
a stylus or a digital pen.
a. Tablet
b. Pda
c. Mini computer
d. netbook
5. The highly calculation-intensive tasks can be effectively performed by means of this
kind of computer.
a. Super computer
b. Laptop

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 c. Desktop
d. Mainframe
6. These computers can be worn on the body and are often used in the study of
behavior modeling and human health.
a. Mini computer
b. Server
c. Pda
d. Wearable computer
7. They have larger storage capacities and powerful processors. Running on them are
programs that serve client requests and allocate resources like memory and time to
client machines.
a. Server
b. Mainfraime
c. Super computer
d. Laptop
8. This are also called mid-range systems or workstations. The term began to be
popularly used in the 1960s to refer to relatively smaller third generation computers.
a. Super computer
b. Desktop
c. Mini computer
d. Micro computer
9. Most of this computers have capacities to host multiple operating systems and
operate as a number of virtual machines. They can substitute for several small
servers.
a. Mainframe
b. Super computer
c. Laptop
d. Micro computer
10. They do not occupy space as much as mainframes do. When supplemented with a
keyboard and a mouse, microcomputers can be called personal computers.
a. Micro computer
b. Mainframe
c. Super computer
d. Desktop

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 Computer hardware
Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, The student will be able to:

1. Define what hardware is.

2. How this hardware work.

Computer Hardware - in the computer world, refers to the physical components that make up a
computer system.
Here are some common individual computer hardware components that you'll often find inside a
modern computer case:
*Motherboard
*Central Processing Unit (CPU)
*Random Access Memory (RAM)
*Power Supply
*Video Card
*Hard Drive (HDD)
*Solid-State Drive (SSD)
*Optical Drive
*Card Reader
*Add-in cards

Here is some common hardware that you might find connected to the outside of a computer:
*Monitor
*Keyboard
*Mouse
*Battery Backup (UPS)
*Printer
*Speakers

Here is some less common computer hardware, either because these pieces are now usually
integrated into other devices or because they've been replaced with newer technology:
*Sound Card
*Network Interface Card (NIC)
*Expansion Card (Firewire, USB, Thunderbolt, etc.)
*Hard Drive Controller Card
*Analog Modem
*Scanner
*Floppy Disk Drive
*Joystick
*Webcam

*Microphone

*Tape Drive
*Zip Drive
The following hardware is referred to as network hardware and various pieces are often part of a home
or business network:
Digital Modem (e.g. Cable Modem, DSL Modem, etc.)
Router
Network Switch
*hub
*Repeater
*Bridge
*Print Server
*Firewall

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In addition to all the items listed above, there's more computer hardware that I like to call auxiliary
hardware, of which a computer might have none, or several, of some kinds:
*Fan (CPU, GPU, Case, etc.)
*Heat Sink
*Data Cable
*Power Cable
*CMOS Battery

Motherboard:

The motherboard is the main circuit board of your computer and is also known as the mainboard or
logic board. If you ever open your computer, the biggest piece of silicon you see is the motherboard.
Attached to the motherboard, you'll find the CPU, ROM, memory RAM expansion slots, PCI slots,
and USBports. It also includes controllers for devices like thehard drive, DVD drive, keyboard, and
mouse. Basically, the motherboard is what makes everything in your computer work together.
The main goal is to connect all the hardware together like hard drives, memory modules, CPU, etc...A
computer mother board is made of several parts, and each one has a hardware that can be connected
to it. On the bottom, the image is showing a modern motherboard with all its parts.

Motherboard form factor

The size of the system case is often determined by the motherboard form factor. The following table
contains the primary motherboard types with which you should be familiar:

What are the popular motherboard form factors and how are they different? Get the plain English
answers here with our motherboard size guide.

While there are dozens of form factors for desktop computers, most of them are either obsolete or
developed for specialized purposes.

As a result, almost all current desktop motherboards for consumers fall into 1 of these 3 common form
factors: Mini-ITX, MicroATX and ATX.

When it comes to understanding and comparing different motherboard sizes, a picture speaks a
thousand words so let's take a look at all 3 motherboard form factors from the smallest to the largest:

Comparing Motherboard Form Factors: Mini-ITX vs. MicroATX vs. ATX

Comparing Motherboard Form Factors: Mini-ITX vs. MicroATX vs. ATX

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 Mini-ITX MicroATX ATX
Maximum Size 17 x 17 cm 24.4 x 24.4 cm 30.5 x 24.4 cm
6.7 x 6.7 in 9.6 x 9.6 in 12 x 9.6 in

RAM Slots 2 2 to 4 2 to 8
RAM Type DIMM, SODIMM DIMM DIMM

Expansion Slots 1 2 to 4 4 to 7
Graphics Cards 0 to 1 1 to 3 1 to 4

SATA ports 2 to 6 4 to 8 4 to 12

In addition to the above differences, you will often find that the cheapest motherboards are in
MicroATX form. This makes sense since Mini-ITX boards require more advanced manufacturing
processes while ATX boards have more components.

That being said, high-end motherboards come in all 3 form factors including MicroATX ones.

What do Mini-ITX, MicroATX and ATX Motherboards Have in Common?

Despite their difference in size and features, all 3 types of motherboards share a surprising number of
common traits:

1. They are
able to
support the
same CPU

As long as
they are of
the same
generation,
all 3 form factors will have the same CPU socket. This is a big deal, since it means that a Mini-ITX
motherboard is able to pack as much as computing punch as its full-sized ATX cousin (provided you're
not overclocking or going for top-end CPUs like Intel-Extreme).

2. They can run the same graphics cards

...IF the motherboard has a PCI-Express x 16 slot AND the graphics card is able to fit into the computer
case. However, high-end graphics cards tend to be massive so most Mini-ITX cases (and some
MicroATX ones) won't have enough space to accommodate these behemoths.

For those of you relying on integrated graphics, the good news is that motherboard size no longer
affects graphics performance ever since Intel and AMD fused their graphics processing unit with the
CPU (instead of leaving it on the motherboard).

3. They can have similar back panel ports

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The space taken up by back panel ports and connectors (see image below) on a motherboard is about
the same regardless of its size. Rather, the number and type of back panel ports on a motherboard are
influenced by its price (expensive board = more and better ports).

What are the Different Motherboard Components and Their Functions?

Understanding your motherboard components and their functions is simple... Join us as we explain the
different parts of a motherboard with pictures.
At the first glance, the components of a motherboard can appear complicated... even daunting to
some. How are we supposed to figure out that jumble of connectors, ports, slots, sockets and heat
sinks?
The good news: To find your way around a motherboard, all you'll need to know are the major
motherboard parts and their functions.
And what better way is there... than to do it with labelled photos? Let's take a closer look at the
different motherboard components below:

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1. Back Panel Connectors & Ports
Connectors and ports for connecting the computer to
external devices such as display ports, audio ports, USB
ports, Ethernet ports, PS/2 ports etc. See image below for a
close-up view.

2. PCI Slots- PCI: Peripheral Component Interconnect

Slot for older expansion cards such as sound cards, network
cards, connector cards. See image below for a close-up
view.
Have been largely replaced by PCI-Express x1 slots -

3. PCI Express x1 Slots- Slot for modern expansion cards such as sound cards, network cards (Wi-Fi,
Ethernet, Bluetooth), connector cards (USB, FireWire, eSATA) and certain low-end graphics cards.

4. PCI Express x16 Slot- Slot for discrete graphic cards and high bandwidth devices such as top-end
solid state drives. See image below for a close-up view.

5. Northbridge- Also known as Memory Controller Hub (MCH).

Chipset that allows the CPU to communicate with the RAM and graphics card.

6. CPU Socket

Processor sockets
Please select socket type below to view detailed socket information.
CPU Sockets

Pin Bus Frequency

Socket CPU families Frequency (MHz)
count (MHz)

Slot 1 / SC242 242 Intel Celeron 233 - 1000 66 - 133

Intel Pentium II
Intel Pentium III

Socket 7 321 AMD K5 / K6 / K6-2 / K6-III 75 - 570 50 - 100

Cyrix 6x86, 6x86L, 6x86MX, MII
IBM 6x86, 6x86L, 6x86MX
IDT Winchip 2, Winchip C6
Intel Pentium, Pentium MMX
Rise Technology MP6
ST 6x86

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 CPU Sockets

Pin
Frequency Bus Frequency
Socket coun CPU families
(MHz) (MHz)
t

Slot 1 / SC242 242 Intel Celeron 233 - 1000 66 - 133

Intel Pentium II
Intel Pentium III

Socket 7 321 AMD K5 / K6 / K6-2 / K6-III 75 - 570 50 - 100

Cyrix 6x86, 6x86L, 6x86MX, MII
IBM 6x86, 6x86L, 6x86MX
IDT Winchip 2, Winchip C6
Intel Pentium, Pentium MMX
Rise Technology MP6
ST 6x86

Socket 370 / PGA370 370 Intel Celeron 300 - 1500 66 - 133

Intel Pentium III
VIA C3

Socket 423 / PGA423 423 Intel Pentium 4 1300 - 2000 400

Socket 462 / A 462 AMD Athlon 600 - 2333 200 - 400

AMD Athlon MP
AMD Athlon XP
AMD Athlon XP-M
AMD Duron
AMD Geode NX
AMD Mobile Athlon 4
AMD Mobile Duron
AMD Sempron

Socket 478 / mPGA478B 478 Intel Celeron 1200 - 3467 400 - 800
Intel Celeron D
Intel Embedded Celeron
Intel Mobile Celeron
Intel Mobile Pentium 4
Intel Mobile Pentium 4-M
Intel Pentium 4
Intel Pentium 4 Extreme Edition

Socket 479 / mPGA479M 479 Intel Celeron M, Core 2 Duo Mobile, 866 - 2333 133 - 667
Core Duo, Core Solo, Mobile Celeron,
Pentium Dual-Core Mobile,
Pentium III-M, Pentium M,
VIA C7

Socket 563 / PGA563 563 AMD Athlon XP-M 1000 - 1800 200 - 266

Socket 754 754 AMD Athlon 64 1000 - 2600 800 (HT)

AMD Mobile Athlon 64
AMD Mobile K8 Athlon XP-M
AMD Mobile Sempron
AMD Sempron
AMD Turion 64 Mobile technology

Socket 775 / LGA775 / T 775 Intel Celeron 1600 - 3800 533 - 1600

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 CPU Sockets

Pin
Frequency Bus Frequency
Socket coun CPU families
(MHz) (MHz)
t

Intel Celeron D
Intel Celeron Dual-Core
Intel Core 2 Duo
Intel Core 2 Extreme
Intel Core 2 Quad
Intel Pentium 4
Intel Pentium 4 Extreme Edition
Intel Pentium D
Intel Pentium Dual-Core
Intel Pentium Extreme Edition
Intel Xeon

Socket 939 939 AMD Athlon 64 1800 - 3000 800 (HT)

AMD Athlon 64 FX
AMD Athlon 64 X2
AMD Dual-Core Opteron
AMD Opteron
AMD Sempron

Socket 940 940 AMD Athlon 64 FX 1400 - 3000

AMD Dual-Core Opteron
AMD Opteron

Socket 1150 / H3 / 1150 Intel Core i3 1100 - 3600

LGA1150 Intel Core i5
Intel Core i7
Intel Pentium Dual-Core
Intel Xeon

Socket 1155 / H2 / 1155 Intel Celeron Dual-Core 1200 - 3700

LGA1155 Intel Core i3
Intel Core i5
Intel Core i7
Intel Pentium Dual-Core
Intel Xeon

Socket 1156 / H1 / 1156 Intel Celeron Dual-Core 1867 - 3600

LGA1156 Intel Core i3
Intel Core i5
Intel Core i7
Intel Pentium Dual-Core
Intel Xeon

Socket 1366 / B / LGA1366 1366 Intel Core i7 1600 - 4400 2400 (QPI) - 3200
Intel Core i7 Extreme Edition (QPI)
Intel Xeon

Socket AM2 940 AMD Athlon 64, Athlon 64 FX, 1000 - 3200
Athlon 64 X2, Mobile Athlon 64 X2,
K8 Sempron, Phenom X3,
Phenom X4, Second Generation
Opteron

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 CPU Sockets

Pin
Frequency Bus Frequency
Socket coun CPU families
(MHz) (MHz)
t

Socket FM1 905 AMD A4-Series 2100 - 3000

AMD A6-Series
AMD A8-Series
AMD Athlon II X2
AMD Athlon II X4
AMD E2-Series
AMD Sempron X2

Socket FS1 722 AMD A4-Series for Notebooks 1400 - 2300

AMD A6-Series for Notebooks
AMD A8-Series for Notebooks
AMD E2-Series for Notebooks

Socket G1 / rPGA988A 988 Intel Core i3 Mobile 1600 - 2800

Intel Core i5 Mobile
Intel Core i7 Mobile
Intel Core i7 Mobile Extreme Edition
Intel Mobile Celeron Dual-Core
Intel Pentium Dual-Core Mobile

Socket G2 / rPGA988B 988 Intel Core i3 Mobile 1500 - 3000

Intel Core i5 Mobile
Intel Core i7 Mobile
Intel Core i7 Mobile Extreme Edition
Intel Mobile Celeron Dual-Core
Intel Pentium Dual-Core Mobile

Socket M / mPGA478MT 478 Intel Celeron M 1467 - 2333 533 - 667

Intel Core 2 Duo Mobile
Intel Core Duo
Intel Core Solo
Intel Pentium Dual-Core Mobile

Socket S1 (S1g4) 638 Athlon II Dual-Core Mobile, 1600 - 3200 1600 - 1800 (HT)
Phenom II Dual-Core Mobile,
Phenom II Quad-Core Mobile,
Phenom II Triple-Core Mobile,
Sempron Mobile,
Turion II Dual-Core Mobile,
V Series for Notebook PCs

Information on some modern CPU sockets, such as socket 771, Socket P, socket S1 and others is not yet available.

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7. ATX 12V Power Connector- Connects to the
4-pin power cable of a power supply unit which
supplies power to the CPU.

8. Front Panel USB 2.0 Connectors

Connects to USB 2.0 ports at the front or top of

a computer case.

9. Front Panel Connectors

Connects to the power switch, reset

switch, power LED, hard drive LED
and front audio ports of a computer
case. See image above for a close-up
view

10. IDE Connector - Connects to older hard drive disks and optical drives for data transfer.

11. CMOS Battery - Supplies power to store BIOS settings and keep the real-time clock running. See
image above for a close-up view.
The CMOS battery found on most motherboards is the CR2032 lithium coin cell.

12. Southbridge

Also known as the Input/Output Controller Hub

(ICH).- Chipset that allows the CPU to
communicate with PCI slots, PCI-Express x 1 slots
(expansion cards), SATA connectors (hard drives,
optical drives), USB ports (USB devices), Ethernet
ports and on-board audio.

13. SATA Connectors - Connects to modern hard

disk drives, solid state drives and optical drives
for data transfer. See image above for a close-up
view.

14. Fan Headers -Supplies power to the CPU heat

sink fan and computer case fans.

15. RAM Slots - A memory slot, memory

socket, or RAM slot is what allows computer
memory (RAM) to be inserted into the computer. Depending on the motherboard, there will usually be
2 to 4 memory slots(sometimes more on high-end motherboards) and are what determine the type of
RAM used with the computer. The most common types of RAM are SDRAM and DDR for desktop
computers and SODIMMfor laptop computers, each having various types and speeds.

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 In the below picture, is an example of what memory slots may look like inside a desktop computer. In
this picture, there are three open available slots for three memory sticks.

16. ATX Power Connector- Connects to the 24-pin ATX

power cable of a power supply unit which supplies power to
the motherboard.

17. SATA Connector

Connects to a mSATA solid state drive. In most cases, this

SSD is used as cache to speed up hard disk drives, but it's
possible to re-purpose it as a regular hard drive.(mini-sata)

18. Front Panel USB 3.0 Connector- Connects to USB 3.0 ports at the front or top of the computer case.

19. Power & Reset Button- Onboard button to turn on, turn off and reboot the computer.
This motherboard component is more common among high end boards.

20. Bios

What is the Basic Input Output System (BIOS)?

BIOS explained

BIOS is an acronym for Basic Input Output System. It is the program that stores configuration details about your computer hardware and
enables your computer to boot up. Every time your computer is switched on the BIOS loads configuration data into main memory, performs a
routine diagnostic test on your hardware, then loads the operating system.

The BIOS resides in a ROM (Read-Only memory) chip, which is mounted on the motherboard, usually in a
socket so it is removable.To the right is an example of what a BIOS chip may look like in your
motherboard. This is a PLCC 32 pin type BIOS chip. It is a very common type. More information on BIOS
chips can be found at bioschip.com

Every computer has BIOS. There are many types but the most common type of BIOS 's come from: AMI,
Award and Phoenix. Motherboard manufacturers buy or lease the BIOS source code from these
companies.

The BIOS tells the operating system in your computer how to boot up, where to load everything, what to load, whats memory and CPU are present and
much much more.

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 A good comparison to further understand the functionality of the BIOS would be to
say that the BIOS is the Computer equivilant of the human hypothalamus.

The hypothalamus regulates body temperature, blood pressure, heartbeat,

metabolism of fats and carbohydrates, and sugar levels in the blood. It is the
subconscious nervous system sometimes it's called the brain of the brain.

In a PC we all know that the CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the brain. Well the
BIOS is the CPU's brain. Without a Hypothalamus you will die. Without a BIOS
your PC is a paper weight.

The BIOS is programmed on an EEPROM. We refer to them as BIOS chips.

Other names you may hear are: Firmware Hub, CMOS, ROM Chip IC, Flash Rom
and I am sure there are a few more! If you want a common term for all these
itesm when refering to motherboards, BIOS chip is the the most common term
used.

Here are all the terms mentioned above with a description of what they actaully mean:

CMOS =(complementary metal-oxide semiconductor) A semiconductor technology that uses less power and generates less heat
(enabling higher circuit density) than bipolar semiconductor technologies

Firmware = A category of memory chips that hold their content without electrical power. They include read-only memory (ROM),
programmable ROM (PROM) and electronically erasable PROM (EEPROM) technologies. Firmware becomes "hard software" when holding
program code. The contents are generally permanent or semipermanent control coding implemented at a microinstruction level for an
application program, instruction set, operating routine or similar user-oriented function. NOTE: Intel calls their BIOS chips Firmware Hubs.

EEPROM= (electrically erasable programmable ROM)

A type of programmable read-only memory (ROM) that can be erased or updated using electrical signals, a process often performed
remotely.

ROM =(read-only memory) Data stored in computer memory that can be accessed and read by the user, but not modified. ROM is often
permanent, and stores system control software.

flash memory=A nonvolatile storage chip that enables easy electrical erasability and reprogramming, often used to remotely update routers
or modems with new versions of software.

IC= (integrated circuit)An assembly of electronic circuits contained on a single piece of semiconductor material.

So, a BIOS chip is an IC, CMOS, EEPROM, Flash memory , Firmware chip that holds software called the BIOS. The BIOS is programmable
via software (flash programs such as AMIFLASH, AWDFLASH, PHLASH or Uniflash. You can see a link to these programs here here: BIOS
Flash utils.

For the person who still has no idea about the BIOS on your PC, notice when you first turn on your PC or laptop a few screens pop up. It
might be a logo such as DELL or HP or ASUS, Tyan , AMI BIOS, AWARD BIOS etc. You might also see a memory count . This is all part of
the POST (Power On Self Test). POST is a test the BIOS runs before it hands over control to the OS (Operating System). You can see more
of the post if you disable the logo option in your BIOS. Otherwise just know that if you see a logo the POST is running. For more infor on the
POST click here: Power On Self Test.. You can read all about the POST codes etc on that site.

Well eventually I will add some settings to help you optimize your BIOS but for now I'll finish with a recommendation. Do not flash your
motherboard BIOS! If you feel you need to update your BIOS buy a pre programmed BIOS update chip from BIOSMAN.com. Flashing your
BIOS is risky. If anything goes wrong while you're flashing it your motherboard / PC is now a paperweight! Click here to buy a BIOS Update
Chip

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There are two methods to update yiour BIOS chip:

1. Flash it (software method)

2. Program it with an EEPROM programmer. This is a hardware method . This is how we at BIOSMAN program sall our BIOS chips.

It is much more thorough than a flash. Think of it like a hard drive. if you "format c: / "a hard drive you wipe out all the contents Or do you?
Not really. That data is still recoverable. if you really want to clean the drive or start with a fresh drive you write O's and 1's to it, this is also
known as a low-level format . Utilities such as wipe.exe will accomplish this. If you don't low level format your HD before loading it or selling
it then you have pretty much left all your old data on the drive. Flashing a BIOS chip is the same procedure. It basically writes on top of the
data already on the BIOS chip. The Boot Block won't be written over unless you specify it to be but for some BIOS's you have to (See AMI
BIOS flash)!! An EEPROM programmer wipes the chip clean before writing the new BIOS to it. This is just one reason why buying a new
BIOS chip from us is preferable to flashing one yourself. Ok I sort of skipped oiver what a boot block is so let me cover that. The Boot block is
a section of a BIOS chip that won't be programmed. It contains a small amount of information. For instance, in an AMI BIOS the boot block
contains the AMIFLASH.exe flash program and some code to allow it to run if the "CTRL" and "Home" keys are pressed on the keyboard. It
will basically recover your BIOS if the flash went bad. You can read about AMI BIOS recovery and AWARD BIOS recovery here:AMI
BIOS and AWARD BIOS. Oh yeah if you're wondering why I left off the Phoenix BIOS recovery technique, well there isnt' one! That's just
another reason to buy a BIOS chip vs. trying to flash one!

Ok so now hopefully you are convinced to not flash your BIOS using a software utility. You also don't want to buy an EEPROM programmer
for $1500.00 so just fork out the $25.00 and buy yoiur new BIOS update from BIOSMAN.COM! Ok so i'm pushing our store on you but
BIOSMAN came into existence for a reason. 100's of people buy BIOS's every month from us because their system is down due to a
failed flash! Why not be pro active rather then re active? Think of it like having a spare battery for your flashlight. Why wait till a power
outtage to realize your batteries are dead? Speaking of power outtage, one of the top reasons for a BIOS flash failure is that there is a
power outtage or a break in power to the PC while the flash is in progress.. Just another for the 1000's of reasons why not to attempt a BIOS
update yourself!

What is the difference between BIOS and CMOS?

The BIOS and CMOS are often times thought to be the same thing, but they are not. They are two different
components of a computer, but they do work together to make the computer function properly. The BIOS is a
computer chip on the motherboard. This chip contains a special program that helps the computer processor interact
and control the other components in the computer. These other components include disc drives, video cards, sound
cards, network cards, floppy drives, USB ports, hard drives, and others. Without the BIOS, the CPU would not know
how to interact or interface with the computer components, and the computer would not be able to function.

The CMOS is also a computer chip on the motherboard, but more specifically, it is a RAM chip. This is a type of
memory chip which stores information about the computer components, as well as various settings for those
components and other variables. However, normal RAM chips lose the information stored in them when power is no
longer supplied to them. In order to retain the information in the CMOS chip, a CMOS battery on the motherboard
supplies constant power to that CMOS chip. If the battery is removed from the motherboard or runs out of juice (e.g. a
dead CMOS battery), the CMOS would lose the information stored in it. Any settings you made in the CMOS setup
would be lost, and you would need to make those settings changes again after a new CMOS battery was put on the
motherboard. For example, with a dead CMOS battery the time and date will reset back to the manufactured date if it
has been off for a long period of time.

The BIOS program on the BIOS chip reads information from the CMOS chip when the computer is starting up, during
the boot up process. You may notice on the initial start up screen, called the POST screen, an option is available to
enter the BIOS or CMOS setup. When you enter this setup area, you are entering the CMOS setup, not the BIOS setup.
The BIOS chip and program cannot be updated directly by a user. The only way to update the BIOS is using a BIOS
flash program called a BIOS update, which updates the BIOS to a different version. These updates usually are
provided by either the motherboard manufacturer or the computer manufacturer.

The CMOS setup lets you change the time and date and settings for how devices are loaded at start up, like hard
drives, CD and DVD drives and floppy drives. The CMOS setup lets you enable and disable various hardware devices,
including USB ports, the onboard video card and sound card (if present), parallel and serial ports, and other devices.

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Motherboard main bus
To get anything done with a computer you have to get the information you input to the CPU and then to any attached
devices such as cards, displays, and other output devices. Inside the computer itself, this information travels in the
form of signals over what is known as a bus. You can think of a bus as a road and the signals as cars. A wide road
(bus) can support more cars (signals), and a smaller road (bus) supports less. The cars (signals) on the road (bus)
have a speed limit (the bus speed). Although a speed limit can be broken (an overclocked bus) doing so can have
adverse effects on the cars (signals).

Going along with this analogy: A computer is like a small city. You do not have just one road, but instead you have
several different roads with different names and speeds.

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 There are three main buses in most computers:

1 )PCI Bus- The PCI bus connects your expansion cards and drives to your processor
and other sub systems. On most systems the bus speed of the PCI bus is 33MHz. If you
go higher than that, then cards, drives, and other devices can have problems. The
exception to this is found in servers. In some servers you have a special 64-bit (extra
wide) 66MHz PCI slots that can accept special high-speed cards. Think of this as a double
sized passing lane on a major road that allows higher cars to go through. For information
about PCI Express please see the PCI Express Guide.

2) AGP Bus- The AGP bus connects your video card directly to your memory and processor. It is very
high speed compared to standard PCI and has a standard speed of 66MHz. Only one device can be
hooked to the AGP bus as it only supports one video card so the speed is better compared to the PCI
bus, which has many devices on it at once.

3) Front Side Bus (FSB) - The Front Side Bus is the most important bus to consider when you are
talking about the performance of a computer. The FSB connects the processor (CPU) in your computer
to the system memory. The faster the FSB is, the faster you can get data to your processor. The faster
you get data to the processor, the faster your processor can do work on it. The speed of the front side
bus depends on the processor and motherboard chipset you are using as well as the system clock.

Classification of Motherboards

Integrated Motherboards

Integrated motherboards have all the peripheral device slots,

input output ports, serial and parallel ports are mounted on the
board. The connectors for the various devices such as the hard
drive connector and floppy disk drive connector are installed
directly on to the motherboard. This arrangement saves a lot of
space inside the system. Integrated boards are cheaper in cost as
compared to non-integrated motherboards. The major
disadvantage of these types of motherboards are that if an
individual component of the motherboard fails, the whole board
may need to be replaced and that can be a costly affair at times.

Non-integrated Motherboards
Non-Integrated motherboards have RAM slots integrated on the
board. All the input-output ports for devices such as the serial and
parallel port connectors, other c
ontrollers such as connectors for hard drive and floppy disk drives are attached to the system using
expansion boards. Expansion boards use more space of the cabinet. If any one of the expansion boards
fate, only those particular expansions board needs to be replaced and not the whole board. This type
of board is more costly as compared to integrated board as all the devices and ports, and other
connectors for the devices need to be installed individually.
The Non-integrated Motherboards are almost extinct because these types of motherboards are costly
and not very space efficient. Desktop Motherboards Desktop Motherboards is used in personal
computers and desktops. As it is used for applications at home and in office, this type of motherboard
is the most basic type.

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Main components and Descriptions of motherboard

Cpu slot/socket- A CPU socket or CPU slot is a mechanical component that provides mechanical and
electrical connections between a microprocessor and a printed circuit board (PCB). This allows the CPU
to be replaced without soldering.

Physical interface for microprocessors

LGA- The land grid array (LGA) is a type of surface-mount packaging for integrated circuits (ICs) that
is notable for having the pins on thesocket rather than the integrated circuit. An LGA can be
electrically connected to a printed circuit board (PCB) either by
the use of a socket or by soldering directly to the board.

PGA- Short for pin grid array, a type of chip package in which
the connectingpins are located on the bottom in concentric
squares. PGA chips are particularly good for chips that have many pins, such as
modernmicroprocessors.

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Activity 1.1

1. The main goal is to connect all the hardware together like hard drives, memory
modules, CPU, etc...A computer mother board is made of several parts, and each one
has a hardware that can be connected to it._____________
2. ___________connects your expansion cards and drives to your processor and other sub
systems. On most systems the bus speed of the PCI bus is ________.
3. What is the difference between atx and itx? _____________________________.
4. Atx mobo, measured? _________________
5. full atx mobo measured?__________________________
6. This form factor of motherboard is even smaller than the standard atx motherboard?
____________________
7. This (mini itx) motherboard is the smallest variation standard of atx motherboard
This is measured.____________________
8. This form factor motherboard is used in a slim line style desktop computers.______.
9. The processor is at the front and turned on an angle to increase air flow across the
processor.________________
10. It is very high speed compared to standard PCI and has a standard speed of
66MHz._________________
11. Connects the processor CPU in your computer to the system memory._________.
12. _______________ is a mechanical component that provides mechanical and electrical
connections between a microprocessor and a printed circuit board.
13. What are the two classification of motherboard? _______________________________.
14. A type of chip package in which the connectingpins are located on the bottom in
concentric squares.__________________
15. Is a type of surface-mount packaging for integrated circuits (ICs) that is notable for
having the pins on thesocket rather than the integrated circuit._____________.
16. Also known as IEEE 1394.______________.
17. holds the most important data for your machine, if configured incorrectly it could cause
your computer not to boot correctly or not at all.________________________.
18. The connector to which you will insert an IDE cable (supplied with motherboard) IDE
cables connect devices such as hard disks, CD Drives and DVD
Drives.________________________.
19. It gives the board a small amount of power in order to store some vital data on your
machine when the power is off.
20. Drives have the capability of being faster than the IDE counterparts and also have
smaller thinner cables which help with the airflow of the system.________________.

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 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

Cental processing unit/cpu - The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is responsible for interpreting and
executing most of the commands from the computer'shardware and software.The CPU could be
considered the "brains" of the computer.
Different types of processors- There are two primary manufacturers of computer microprocessors.
Intel and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) lead the market in terms of speed and quality. Intel's desktop
CPUs include Celeron, Pentium and Core. AMD's desktop processors include Sempron, Athlon and
Phenom. Intel makes Celeron M, Pentium M and Core mobile processors for notebooks. AMD makes
mobile versions of its Sempron and Athlon, as well as the Turion mobile processor which comes in Ultra
and Dual-Core versions. Both companies make both single-core and multi-core processors.

INTEL(INTEGRATED ELECTRONICS) AMD(ADVANCE MICRO DEVICES)

K7 architecture (1999–2005)
Athlon (Slot A) (Argon, Pluto/Orion, Thunderbird) (1999)
Athlon (Socket A) (Thunderbird) (2000)
Duron (Spitfire, Morgan, Applebred) (2000)
Athlon MP (Palomino, Thoroughbred, Barton, Thorton) (2001)
Mobile Athlon 4 (Corvette/Mobile Palomino) (2001)
Athlon XP (Palomino, Thoroughbred (A/B), Barton, Thorton) (2001)
Mobile Athlon XP (Mobile Palomino) (2002)
Mobile Duron (Camaro/Mobile Morgan) (2002)
Sempron (Thoroughbred, Thorton, Barton) (2004)
Mobile Sempron
[edit]K8 core architecture
K8 series (2003–) Families: Opteron, Athlon 64, Sempron, Turion 64, Athlon 64 X2, Turion 64 X2
Opteron (SledgeHammer) (2003)
Athlon 64 FX (SledgeHammer) (2003)
Athlon 64 (ClawHammer/Newcastle) (2003)
Mobile Athlon 64 (Newcastle) (2004)
Athlon XP-M (Dublin) (2004) Note: AMD64 disabled
Sempron (Paris) (2004) Note: AMD64 disabled
Athlon 64 (Winchester) (2004)
Turion 64 (Lancaster) (2005)
Athlon 64 FX (San Diego) (1st half 2005)
Athlon 64 (San Diego/Venice) (1st half 2005)
Sempron (Palermo) (1st half 2005)
Athlon 64 X2 (Manchester) (1st half 2005)
Athlon 64 X2 (Toledo) (1st half 2005)
Athlon 64 FX (Toledo) (2nd half 2005)
Turion 64 X2 (Taylor) (1st half 2006)
Athlon 64 X2 (Windsor) (1st half 2006)
Athlon 64 FX (Windsor) (1st half 2006)
Athlon 64 X2 (Brisbane) (2nd half 2006)
Athlon 64 (Orleans) (2nd half 2006)
Sempron (Manila) (1st half 2006)
Sempron (Sparta)
Opteron (Santa Rosa)

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Opteron (Santa Ana)
Mobile Sempron
[edit]K10 core architecture
K10 series CPUs (2007-)
Opteron (Barcelona) (10 September 2007)
Phenom FX (Agena FX) (Q1 2008)
Phenom X4 (9-series) (Agena) (19 November 2007[1])
Phenom X3 (8-series) (Toliman) (April 2008[2])
Athlon 6-series (Kuma) (February 2007[3])
Athlon 4-series (Kuma) (2008)
Athlon X2 (Rana) (Q4 2007)
Sempron (Spica)
Opteron (Budapest)
Opteron (Shanghai)
Opteron (Magny-Cours)
Phenom II (X4 in January 8, 2009, X6 in April 27, 2010)
Athlon II
Turion II (Caspian) More info
K10 series APUs (2011-)
Llano AMD Fusion (K10 cores + Redwood-class GPU) (launch Q2 2011)
[edit]Bulldozer module architecture
Bulldozer series CPUs (2011–)
Interlagos Opteron (Bulldozer core) (launch Q4 2011)
Zambezi (Bulldozer core) (launch Q4 2011)
Vishera (Bulldozer core) (launch Q4 2012)
[edit]Bobcat core architecture
Bobcat series APUs (2011-)
Ontario (Bobcat cores + Cedar-class GPU) (launch Q1 2011)
Zacate (Bobcat cores + Cedar-class GPU) (launch Q1 2011)

cpu architecture

The terms 32-bit and 64-bit refer to the way a computer's processor (also called a CPU), handles
information. The 64-bit version of Windows handles large amounts of random access memory (RAM)
more effectively than a 32-bit system. Technically x86 simply refers to a family of processors and the
instruction set they all use. It doesn't actually say anything specific about data sizes.

x86 started out as a 16-bit instruction set for 16-bit processors (the 8086 and 8088 processors), then
was extended to a 32-bit instruction set for 32-bit processors (80386 and 80486), and now has been
extended to a 64-bit instruction set for 64-bit processors. It used to be written as 80x86 to reflect the
changing value in the middle of the chip model numbers, but somewhere along the line the 80 in the
front was dropped, leaving just x86.

Blame the Pentium and it's offspring for changing the way in which processors were named and
marketed, although all newer processors using Intel's x86 instruction set are still referred to as x86,
i386, or i686 compatible (which means they all use extensions of the original 8086 instruction set).

x64 is really the odd man out here. The first name for the 64-bit extension to the x86 set was called
x86-64. It was later named to AMD64 (because AMD were the ones to come up with the 64-bit
extension originally). Intel licensed the 64-bit instruction set
and named their version EM64T. Both instruction sets and the
processors that use them are all still considered x86.

Cpu core- The "core" in a processor is the microprocessor

inside of the CPU(Central Processing Unit).
For example, if you have a Dual Core CPU then you have 2
microprocessors inside of the CPU, this allows you to do two
things at once, as a microprocessor can only do one thing at a
time the only exception to this is Multi-Threading which allows
one core to do the work of multiple cores, but its not as fast as
having multiple cores.

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Hyper threading technology-
Hyper-Threading is where two threads are able to run on one
single-threaded core. When a thread on the core in question is
stalling or in a halt state, hyper-threading enables the core to
work on a second thread instead.
Hyper-threading makes the OS think that the processor has
double the number of cores, and often yields a performance improvement, but only in the region of 15-
30% overall - though in some circumstances, there may actually be a performance hit (=<20%).

A technology developed by Intel enables multithreaded softwareapplications to execute threads in

parallel on a single multi-core processor instead of processing threads in a linear fashion. Older
systems took advantage of dual-processing threading in software by splitting instructions into multiple
streams so that more than one processor could act upon
them at once.

HyperTransport™

Technology is a high-speed, low latency, point-to-point link

designed to increase the communication speed between
integrated circuits in computers, servers, embedded
systems, and networking and telecommunications
equipment up to 48 times faster than some existing
technologies.
HyperTransport Technology helps reduce the number of
buses in a system, which can reduce system bottlenecks and enable today's faster microprocessors to
use system memory more efficiently in high-end multiprocessor systems.
HyperTransport Technology is designed to:
Provide significantly more bandwidth than current technologies
Use low-latency responses and low pin counts
Maintain compatibility with legacy PC buses while being extensible to new SNA (Systems Network
Architecture) buses
Appear transparent to operating systems and offer little impact on peripheral drivers

Clock speed-
Clock speed is a measure of how quickly a computer
completes basic computations and operations. It is measured
as a frequency in hertz (Hz), and most commonly refers to the
speed of the computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU). While
computer developers and users can refer to this term
regarding CPU performance, this has fallen out of favor as
CPUs have become more complex. The easiest ways to boost
clock speed in a computer include upgrading components and
"overclocking" a piece of hardware.

Cache memory
Cache (pronounced cash) memory is extremely fast memory
that is built into a computer’scentral processing unit (CPU), or
located next to it on a separate chip. The CPU uses cache
memory to store instructions that are repeatedly required to
run programs, improving overall system speed. The advantage
of cache memory is that the CPU does not have to use
themotherboard’s system bus for data transfer. Whenever data
must be passed through the system bus, the data transfer
speed slows to the motherboard’s capability. The CPU can
process data much faster by avoiding the bottleneck created
by the system bus.
As it happens, once most programs are open and running, they
use very few resources. When these resources are kept in cache, programs can operate more quickly
and efficiently. All else being equal, cache is so effective in system performance that a computer

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running a fast CPU with little cache can have lower benchmarks than a system running a somewhat
slower CPU with more cache. Cache built into the CPU itself is referred to as Level 1 (L1) cache. Cache
that resides on a separate chip next to the CPU is called Level 2 (L2) cache. Some CPUs have both L1
and L2 cache built-in and designate the separate cache chip as Level 3 (L3) cache.

Turbo boost technology

Intel® Turbo Boost Technology1 provides even more
performance when needed on 3rd generation Intel® Core™
processor–based systems. Intel® Turbo Boost Technology
2.0 automatically allows processor cores to run faster than
the base operating frequency if they’re operating below
power, current, and temperature specification limits.
Dynamically increasing performance
Intel Turbo Boost Technology 2.0 is activated when the
Operating System (OS) requests the highest processor
performance state (P0).
The maximum frequency of Intel Turbo Boost Technology 2.0 is dependent on the number of

active cores. The amount of time the processor spends in the Intel Turbo Boost Technology 2.0 state
depends on the workload and operating environment.
Any of the following can set the upper limit of Intel Turbo Boost Technology 2.0 on a given workload:
Number of active cores
Estimated current consumption
Estimated power consumption
Processor temperature
When the processor is operating below these limits and the user's workload demands additional
performance, the processor frequency will dynamically increase until the upper limit of frequency is
reached. Intel Turbo Boost Technology 2.0 has multiple algorithms operating in parallel to manage
current, power, and temperature to maximize performance and energy efficiency. Note: Intel Turbo
Boost Technology 2.0 allows the processor to operate at a power level that is higher than its rated
upper power limit (TDP) for short durations to maximize performance.
As an independent and complementary feature, Intel® Hyper-Threading Technology (Intel® HT
Technology) increases performance of both multi-
threaded and single threaded workloads.

Cpu overclocking-

"Overclocking is the process of forcing a computer

component to run at a higher clock rate (the fundamental
rate in cycles per second, measured in hertz, at which a
computer performs its most basic operations such as
adding two numbers or transferring a value from one
processor register to another) than designed or
designated by the manufacturer."

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 Random Access Memory

TYPES OF MEMORY MODULES

SIMMS
SIMM stands for Single In-Line Memory Module. Like other types of memory modules, a
SIMM consist of memory chips soldered onto a modular printed circuit board (PCB), which
inserts into a socket on the motherboard. 72 pin SIMMs transfer 32 bits of data at a time,
therefore in modern microcomputers with a 64-bit data bus two SIMMs have to be paired up in
order to function.

DIMMS
Dual In-line Memory Modules, or DIMMs, closely resemble SIMMs. Like SIMMs, most
DIMMs install vertically into expansion sockets. The principal difference between the two is that
on a SIMM, pins on opposite sides of the board are "tied together" to form one electrical contact;
on a DIMM, opposing pins remain electrically isolated to form two separate contacts.
168-pin DIMMs transfer 64 bits of data at a time and are typically used in computer
configurations that support a 64-bit or wider memory bus. Some of the physical differences
between 168-pin DIMMs and 72-pin SIMMs include: the length of module, the number of
notches on the module, and the way the module installs in the socket. Another difference is that
many 72-pin SIMMs install at a slight angle, whereas 168-pin DIMMs install straight into the
memory socket and remain completely vertical in relation to the system motherboard. The
illustration below compares a 168-pin DIMM to a 72-pin SIMM.

SO DIMMS
A type of memory commonly used in notebook computers is called SO DIMM or Small Outline
DIMM. The principal difference between a SO DIMM and a DIMM is that the SO DIMM,
because it is intended for use in notebook computers, is significantly smaller than the standard
DIMM. The 72-pin SO DIMM is 32 bits wide and the 144-pin SO DIMM is 64 bits wide.

RIMMS AND SO-RIMMS

RIMM is the trademarked name for a Direct Rambus memory module. RIMMs look similar to
DIMMs, but have a different pin count. RIMMs transfer data in 16-bit chunks. The faster access
and transfer speed generates more heat. An aluminum sheath, called a heat spreader, covers the
module to protect the chips from overheating.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RAM

R
a
n
d
o
m

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 access memory/ram- Random access memory or RAM most commonly refers to computer chips that
temporarily store dynamic data to enhance computer performance. Random access memory is volatile
memory, meaning it loses its contents once power is cut. This is different from non-
volatile memory such as hard disks and flash memory, which do not require a power source to retain
data. When a computer shuts down properly, all data located in random access memory is committed
to permanent storage on the hard drive or flash drive. At the next boot-up, RAM begins to fill with
programs automatically loaded at startup, and with files opened by the user.

Memory speed chart

Sdram
Memory type bus speed
Pc 100 100mhz
Pc 133 133mhz

DDR 1/2/3 memory speed chart

The below details described as Memory type (pc2100), speed (266Mhz) ,and bus speed (133Mhz)
DDR1
DDR1 - PC2100 - 266Mhz - 133MHz
DDR1 - PC2700 - 333MHz - 166MHz
DDR1 - PC3200 - 400MHz - 200MHz
DDR1 - PC3500 - 433MHz - 216MHz
DDR1 - PC3700 - 466MHz - 233MHz
DDR1 - PC4000 - 500MHz - 250MHz
DDR1 - PC4200 - 533MHz - 266MHz
DDR1 - PC4400 - 550MHz - 275MHz
DDR1 - PC4500 - 566MHz - 283MHz
DDR1 - PC4800 - 600MHz - 300MHz
DDR1 - PC5000 - 625MHz - 313MHz
DDR2
DDR2 - PC2-4200 - 533MHz - 266MHz
DDR2 - PC2-5400 - 667MHz - 333MHz
DDR2 - PC2-6000 - 750MHz - 375MHz
DDR2 - PC2-6400 - 800MHz - 400MHz
DDR2 - PC2-8000 - 1000MHz - 500MHz
DDR2 - PC2-8800 - 1100MHz - 550MHz
DDR2 - PC2-9000 - 1120MHz - 560MHz
DDR3
DDR3 - PC3-6400 - 800MHz - 400MHz
DDR3 - PC3-8500 - 1066MHz - 533MHz
DDR3 - PC3-10666 - 1333MHz - 667MHz
DDR3 - PC3-12800 - 1600MHz - 800MHz
DDR3 - PC3-14400 - 1800MHz - 900MHz
DDR3 - PC3-16000 - 2000MHz - 1000MHz

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 POWER SUPPY UNIT
What is Electricity?

What is electricity? It's a lot easier to describe what it does than what it is. For example, electricity operates our lights, runs our
refrigerators and powers our electric motors.

The word "electric" comes from the Greek word "amber" and has been used to describe a wide range of related phenomena.
We can't see electricity, but we can see its effects, such as light.

Electricity can exist in a number of forms, but there are two types of commonly used electricity:

Direct Current, which is provided by batteries, and . . .

Alternating Current which is provided by electric utilities or other power generators in the form of electrons -- called current --
flowing through a wire -- called a conductor.

Conductors

Materials that are made up of atoms whose electrons are easily freed are called conductive materials or "conductors".
Platinum, gold, and silver are examples of the very best conductors of electricity. Gold is used extensively in small quantities for
high-value products like microelectronics, high quality audio components, computer chips and telecommunications satellites.

Copper and aluminum are also quite excellent conductors of electricity and much less expensive. Almost all electrical wiring is
aluminum or copper.

Insulators

Insulators are materials that have structural properties exactly opposite of conductors. These materials are made up of atoms
whose electrons are not easily "freed". These electrons are said to be tightly bound to the nucleus, and are very stable.

Insulators are used to prevent the flow of electrical current. The rubberized power cord and plastic coverings on appliances are
typical examples of insulators. Glass, rubber, porcelain, and most plastics are good insulators.

Voltage

Voltage is the electrical force that causes free electrons to move from one atom to another. Just as water needs some pressure
to force it through a pipe, electrical current needs some force to make it flow. "Volts" is the measure of "electrical pressure"
that causes current flow. Voltage is sometimes referred to as the measure of a potential difference between two points along a
conductor.

Voltage is typically supplied by either a generator or battery. Generators are analogous to a water pump in a water piping
system, and batteries are similar to water towers. Both systems have a potential difference between the source of the power
and someplace downstream from the source.

The scientific symbol for voltage is an "E", dating to early days of electricity when it was called the "Electromotive force".
Scientists and engineers use the "E" symbol for voltage, while electricians and wiring books use "V" as the voltage symbol. This
can create some confusion, since either may be encountered. In this title, we'll use the practical symbol "V" for voltage.

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Current

Current is a measure of the rate of electron flow through a material. Electrical current is measured in units of amperes or
"amps" for short. This flow of electrical current develops when electrons are forced from one atom to another.

Resistance

Electrical resistance is defined as the resistance to flow of electricity through a material. Even the best conductors, such as gold,
have some resistance. Resistance elements essentially fall somewhere between a conductor and an insulator. Resistance can
also be considered a measurement of how tightly a material holds onto its electrons. For example, common resistance
elements in a circuit are lights, motors, and electrical resistance heaters.

The electrical resistance of a material is measured in units called "ohms". The lower the resistance of a material, the better the
material acts as a conductor. For example, copper has a lower electrical resistance than aluminum; copper is a better
conductor.

Power

The ability to do work. Watt is the standard unit in the metric system. 746 watts equals one horsepower in the English system of
units.

Energy

Electrical energy is the average amount of power used over a given time period and is
commonly measured in "kilowatt-hours." Electric utility electric meters accurately measure
the kilowatt-hour energy use by the customer, and may also measure peak power use during
a specified time interval.

Let's calculate the energy use for a blow dryer. Say the blow dryer is rated at 1,500 watts by
the manufacturer. This is how much electric power it uses when it operates. If the blow dryer
is operated for a total of 2 hours each month, the blow dryer consumes 1,500 watts x 2 hours = 3000 watt-hours. Since utility
rates are based on kilowatt-hours, divide by 1,000 to get 3 kilowatt-hours. This shows how power consumption and operating
time are important in determining energy use.

Binary Code
What Is Binary Code?

People use all kinds of symbols, sounds, colors and body motions to express themselves. These expressions are, in a sense,
codes—signals we use to communicate with one another.

Computers use a special code of their own to express the digital information they process. It's called the binary code because it
consists of only two symbols—0s and 1s. (The "bi" in "binary" means two.)
Why 0s and 1s? Because those are the only two numbers you need to express the flow of electricity through a transistor. It's
either on or it's off. On is 1, off is 0. Everything you say to a computer has to be put in terms of these two numbers.

Binary

1. Binary is a base 2 8-bit number system represented by the numeric values of 0

or 1, also known as OFF or ON, and is the primary language that computers use to
communicate. Today's computers still use binary because it is the easiest and
most efficient method of detecting an electrical signal as being either off or on,
detecting magnetic poles with with magnetic media like a hard drive, and because
it is the most efficient way to control logic circuits. In the famous saying shown in the picture, those who understand binary will

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 realize this quote actually says "There are only 2 types of people in the world: Those who understand binary and those who
don't." because 10 in binary is 2.

Below is an example of the maximum 8-bit value of 255, which is 11111111 in binary. To get this value add each column, so 1 +
2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128 = 255.

Value: 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

ON/OFF: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Tip: Counting on a computer normally start with 0, instead of 1. Therefore, counting all the bits does equal 255, however, if you
start at 0, it is really 256.

Below is another example of 10001101, which is 141 or 1 + 4 + 8 + 128.

Value: 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

ON/OFF: 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

Logic Gate

http://www.wisc-online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=DIG1302

Logic gates perform basic logical functions and are the are the fundamental building blocks of digital integrated circuits. Most
logic gates take an input of two binary values, and output a single value of a 1 or 0. Some circuits may have only a few logic
gates, while others, such asmicroprocessors, may have millions of them. There are seven different types of logic gates, which
are outlined below.

In the following examples, each logic gate except the NOT gate has two inputs, A and B, which can either be 1 (True) or 0
(False). The resulting output is a single value of 1 if the result is true, or 0 if the result is false.

By combining thousands or millions of logic gates, it is possible to perform highly complex operations. The maximum number of
logic gates on an integrated circuit is determined by the size of the chip divided by the size of the logic gates. Since transistors
make up most of the logic gates in computer processors, smaller transistors mean more complex and faster processors.

Metric Multiplication Units

Term Abbreviation Value (Scientific) Value (Normal)
12
Tera T 1 x 10 1,000,000,000,000
Giga G 1 x 109 1,000,000,000
Mega M 1 x 106 1,000,000
3
kilo k (lower case) 1 x 10 1,000
Units - 1 1
-3
Milli m 1 x 10 1 / 1,000
Micro μ or u 1 x 10-6 1 / 1,000,000
Nano n 1 x 10-9 1 / 1,000,000,000
-12
Pico p 1 x 10 1 / 1,000,000,000,000

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Power supply/psu- A power supply unit (PSU) converts mains AC to
low-voltage regulated DC power for the internal components of the
computer. Modern personal computers universally use aswitched-
mode power supply. Some power supplies have a manual selector
for input voltage, while others automatically adapt to the supply

voltage.

Video cards

Video cards-A video card (also called a display card, graphics card, graphics board, display
adapter or graphics adapter) is an expansion card which generates a feed of output images to a
display. The video card is an expansion card that allows the computer to send graphical information to
a video display device such as amonitor or projector.

Graphics cards control the process of rendering information from your computer into pixels that
translate onto the monitor. Graphics cards are equipped with processors that handle image rendering,
as well as RAM which allows the graphics card to process the information faster. Graphics cards fit into
expansion slots located on the computer motherboard and can be PCI, AGP or PCIe. The type of
graphics card used is dependant on the capabilities of the motherboard installed in the computer.

Types Graphics cards are classified as being either PCI cards, AGP cards or PCIe cards. Each of these
types of graphics cards respectively exhibit changes in technology which allows the graphics card to
function faster, the most current type being the PCIe graphics card. In order to establish the type of
graphics card needed, it is necessary to consult with the operating manual for your computer system,
or inspect the motherboard of the computer for available expansion slots.

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COMPUTER HARDWARE SERVICING NC2 Page 37
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 Different Card Types:

Video cards come in three different connector types: PCI, AGP, and PCI Express. The slots all look
different and are easily identifiable from each other.

PCI Express

often shortened to PCIe is the latest technology designed to replace AGP and work with the main board
systems to allow larger amounts of bandwidth to be transferred which results in a new level of
graphics and system performance.

AGP
Often brown connectors were introduced as they allowed four times the bandwidth over PCI. Most AGP
video cards are now designed to work only with the newer AGP 2.0 and 3.0 standards.

PCI
These connect into the often white slots of your Motherboard, they have been common on
motherboards since the early 1990's they replaced the ISA standard. They have been replaced by the
newer PCI Express since 2005 onwards.

Connectors

Connector Types:
Many video cards now include various additional output connectors some also include Digital TV tuners
and allow for cable and other video inputs to be relayed through your system. The most common
connectors are defined below.

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VGA

Introduced in 1987, the Video Graphics Array connector (or VGA) is the standard blue 15-pin connector
we have all dealt with. It has also been called RGB, D-sub or “that blue cable”. The VGA cable supports
resolutions from 640×400 to 2048×1536. With the right equipment, you might be able to pinch a little
more res out but that is infrequent. A VGA connection is ANALOG and cable lengths are good up to 25-
30 ft.

DVI
Introduced in 1999, the Digital Visual Interface (or DVI) is the 29-pin connector that came after VGA. It
has been called DVI-DVI-D, the “white one” connector or I. This connector is digital, which means that
data is transmitted and is not affected by noise or distortion. Something else to consider is that when
your display is on its native resolution the DVI the source is based on each pixel on the monitor. When
you use a VGA connector, the pixels are not individually lit and the lit pixels are affected by other
pixels. For those of you with two monitors, one on VGA and one on DVI, you will notice the DVI looks
slight more crisp. This signal is reason behind that. If you have a card that has VGA, DVI and HDMI try
to not to use the VGA and get an adapter for the HDMI. You will get better results. Cable lengths are
good to 15 ft at 1080 while you can go longer with lower resolutions or by using a booster.

HDMI
Introduced in 2003, High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) is the 19-pin digital connector
standard most people tend to favor now. This connector and cable supports any uncompressed video
format and carries eight channels of audio. It also can carry Ethernet and a CEC connection which is
how your Samsung TV can remote control your Samsung Blu-ray through the HDMI cable. Cable length
is generally limited to 16 feet (Category 1) but with a higher quality cable (Category 2) you can go to
almost 50 feet.

Nvidia SLI and ATI Crossfire Technology Explained

NVIDIA SLI (Scalable Link Interface)

NVIDIA SLITM (Scalable Link Interface) technology is a revolutionary approach to scalability and
increased performance. NVIDIA SLI takes advantage of the increased bandwidth of the PCI
ExpressTM bus architecture, and features hardware and software innovations within NVIDIA GPUs
(graphics processing units) and NVIDIA nForce4 MCPs (media and communications processors).
Together the NVIDIA SLI patent-pending technologies work seamlessly to deliver heart-pounding PC
performance.

ATI's (Array Technology Inc.) Crossfire technology, like the Nvidia SLI technology, allows the use of two graphics
cards in a single system with the benefit of boosting the system's graphics capability. Similar to SLI,
Crossfire also uses the PCI-Express 16x architecture to connect graphics cards.

Hard Drives

Hard disk drive/hdd- Alternatively referred to as a hard disk

drive and abbreviated as HD orHDD, the hard drive is
the computer's main storage media device that permanently stores
all data on the computer. The hard drive was first introduced on
September 13, 1956 and consists of one or more hard
drive platters inside of air sealed casing. Most computer hard drives
are in an internal drive bay at the front of the computer and
connect to the motherboard using either ATA, SCSI, or a SATA cable

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and power cable. Below, is an illustration of what the inside of a hard drive looks like for a desktop
and laptop hard drive.
Computer Hard Drive Types

1. Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment (PATA)

These types of drives are also known as Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) and Enhanced Integrated
Drive Electronics (EIDE) drives. The labels relate to the type of interface that is employed to connect
the disk drive to the CPU board. These drives utilize either a 40 or a 80 wire cable with a broad 40-pin
connector. 40 wire cables are utilized in older and slower hard disks, whereas 80 wire cables are used
in faster ones. Nowadays, these types of hard disks are being substituted by SATA hard disks. EIDE
hard drives were introduced after some advancements in IDE hard disks, however, the term IDE refers
to both IDE and EIDE disk drives.

2. Serial ATA (SATA)

These hard disks use a totally different connector than their PATA
counterparts. Moreover, they also employ a different power
adapter than IDE ones, though adapters are easily attainable. The
main difference between a SATA and a PATA hard disk is that the
former is thinner and purportedly have a faster data interface than
the latter. Nevertheless, this speed dissimilarity is not
distinguishable in PATA and SATA drives which have the same rpm
rating. SATA drives are more efficient, and use less power than
PATA ones.

3. Small Computer System

Interface (SCSI)
These hard disks are
similar to IDE hard drives.
They also spin at a higher
rate in comparison to IDE
and SATA ones. IDE and
SATA drives generally spin
at 7,200 rpm, whereas
SCSI ones spin at 10,000
to 15,000 rpm. Today, SATA drives featuring a speed of 10,000
rpm are also manufactured. The higher the rpm, faster is the data access, but it may also lead to a
faster breakdown. SCSI hard disks need a controller that operates the interface between the drives and
the computer motherboard.

4. Solid State Drives (SSD)

These hard disks, unlike the other
types, don't consist of moving
components. Typical hard drives
comprise of a spinning magnetic disk
that performs the function of data
storage, but SSDs use semiconductors for this purpose. Since there are no
moving components, these hard disks are much faster and less likely to break down than other drives.
However, their price is a bit more than other
hard disks.
These are some hard drive types that are
generally incorporated in desktop computers
and laptops. I hope this article would have
helped you with different types of hard drives.

Hard Disk Geometry

Geometry determines where the data is stored

on the hard drive. The Geometry for a particular
hard drive is described with five special

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numerical values referring to the :
Heads
• Heads are the total number of sides of all the plotters used to store data. If a hard drive has 4
plotters, it would have 8 heads.
• Most hard drives reserve a head or two for their own use. Therefore a hard drive can have either
even or odd number of heads.
• There’s a read/write head for each side of each platter, mounted on arms, which can move them
towards the central spindle or towards the edge.
• The arms are moved by the head actuator, which contains a voice-coin – and electromagnetic coil
that can move a magnet very rapidly.

Cylinders
• A Vertical stack of same numbered Track form a Cylinder or Tracks physically above each other on
the platters are grouped together into cylinders.
• The concept of cylinders is important, since cross-platter information in the same cylinder can be
accessed without having to move the heads.
• The number of cylinders in a drive is the same as the number of track on a platter in that drive. Both
numbers are permanently determined when the drive is manufactured.
Sectors per Track
• Sectors are individual sections of each track. Conventionally, each sector is designed to hold 512
bytes of data.
• The number of sectors per track varies among different drive models and manufacturers.
• A sector per track value is the number of slices in the hard drive and it describes number of sectors
in each drive.
Write Precompensation
• A process in which strong currents are induced in the read write head when the read write head
writes on the cylinders nearer to the center of the disk.
• This entire matter is no longer relevant to modern hard disks, but the BIOS setting remains for
compatibility reasons. Write precompensation is not down with today’s drives; even if it were, the
function would be implemented within the integrated controller and would be transparent to the user.
Landing Zone
• This setting specifies the cylinder to which the BIOS should send the heads of the hard disk when the
machine is to be turned off.
• This is where the heads will “land” when they spin down. Modern drives automatically park the heads
in a special area that contains no data when the power is turned off.
• Most BIOSes set this value to be the largest cylinder number of the logical geometry specified for the
disk when you auto detect.
• IDE drive will ignore this setting and auto park by itself.

Hard Disk Cache and Cache Circuitry

All modern hard disks contain an integrated cache, also often called a buffer. The purpose of this cache
is similar to other caches used in the PC. The function of cache is to act as a buffer between a
relatively fast device and a relatively slow one. For hard disks, the cache is used to hold the result of
recent reads from the disk, and also to “pre-fetch” information that is likely to be requested in the near
future, for example, the sector or sectors immediately after the one just requested.

The use of cache improves the performance of any hard disk, by reducing the number of physical
accesses to the disk on repeated reads and allowing data to stream from the disk uninterrupted when
the bus is busy. Modern hard disks have between 512 KB and 2 MB of internal cache memory,
although some high-performance SCSI drives have as much as 16 MB.

Hard Disk Logic Board

All modern hard disks are made with an intelligent circuit board integrated into the hard disk unit.
Newer drives w2ere introduced with more features and faster speed and once electronics
miniaturization progressed far enough, it made sense to move most of the control functions to the

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drive itself. The most common interface for PC hard disks is called IDE, which in fact stands for
Integrated Drive Electronics. The other popular PC hard disk interface today, SCSI, also uses drives that
have integrated controllers. The more correct name for the IDE interface is AT Attachment or ATA.

Power Connectors and Jumpers

Hard disk drives use a standard, 4-pin male connector plug that takes one of the power connectors
coming from the power supply. This keyed, 4-wire plastic connector provides +5V for Logic circuits and
+12V for motor assembly.
Data Interface Connector
Modern hard disk dreves use one of two interfaces: IDE (ATA) and its variants, or SCSI.
Looking at the back of the hard disk indicates which interface is being used by the drive:
IDE/ATA: A 40-pin rectangular connector.
SCSI: A 50-pin, 68-pin,or 80-pin D-shaped connector. A 50-pin connector means the device is narrow.
SCSI: 68 pins means wide SCSI ; 80-pins means wide SCSI using single connector attachment (SCA).
IDE/ATA Configuration Jumpers
IDE/ATA hard disks are fairly standard in terms of jumpers. They are used for
a) Drive Select
b) Slave Present
c) Cable Select
d) Size Restriction Jumper

Capacity:
Capacity is the maximum amount of data a drive or disk (for example, a DVD disk) can store. Typical
hard disk storage capacities today are either in gigabytes or terabytes. These sizes store enormous
amounts of data. This is very useful when saving music and video, especially video files, which can get
very large.

RPM:
RPM (Revolutions Per Minute) - Within a hard disk case are round platters (the actual disks) that are
attached to a spindle that spins. The disks are written to or read from while spinning.

One revolution is how many times the platters make a complete rotation. Disks in a HDD literally
rotate thousands of times per minute. The greater the RPM, the faster data is read or written. 7200
RPM is typically what you will see in home computer hard drives.

Form Factor:
The form factor of a hard drive is the actual physical size of the case the platters are in. The main sizes
are 3.5in and 2.5in.

Hard disk components

Platters are disks of metal coated in magnetically-sensitive metal oxides that are used to store
information. The platters are attached to a spindle and are stacked on top of each other.

The spindle is the axle that runs through the center of the platters. The spindle is used to rotate the
platters at speeds of 4,500, 7,200 and 10,000 rotations per minute (RPM). This rotation speed is often
called the spindle speed of the disk.

The read-write head reads and writes data to the platters as it floats above the platter on a cushion of
air created by the spindle rotating the platters at high speed. The read-write head can move back and
forth across the surface of the platter as it seeks informtation or writes data to the platters. In most
modern disk drives, there are multiple read-write heads on each platter.

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2 types of hard disk drive attachment

Pata (parallel advance technology attachment)

The IDE interface standard has been around for a very long time.
The term interface in this sense means how the drive connects to
the motherboard. As improvements were developed it later was
called EIDE for Enhanced IDE. And after even further
developments it has also come to be known as ATA (Advanced
Technology Attachment). These drives connect to the motherboard via a flat, 80-wire cable to an IDE
connector. Two drives can be attached on one cable.The speed of a hard drive is determined by how
fast the connector can send data. Currently the primary drive rates are 100 MB/s and 133 MB/s - 133
MB/s being the maximum. These hard disks are commonly described by the abbreviation "ATA"
followed by the speed of its connector (ATA 100, ATA 133).

IDE drive connectors use a parallel bus, meaning multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously. To
distinguish between Serial ATA drives, IDE disks are also referred to as PATA (the "P" stands for
parallel).

Sata (serial advance attachment)

Stands for "Serial Advanced Technology Attachment," or "Serial

ATA." It is an interface used to connect ATA hard drives to a
computer's motherboard. SATA transfer rates start at 150MBps,
which is significantly faster than even the fastest 100MBps ATA/100
drives. For this and other reasons, Serial ATA is likely to replace the
previous standard, Parallel ATA (PATA), which has been around since
the 1980s. Besides faster transfer rates, the SATA interface has
several advantages over the PATA interface. For one, SATA drives
each have their own independent bus, so there is no competition for
bandwidth like there is with Parallel ATA. They also use smaller, thinner cables, which allows for better
airflow inside the computer. SATA cables can be as long as one meter, while PATA cables max out at 40cm. This
gives manufacturers more liberty when designing the internal layout of their computers. Finally, Serial ATA uses only 7
conductors, while Parallel ATA uses 40. This means there is less likely to be electromagnetic interference with SATA devices.

In summary, Serial ATA is a better, more efficient interface than the dated PATA standard. If you are
looking to buy a computer that will support fast hard drives for years to come, make sure it comes with
a SATA interface.

Flash Drives:
Flash Drives are portable drives about the size of your thumb that use flash memory to store data. They replaced floppy disks
years ago as the primary method of transporting data from place to place. The early ones only had a capacity of 8 or 16 MB
megabytes. Now, storage is in the gigabytes which allows you to store large files such as music and pictures. They connect using
a USB interface.

LOGICAL GEOMETRY/STRUCTURE OF DISK

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Tracks
All information stored on a hard disk is recorded in tracks, which are concentric circles placed on the surface of each platter,
much like the annual rings of a tree. The tracks are numbered, starting from zero, starting at the outside of the platter and
increasing as you go in. A modern hard disk has tens of thousands of tracks on each platter.

Cylinders The cylinder refers to the platter(s) that magnetically holds the data on the tracks which include the sectors.

Sector
A sector is a specifically sized division of a hard disk drive, optical disc, floppy disk or other kind of storage medium.

Usually, one sector of a hard disk drive or floppy disk can hold 512 bytes of information. One sector of an optical disc can
usually hold 2048 bytes.

The Master Boot Record (or MBR)

At the beginning of the hard drive is the MBR. When your computer starts using your hard drive, this is where it looks first.

The MBR itself has a specific organization. The size of the MBR is 512 bytes.

The boot loader is the first 446 bytes of the MBR. This section contains executable code, where
programs are housed.

The partition tables are 4 slots of 16 bytes each, containing the description of a partition (primary or
extended) on the disk.
Hard drive jumper settings

The drive is configured at the factory for a cable select

setting. This allows the drive to assume the proper role of
master or slave based on the connector used on the
cable (see the UltraATA cable figure below). For the
cable select setting to work properly, the cables you are
using must support the cable select feature. Current
UltraATA cables with the 3 colored connectors do
support this feature.

Master or single drive. If you are installing your

Seagate hard drive as the only drive in the system or if it will be the primary boot drive for the system,
the jumper should be set as Cable Select. If you are connecting the drive to an older system that has a
pre-UDMA Mode 3 ATA controller, or you are connecting this to a cable with a slave device that doesn’t
have a cable select jumper setting, jumper the drive as Master instead by putting a jumper on the first
vertical set of pins closest to the data cable.

Drive as slave. If you are installing the drive as an additional drive in your system, the drive should be
set as Cable Select. If you are connecting the drive to an older system that has a pre-UDMA Mode 3
ATA controller, or you are connecting this to a cable with a master device that doesn’t have a cable
select jumper setting, jumper the drive as Slave instead by removing the jumper from the drive.

Cable Select. This setting is the default setting for ATA drives. With the Cable Select jumper set, the
BIOS determines whether a drive is a master or a slave by its position on the UltraATA cable. If the
drive is jumpered as cable select and is connected to the black connector on the end of the cable, it is
recognized as the master drive for that ATA controller. If the drive is jumpered as cable select and is

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connected to the grey connector on the middle of the cable, it is recognized as the slave drive for that
ATA controller.

Drive as master with a non-ATA-compatible slave. On Seagate drives only, set a jumper on pins 5 and
6 and a jumper on pins 7 and 8. Use this jumper setting only if the drive does not work as a master or
cable select.

Limit drive capacity (or CLJ). Use this on computers manufactured before November 1998 when either
you start up your computer and see the message, "Hard disc drive controller failure", your computer
does not recognize your newly installed hard drive, or your system stops responding during the boot
process after installing this new drive.

Seagate recommends the use of newer UltraATA cables to achieve the best performance from your
new Seagate hard drive. These UltraATA cables have 3 colored connectors, each connector has a
specific purpose. Be sure to plug the correct connector into the correct device.

The blue connector is for your host bus adapter (using a

connector on your motherboard).

The black connector at the other end is for your master

device, usually the hard drive you boot from.

The gray connector is for an optional slave device if you have

a second hard drive.

Other devices like CD-ROM drives, tape drives and CD burners

are usually plugged into a separate cable which also connects
to the motherboard

What is a hard disk partition

When a hard drive is installed in a computer, it must be

partitioned before you can format and use it. Partitioning a drive is
when you divide the total storage of a drive into different pieces.
These pieces are called partitions. Once a partition is created, it
can then be formatted so that it can be used on a computer. When partitions are made, you specify
the total amount of storage that you would like to allocate to that partition from the total size of the
drive. For example, if you have an 80 GB drive, then it would be possible to make one partition
consisting of the entire 80 GB of available storage. Alternatively,you could make two partitions
consisting of a 20 GB partition that will be used for the operating system and programs and a 60 GB
partition set aside for data, music, and images. In the current IBM PC architecture, there is a partition
table in the drive's Master Boot Record (section of the hard drive that contains the commands
necessary to start the operating system), or MBR, that lists information about the partitions on the
hard drive. This partition table is then further split into 4 partition table entries, with each entries
corresponding to a partition. Due to this it is only possible to have four partitions.

These 4 partitions are typically known as primary partitions. To overcome this restriction, system
developers decided to add a new type of partition called the extended partition. By replacing one of
the four primary partitions with an extended partition, you can then make an additional 24 logical
partitions within the extended one.

What are the purposes for partitioning?

We can conclude the purposes of partitioning as the following:

1. Keeping Operating System files, frequently used programs and user data near each other.

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2. Having an area for Operating System virtual memory swapping/paging.
3. Having cache and log files separate from other files.
4. Use of multi booting setups, which allow users to have more than one. For instance, one could install
Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows or others on different partitions of the same hard disk.
5. Protecting or isolating files, to make it easier to recover data from corrupted partition. Other file
systems won't be affected and the drive's data may still be salvageable if one of partitions is
corrupted.
6. Raising overall computer performance on systems with smaller partition is more efficient.

OPTICAL DISC DRIVE

CD and DVD Drive Tutorial

Most people with a computer want to preserve their data at some point. Saving to a hard drive is fine,
but if it becomes damaged, retrieving your data could be impossible. Moreover, when it comes to
music and movies, you might want to listen or watch them away from your PC. This page explains
types of media storage that drives use as well as the drives themselves.

Discs:
A CD (compact disc) stores data or audio, the audio
which can be played in a regular CD player in your
home or car. There are two types of discs for recording:
CD-R (CD Recordable), which are the most popular,
and CD-RW (CD Rewritable). Recordable dics can be
written to only once. The content is permanently
stored. Rewritable discs can be erased and rewritten
to

repeatedly. CDs store up to 700 MB of data or 80 min of

audio.

DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc (or Video Disc). Its primary function is to store video, but just as
easily records other data. Like Cds, they are either recordable or rewritable, but store a tremendous
amount of data. The various formats and they're capacities are on the next page.

Formats:
These are the standard DVD media formats:

*DVD+R (plus R) and DVD-R (dash R) - These two are the record once formats.
*DVD+RW and DVD-RW - These are the rewritable formats and can be rewritten over 1000 times.

*DVD Storage Capacity:

DVDs have various storage capacities. They're determined by the number of layers a disc has and
whether or not it can be written to one or both sides. The original and still very popular is the
single-sided, single layer (DVD-5). Data is written to one side only. These hold 4.7 GB of data or 2 hrs.
of video. Supported by DVD+/-R and DVD +/-RW formats. Other DVD sizes are listed below.
*Double-Sided Single Layer (DVD-10): Data can be written to both sides-like a cassette tape. Stores
8.75 GB or about 4.5 hrs of video. Also supported by DVD+/-R and DVD +/-RW.
*Single-Sided Dual Layer (DVD-9): Records to one side but that one side has two layers built into it.
Stores 8.5 GB of data or 4 hrs. of video. Supported by DVD+R and DVD-R. They are normally termed
DVD+R DL and DVD-R DL.

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*Double-Sided Double Layer (DVD-18): Stores 15.9 GB of data or
over 8 hrs. of video.
In order to play or record these formats a DVD burner must
support them. Fortunately, most DVD writers support multiple
formats. In addition to a DVD burner, all these formats need
some kind of burning software to write DVDs.

DVD-RAM:
DVD-RAM discs can be rewritten over 100,000 times and are either single-sided or double-sided -
single-sided having a capacity of 4.7 GB and double-sided a capacity of 9.4 GB. Unlike the
aforementioned formats, DVD-RAM does not require burning software-they function like hard drives
and are available with or without a cartridge. However, they are not as compatible as the other types
and are a bit more expensive.

Blu-Ray (BD):
Blu-Ray (BD) is the latest video disc. It gets its name
from a blue laser used when recording to and
reading a disc. All the other DVD formats utilize a red
laser. This blue laser has a shorter wavelength, thus
allowing the storage of extremely large amounts of
data. Blu-ray is primarily for high-definition content
and comes in single and dual layer. Single layer discs
store up to 25 GB - that's 2 hrs. of hi-def content or
13 hrs. of standard video. Dual layer stores 50 GB,
which is 4.5 hrs of hi def video or 20 hrs of regular
video.

Drives:
Now that we have discussed the various media types, let's look at the optical drives themselves.
Optical disc drives store data on a flat disc using a laser. CD and DVD writers (a.k.a. CD/DVD burners)
are two examples of these types of drives and allow you to make your own data, music, or video disc.
This process is referred to as "burning a disc". These drives can be installed internally or externally.
Since DVD burners can also record and play CDs, CD writers are now practically obsolete.

"Card reader" is the generic term for an input devicethat reads flash memory cards. It can be a
standalone device that connects to a computer via USB or it may be integrated into a computer,
printer, or multifunction device. In fact, most multifunction printer/scanner/copiers now have built-in
card readers.

add-in card (add-on card, expansion card) A printed

circuit board that plugs into an expansion slot in a
computer to provide some extra facility. The sockets
normally connect to a bus, and the type of connector and
the use to which each contact is put are strictly defined
to ensure compatibility between the card and the
computer. Cards are available that provide extra
memory, communications interfaces, sound I/O capabilities, device interfaces to
extra disks or tape backup devices, for instance, or perhaps extra processors in
multiprocessor systems.

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Activity 1.2
1. It is responsible for interpreting and executing most of the commands from the
computer'shardware and software.
2. It refers to the platter(s) that magnetically holds the data on the tracks which include
the sectors.
3. What is the speed transfer rate of ide cable?
4. What is the speed transfer rate of sata cable?
5. Are disks of metal coated in magnetically-sensitive metal oxides that are used to
store information.
6. What are the two main sizes of harddrive?
7. How many bytes does a sector have?
8. What is total rpm speed of a harddrive?
9. It is a measurement of how quickly a computer completes basic computations and
operations.
10. This is extremely fast memory that is built into a computer’scentral processing
unit (CPU).
11. Is the microprocessor inside of the CPU.
12. Automatically allows processor cores to run faster than the base operating frequency
if they’re operating below power, current, and temperature specification limits
13. Is the process of forcing a computer component to run at a higher clock rate.
14. An aluminum sheath, covers the module to protect the chips from overheating.
15. Converts mains AC to low-voltage regulated DC power for the internal components
of the computer.
16. How many pins does simms have?
17. How many pins does ddr1 have?
18. How many pins does sdr have?
19. How many pis does ddr3 sodimm have?
20. How many pins does sdr sodimm have?
21. What are the 3 partition tables?
22. 3 types of videocard connectors?
23. The VGA cable supports resolutions from.
24. This connector is digital, which means that data is transmitted and is not affected by
noise or distortion.
25. This connector and cable supports any uncompressed video format and carries eight
channels of audio.
26. This connector is digital, which means that data is transmitted and is not affected by
noise or distortion.
27. This connector and cable supports any uncompressed video format and carries eight
channels of audio.
28. Is the axle that runs through the center of the platters.
29. These hold 4.7 GB of data or 2 hrs. of video.
30. Store up to 700 MB of data or 80 min of audio.

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 Disassembly and Assembly

Learning Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:

Know the occupational health and safety procedures.

Learn proper Disassembly and assembly of computer system.
Learn how to Diagnose and troubleshoot computer problems.

‐ Always ground or discharge yourself before touching any part of the computer
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY PROCEDURE

‐ Do not work alone so that there’s someone who can take care of you in case of accident or


 emergency.
 ‐ Be careful with the tools that may cause short circuit
 ‐ Always full the cable connector on the handle and not on the cable itself
 ‐ Use only rubber shoes when standing on the ground or in a concrete floor
 ‐ Make sure that the pins are properly aligned when connecting a cable connector.
 ‐ Always power off and unplug the computer before working on it.
 ‐ Take away any liquid such as mineral water or soft drinks near your working area or near
 computers.
 ‐ Contingency measures during workplace accidents, fire and other emergencies are
 recognized.
 ‐ Personal protective equipment is correctly used in accordance with organization OHS
 procedures and practice.
 ‐ Hazard/risks in the workplace and their corresponding indicators are identified to minimize
 or eliminate risk to co‐workers, workplace and environment.
 ‐ Take necessary precautions to protect the component of the computer from damaged cause
 by Electrostatic Discharge (ESD).
 ‐ Hold the components by edges and do not touch the IC’s.
 ‐ Read and follow instruction on the manual carefully.
 ‐ Do not use excessive force if things don’t quite slip into place.

Disassembly and Assembly

Proper Disassembly & Assembly

1. Remove left cover

2. Remove Power connectors

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3. Remove I.D.E. Cable

4. Remove Power Supply

5. Remove Expansion cards

6. Remove Drives

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7. Remove Motherboard

8. Remove Processor fan w/ heatsink

9. Remove Processor

This is the proper way of disassembling your desktop. ^_^

Activity 1.3

Attempt No.1= _____________minutes

Attempt No.2= _____________minutes

Attempt No.3= _____________minutes

Instructor signature: _____________________

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COMPUTER HARDWARE SERVICING NC2 Page 52
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 Flow chart

Here are five common-sense techniques and strategies to solve common computer hardware
problems.
(1) Trial-and-error
Personal computers are highly modular by design. The most powerful trouble-shooting technique is to
isolate the problem to a specific component by trial-and-error. Swap compatible components and see if
the system still works. Try different peripherals on different machines and see if the same problem
occurs. Make one change at a time.

(2) "It's the cable, s-----."

More than 70% of all computer problems are related to cabling and connections. Ensure all cables are
connected firmly. IDE and floppy ribbon cables and power cables can often go loose. Ensure
microprocessor, memory modules, and adapters such as video card and sound card are inserted
correctly and didn't "pop-up" during transportation.

(3) Don't be frustrated!

Don't be afraid of computer problems. It is often the best opportunity to learn. Trouble-shooting is part
of the fun of owning a computer. Imagine the satisfaction you could get by solving a problem yourself.

Of course the fun could ran out quickly once you are frustrated and have spent too much time on the
same problem. If you feel frustrated, it's time to leave it for a while and go back with some new ideas
or call someone who can help. Rule of thumb: You shouldn't spend more than three hours on the same
problem at one time.

(4) Take notes!

Take notes of what you have done and all the error messages. You may need to use them later. For
instance, when you see an unusual blue screen with an error message, copy the entire message onto a
piece of paper. In many situations, that message may point to the right direction in getting the
problem solved quickly.

(5) Take a look?

It's OK to open a computer case and take a look inside. There is only 5V and 12V DC voltage supplied
to the components outside the power supply. Those who have never seen the inside of a computer are
often amazed by how simple it looks. Of course, still always power down and unplug the power
cord first.

Visit this site for troubleshooting technichque

http://www.directron.com/howtobuilyou.html

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 Computer boot-up troubleshoot Flowchart
Hard
Drive

troubleshoot Flowchart

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Motherboard Diagnostic Flowchart Video System Troubleshoot Flowchart

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 Computer Beep Codes
A beep code is the audio signal given out by a computer to announce the result of a short diagnostic
testing sequence the computer performs when first powering up (called the Power-On-Self-Test
or POST ). The POST is a small program contained in the computer's Basic Input/Output Operating
System ( BIOS ) that checks to make sure necessary hardware is present and required memory is
accessible. If everything tests out correctly, the computer will typically emit a single beep and continue
the starting-up process. If something is wrong, the computer will display an error message on the
monitor screen and announce the errors audibly with a series of beeps that vary in pitch, number and
duration (this is especially useful when the error exists with the monitor or graphic components). The
beeping sequence is really a coded message (beep code) designed to tell the user what is wrong with
the computer.

There is no official standard for beep codes; audio patterns vary according to the manufacturer of the
computer's BIOS program. If an error message is beeped on startup, the user must first determine
what kind of BIOS the computer is running (Phoenix or AMI are the most popular) and use that
information to look up the particular beep code sequence that is being sent. BIOS information and
beep code interpretations can be found in the manual that comes with the computer and on the
manufacturer's Web site.

Different motherboard manufactures use different beep codes to diagnose problems. You can use
these codes to diagnose why your computer may not be starting. If you don’t know your motherboard
manufacturer you can look at your screen when it first starts and it should tell you or you can try using
the standard IBM codes. Here are the most common codes.

Phoenix BIOS Beep Codes:

BEEP CODE WHAT IT MEANS POSSIBLE CAUSE

Defective CPU /
1-1-2 CPU / motherboard failure
motherboard

1-1-3 CMOS read/write failure Defective motherboard

1-1-4 BIOS ROM failure Defective BIOS chip

1-2-1 Timer failure Defective motherboard

1-2-2 DMA failure Defective motherboard

1-2-3 DMA failure Defective motherboard

1-3-1 Memory refresh failure Defective memory

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 BEEP CODE WHAT IT MEANS POSSIBLE CAUSE

Defective CPU /
1-1-2 CPU / motherboard failure
motherboard

1-1-3 CMOS read/write failure Defective motherboard

1-1-4 BIOS ROM failure Defective BIOS chip

1-2-1 Timer failure Defective motherboard

1-2-2 DMA failure Defective motherboard

1-2-3 DMA failure Defective motherboard

1-3-1 Memory refresh failure Defective memory

1-3-2 64K memory failure Defective memory

1-3-3 64K memory failure Defective memory

1-3-4 64K memory failure Defective memory

1-4-1 Address line failure Defective memory

1-4-2 Parity error Defective memory

1-4-3 Timer failure Defective motherboard

1-4-4 NMI port failure Defective motherboard

2-1-1 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-1-2 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-1-3 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-1-4 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-2-1 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-2-2 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-2-3 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-2-4 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-3-1 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-3-2 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-3-3 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-3-4 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-4-1 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-4-2 64K memory failure Defective memory

2-4-4 64K memory failure Defective memory

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 2-4-4 64K memory failure Defective memory

3-1-1 Slave DMA failure Defective motherboard

3-1-2 Master DMA failure Defective motherboard

3-1-3 Interrupt controller failure Defective motherboard

3 - 1 -4 Slave IC failure Defective motherboard

3 - 2 -2 Interrupt Controller failure Defective motherboard

3-2-3 <RESERVED>

3-2-4 Keyboard control failure Defective motherboard

3-3-1 CMOS batter failure Defective CMOS battery

3-3-2 CMOS configuration error Incorrect setting

3-3-3 <RESERVED>

Defective video card or

3-3-4 Video memory failure
memory

Defective video card or

3-4-1 Video init failure
memory

4-2-1 Timer failure Defective motherboard

4-2-2 CMOS shutdown failure Defective motherboard

4-2-3 Gate A20 failure Defective motherboard

4-2-4 Unexpected interrupt Defective processor

4-3-1 RAM test failure Defective memory

4-3-3 Timer failure Defective motherboard

4-3-4 RTC failure Defective motherboard

4-4-1 Serial port failure Defective motherboard

4-4-2 Parallel port failure Defective motherboard

Defective motherboard or
4-4-3 Coprocessor failure
CPU.

Video adapter Use a different brand of

9-2-1
incompatibility video card

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 AMI BIOS Beep Codes

BEEP CODE WHAT IT MEANS POSSIBLE CAUSE

1 Beep (No video) Memory refresh failure Defective memory

2 Beeps Memory parity error Defective memory

3 Beeps Base 64K memory failure Defective memory

4 Beeps Timer not operational Defective motherboard

5 Beeps Processor error Defective processor

Defective CPU or
6 Beeps 8042 Gate A20 failure
Motherboard

7 Beeps Processor exception Defective processor

Defective video card or

8 Beeps Video memory error
memory

9 Beeps ROM checksum error Defective BIOS

10 Beeps CMOS checksum error Defective motherboard

Defective CPU or
11 Beeps Cache memory Defective
motherboard

Award BIOS Beep Codes:

BEEP CODE WHAT IT MEANS POSSIBLE CAUSE

1 Long, 2 Short Video adapter failure Defective video adapter

Repeating long beep Memory error Defective memory

Defective video adapter or

1 Long, 3 Short Video adapter failure
memory

High freq. beeps CPU is overheating CPU fan failure

Repeating High, Low

CPU failure Defective processor
beeps

Standard IBM Post Beep Codes:

BEEP CODE WHAT IT MEANS POSSIBLE CAUSE

1 Beep (No video present) Normal POST

POST Error - code shown

2 Beeps
on screen

Defective power supply or Defective power supply or

0 Beeps
system board system board

Defective power supply, Defective power supply,

Continuous Beeps
system board, or keyboard system board, or keyboard

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 Defective power supply or Defective power supply or
Repeating Beeps
system board system board

1 Long, 1 short Beep Defective system board Defective system board

1 Long, 2 short Beeps Defective display adapter Defective display adapter

1 Long, 3 short Beeps Defective display adapter Defective display adapter

3 Long Beeps 3270 keyboard card 3270 keyboard card

SOFTWARE/FIRMWARE

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, The student will be able to:

1. Enumerate and describe the different types of software.

2. Understand the function of software.

Computer software is a program that tells a computer what to do. These instructions might be internal commands, such as
updating the system clock, or a response to external input received from the keyboard or mouse. Though there are many
different types of software made both with open source and proprietary standards, the programming mostly comes down to a
few basic rules.

Types
There are two main types of computer software: system and application. The first type is used just to run the hardware, while
the second is used to do other things. The main types of system software are operating systems, like Windows™ OS X, or Linux;
and drivers, which are programs that allow a computer to interact with other devices, like printers and video cards. There are
many different types of application software, including games, media players, word processors, anti-virus programs, and
applications for making new programs.

How It Works
Hardware only understands the two basic concepts, on and off, which are represented as 1s and 0s in binary language. Software
acts as the translator between human languages and binary, which makes it possible for the hardware to understand the
instructions being fed into it. Programmers write commands called source code in programming languages that are similar to
what someone might use in everyday speech. Another program called a compiler is then used to transform the source code
commands into binary. The result is an executable computer program.

System Software
System software is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer’s hardware and application
programs. If we think of the computer system as a layered model, the system software is the interface between the
hardware and user applications.

Other examples of system software and what each does:

The BIOS (basic input/output system) gets the computer system started after you turn it on and manages the data flow
between the operating system and attached devices such as the hard disk, video adapter, keyboard, mouse,
and printer.

The boot
program loads the operating system into the computer's main memory or random access memory (RAM).

An assembler

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 takes basic computer instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits that the computer's processor can use to
perform its basic operations.

A device driver
controls a particular type of device that is attached to your computer, such as a keyboard or a mouse. The driver program
converts the more general input/output instructions of the operating system to messages that the device type can understand.

According to some definitions, system software also includes system utilities, such as the disk defragmenter and System
Restore, and development tools such as compilers and debuggers.

Booting Process

When a computer starts up (obviously by pressing the power button), the first thing that occurs is it send a signal to
motherboard which in turn starts the power supply. After supplying the correct amount of power to each device, it send a
signal called "Power OK" to BIOS which resides on motherboard.
Once the BIOS receive the "Power OK" signal, it starts the booting process by first initializing a process called POST (Power On
Self Test). POST first check that every device has right amount of power and then it check whether the memory is not
corrupted. Then it initialize each devices and finally it gives control to BIOS for further booting.
Now the final process of booting begins. For this the BIOS first find 512 bytes of image called MBR (Master Boot Record) or
Bootsector from the floppy disk or hard disk which is used for booting. The priority of boot devices is set by the user in BIOS
setting. The normal priority is floppy disk first, then hard disk.
Once BIOS finds the bootsector it loads the image in memory and execute it. If a valid bootsector is not found, BIOS check for
next drive in boot sequence until it find valid bootsector. If BIOS fails to get valid bootsector, generally it stops the execution
and gives an error message "Disk boot failure".
It is bootsectors responsibility to load the operating system in memory and execute it.

NTLDR(NTloader)
is a program loaded from the hard drive boot sector that displays theMicrosoft Windows NT startup menu and helps
Microsoft Windows NT/2000/XP load. This portion of the boot sequence was replaced by Bootmgr in Windows Vista and later
versions of Windows.

BOOTMGR (Windows Boot Manager)

is a small piece of software, called a boot manager, that's loaded from the volume boot code, part of the volume boot
record, which helps your Windows 8, Windows 7, or Windows Vista operating system start.

boot.ini
Windows (specifically Ntldr) uses the Boot.ini file to determine which operating system options to display when the Startup
program is running. By default, Boot.ini is not flagged as a read-only system file and generally does not require any manual
modification.

What is Shell and Kernel

Both the Shell and the Kernel are the Parts of this Operating System. These Both Parts are used for performing any
Operation on the System. When a user gives his Command for Performing Any Operation, then the Request Will goes to the
Shell Parts, The Shell Parts is also called as the Interpreter which translate the Human Program into the Machine Language and
then the Request will be transferred to the Kernel. So that Shell is just called as the interpreter of the Commands which
Converts the Request of the User into the Machine Language.

Kernel is also called as the heart of the Operating System and Every Operation is performed by using the
Kernel , When the Kernel Receives the Request from the Shell then this will Process the Request and Display the Results on the
Screen.

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 Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, The student will be able to:
1.Learn the minimum requirement of coputer operating system
2. Learn how to install windows xp
3. Learn how to install windows 7
4.Learn how to dual boot operating system

OPERATING SYSTEM INSTALLATION

Windows 7 Minimum Hardware Requirements

NOTE: For more information on this, see: Windows 7 system requirements

1 GHz 32-bit or 64-bit processor
1 GB RAM for 32-bit Windows 7 OR 2 GB RAM for 64-bit Windows 7
16 GB available disk space 32-bit Windows 7 OR 20 GB for 64-bit Windows 7
Support for DirectX 9 graphics with 128 MB memory (in order to enable Aero theme)
DVD-R/W Drive
Internet or phone access to activate Windows 7.

Windows XP Minimum Hardware Requirements

NOTE: For more information on this, see: System requirements for Windows XP operating systems

PC with 300 megahertz (MHz) or higher processor clock speed recommended; 233-MHz minimum
required;* Intel Pentium/Celeron family, AMD K6/Athlon/Duron family, or compatible processor
recommended
128 megabytes (MB) of RAM or higher recommended (64 MB minimum supported; may limit
performance and some features)
1.5 gigabyte (GB) of available hard disk space.*
Super VGA (800 × 600) or higher resolution video adapter and monitor
CD-ROM or DVD drive
Keyboard and Microsoft Mouse or compatible pointing device

How to Install Windows xp Operating System

All versions of Windows XP CD are bootable. In order to boot from CD/DVD-ROM you need to set the
boot sequence. Look for the boot sequence under your BIOS setup and make sure that the first boot
device is set to CD/DVD-ROM. You can then perform the following steps to install Windows XP:
Step 1 » The Setup starts now
Step 2 » Inspecting something
Step 3 » Press Enter for new installation
Step 4 » Press F8 to Agree terms and conditions ( Don’t try to read , it’s huge )
Step 5 » it will show the unpartitioned space of your Hard disk ( picture shows the space in MB ie,40GB
) . press C to create a partition ( press Enter if you want to use whole hard drive as a single partition ) .
Step 6 » Now you need to decide how much space you need for OS drive (ie, C drive) . For Windows XP
25 GB is enough , just type 25600 (25 GB = 25600 MB) and pressEnter .
Step 7 » Now it will show the allocated space for OS drive and remaining space left on the hard disk .
just press Enter ( we can create more Drives later ).
Step 8 » Now choose the type of Format . just choose NTFS ( Quick ) first option and
press Enter ( Beginners , no questions ).
Step 9 » Setup is formatting the OS drive. ( No need to do anything until step 13 )
Step 10 » Setup will copy some files for installation .
Step 11 » System will get restarted after coping files .
Step 12 » Setup will install something in the background ( hey wait , not exactly in the back. just
relax).
Step 13 » Just leave as it is and press Next.
* Here it may ask windows xp product key . just type a valid key and press Next(After validating your

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key it will goto next step).
Step 14 » Type your name and organization name . press Next .
Step 15 » Type name of your computer and type administrator password or leave as it is and
press Next (We can change later) .
Step 16 » Select your Time zone and press Next .
Step 17 » Again it will install something in the background .
Step 18 » Now you need to setup network connection . choose typical and press Next( no one wants
to assign IP , if you need you can choose custom and do it on your own ) .
Step 19 » Leave as it is ( I don’t want confuse you at this stage ) . please press Enter .
Step 20 » It will install , register and save etc….. ( No need to do anything )
Step 21 » System will get restarted. you will see the screen like Picture 21.
Step 22 » Just press OK . it will automatically adjust your screen resolutions.
Step 23 » Just press OK to adjust monitor settings automatically.
Step 24 » Now you will see a welcome note from windows. press Next .
Step 25 » choose first option to update your Windows automatically.press Next .
Step 26 » In this step it will check for the internet connectivity . press skip (if you don’t want to wait )
or press next after checking .
Step 27 » choose whatever you want( we can change it later ) . press skip or next ( which one is
visible ).
Step 28 » choose second option and press Next .
Step 29 » just type the user name for login and press Next.
Step 30 » At last , you made it . press Finish .

How to install windows 7 operating system

This step-by-step guide demonstrates how to install Windows 7 Ultimate. The guide is similar for other
versions of Windows 7 such as Home Premium.
The best way to install Windows 7 is to do a clean install. It is not difficult to perform a clean
installation. Before you start the installation process I recommend that you check Windows 7 System
Requirements list to ensure that your hardware is supported by Windows 7. If you don't have Windows
7 drivers for all your hardware, it is a good idea to download all the drivers from the hardware
manufacturers website and save all the necessary drivers on a CD-R or a USB drive before you start
the installation.
Windows 7 DVD is bootable. In order to boot from the DVD you need to set the boot sequence. Look for
the boot sequence under your BIOS setup and make sure that the first boot device is set to
CD-ROM/DVD-ROM.
Step 1 –
Place Windows 7 DVD in your dvd-rom drive and start your PC. Windows 7 will start to boot up and you
will get the following progress bar.
Step 2 –
The next screen allows you to setup your language, time and currency format, keyboard or input
method. Choose your required settings and click next to continue.
Step 3 –
The next screen allows you to install or repair Windows 7. Since we are doing a clean install we will
click on "install now".
Step 4 –
Read the license terms and tick I accept license terms. Then click next to continue.
Step 5 –
You will now be presented with two options. Upgrade or Custom (Advanced). Since we are doing a
clean install we will select Custom (Advanced).
Step 6 –
Choose where you would like to install Windows 7. If you have one hard drive you will get a similar
option to the image below. You can click next to continue. If you have more that one drive or partition
then you need to select the appropriate drive and click next. If you need to format or partition a drive
then click Drive options (advance) before clicking next.
Step 7 –
Windows 7 starts the installation process and starts copying all the necessary files to your hard drive
as shown on the image below.
Step 8 –
It will go through various stages of the setup and will reboot your system few times.

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Step 9 –
When your PC reboots it attempts to boot from DVD as its the first boot device. Do not press any key
during the boot prompt so Windows 7 will continue with the installation by booting from the hard drive.
Step 10 –
After the reboot your computer will be prepared for first use.
Step 11 –
At this stage you need to choose a user name and computer name. Click next to continue. The user
account you create here is the Administrator account which is the main account for your Windows 7
that has all the privileges.
Step 12 –
Choose your password and password hint just incase you forget your password and need to jog your
memory.
Step 13 - You can now type the product key that came with Windows 7 and click next. If you do not
enter the product key you can still proceed to the next stage. However Windows 7 will run in trial mode
for 30 days. You must therefore activate Windows within 30 days otherwise you can not access your
computer after 30 days.
Step 14 –
Help protect your computer and improve Windows automatically. Choose Use recommended settings.
Step 15 - Review your time and date settings. Select your time zone, correct the date and time and
click next to continue.
Step 16 –
Select your computer's current location. If you are a home user then choose Home network otherwise
select the appropriate option.
Step 17 –
Windows will now finalize the settings for your computer and restart.
Step 18 –
After the final restart Windows 7 will start to boot up.
Step 19 –
Finally you have the logon screen. Just type your password and press enter or click on the arrow to
logon to Windows 7 for the first time.
Step 20 –
After you have logged on to Windows 7 for the first time, you will see similar desktop to the image
below. At this point you can start using your computer. However it may not be fully
configured. You need to make sure that all the hardware is detected correctly and the necessary
device drivers are installed. This can be done from the device manager.
Step 21 –
To go to device manager click - Start Menu -> Control Panel -> System and Security -> System ->
Device Manager. You will see all your hardware listed as shown on the image below. You need to check
if you have any yellow exclamation marks next to the name of the devices, similar to "Multimedia
Audio Controller" on the image below. This indicates that the driver has not been installed for this
device.
At this stage you can install the driver for this device. To do so, Right Mouse click on Multimedia Audio
Controller -> Update Driver Software...
Step 22 –
You can choose to "Search automatically for updated driver software" or "Browse my computer for
driver software". If you have the driver CD or if the driver is on a USB drive then choose "browse my
computer for driver software". Window 7 will search and install the driver from the CD or you can
locate the driver manually.
Once you have removed all the yellow exclamation marks from the device manager your Windows 7
configuration would be fully complete.
Step 23 –
Finally check if you have successfully activated Windows 7. Click Start Menu -> Control Panel ->
System and Security -> System. You will get a window similar to the image below. Towards the bottom
you will see Windows is activated followed by your product ID. This shows that your copy of Windows 7
is fully activated.

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Activity 1.4

1. Two main types of computer software.

2. Is a type of computer program that is designed to run a computer’s hardware and application
programs.

3. Is a program loaded from the hard drive boot sector that displays theMicrosoft Windows NT
startup menu and helps Microsoft Windows NT/2000/XP load.

4. Is a small piece of software, called a______________, that's loaded from the volume boot code,
part of the volume boot record, which helps your Windows 8, Windows 7, or Windows
Vista operating system start.

5. It is the file to determine which operating system options to display when the Startup program
is running.

6. 1 Long, 2 Short.

7. High freq. beeps

8. Repeating long beep

9. 1 Beep (No video present)

10. Takes basic computer instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits that the
computer's processor can use to perform its basic operations.

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 Computer Networking (File and printer sharing)

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, The student will be able to:

1. Learn what is Computer Networking.

2. How to make different cabling.
3. Different types of networking device.
4. How to configure peer to peer network.
Networking is the practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of
sharing data. Networks are built with a mix of computer hardware and computer software.

Peer to peer is an approach to computer networking where all computers share equivalent
responsibility for processing data. Peer-to-peer networking (also known simply as peer networking)
differs from client-server networking, where certain devices have responsibility for providing or
"serving" data and other devices consume or otherwise act as "clients" of those servers.
Characteristics of a Peer Network
Peer to peer networking is common on small local area networks (LANs), particularly home networks.
Both wired and wireless home networks can be configured as peer to peer environments.

Computers in a peer to peer network run the same networking protocols and software. Peer networks
are also often situated physically near to each other, typically in homes, small businesses or schools.
Some peer networks, however, utilize the Internet and are geographically dispersed worldwide.

Home networks that utilize broadband routers arehybrid peer to peer and client-server environments.
The router provides centralized Internet connection sharing, but file, printer and other resource sharing
is managed directly between the local computers involved.

Peer to Peer and P2P Networks

Internet-based peer to peer networks emerged in the 1990s due to the development of P2P file sharing
networks like Napster. Technically, many P2P networks (including the original Napster) are not pure
peer networks but rather hybrid designs as they utilize central servers for some functions such as
search.

Peer to Peer and Ad Hoc Wi-Fi Networks

Wi-Fi wireless networks support so-called ad hoc connections between devices. Ad hoc Wi-Fi networks
are pure peer to peer compared to those utilizing wireless routers as an intermediate device.

Benefits of a Peer to Peer Network

You can configure computers in peer to peer workgroups to allow sharing of files, printers and other
resources across all of the devices. Peer networks allow data to be shared easily in both directions,
whether for downloads to your computer or uploads from your computer.

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On the Internet, peer to peer networks handle a very high volume of file sharing traffic by distributing
the load across many computers. Because they do not rely exclusively on central servers, P2P
networks both scale better and are more resilient than client-server networks in case of failures or
traffic bottlenecks.

Different types of network

Different types of (private) networks are distinguished based on their size (in terms of the number of
machines), their data transfer speed, and their reach. Private networks are networks that belong to a
single organization. There are usually said to be three categories of networks:

LAN (local area network)

MAN (metropolitan area network)
WAN (wide area network)
WLAN (wireless area network)

LAN stands for Local Area Network.

It's a group of computers which all belong to the same organization,
and which are linked within a small geographic area using a network,
and often the same technology (the most widespread being Ethernet).
A local area network is a network in its simplest form. Data transfer
speeds over a local area network can reach up to 10 Mbps (such as for an Ethernet network) and 1
Gbps (as with FDDI or Gigabit Ethernet). A local area network can reach as many as 100, or even 1000,
users.
By expanding the definition of a LAN to the services that it provides, two different operating modes can
be defined:
In a "peer-to-peer" network, in which communication is carried out from one computer to another,
without a central computer, and where each computer has the same role.

in a "client/server" environment, in which a central computer provides

network services to users.

MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks)

Connect multiple geographically nearby LANs to one another (over an
area of up to a few dozen kilometers) at high speeds. Thus, a MAN lets
two remote nodes communicate as if they were part of the same local
area network.
A MAN is made from switches or routers connected to one another with high-speed links (usually fiber
optic cables).

WAN (Wide Area Network or extended network)

Connects multiple LANs to one another over great geographic
distances.
The speed available on a WAN varies depending on the cost of
the connections (which increases with distance) and may be
low.
WANs operate using routers, which can "choose" the most
appropriate path for data to take to reach a network node.
The most well-known WAN is the Internet.

Wireless local area network (WLAN)

links two or more devices using some wireless distribution
method (typically spread-spectrum or OFDM radio), and

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usually providing a connection through an access point to the wider Internet. This gives users the
mobility to move around within a local coverage area and still be connected to the network

NETWORK DEVICES
What is a Router?

Before we delve into the world of routers, you need to understand what a broadband connection is and
how it works. According to Dictionary.com, broadband is "a high-speed, high-capacity transmission
medium that can carry signals from multiple independent network carriers. This is done on a single
coaxial or fiber-optic cable by establishing different bandwidth channels. Broadband technology can
support a wide range of frequencies. It is used to transmit data, voice and video over long distances
simultaneously."
Routers take information that arrives through your broadband signal via a modem, decipher it, and
deliver it to your computer. The router will also choose the best route for the data packet so that you
receive the information quickly.
Many different types of routers have been developed so that the information coming over your
broadband connection can be sent to a variety of different receivers including your computer, your
phone, and others.

Types of Routers

There are several types of routers that you will want to understand. You need to know the difference
so that you can set up your network or at least so that you can understand what the local computer
guy tells you to do.

Broadband Routers

Broadband routers can be used to do

several different types of things. They can
be used to connect two different
computers or to connect two computers to
the Internet. They can also be used to
create a phone connection.
If you are using Voice over IP (VoIP)
technology, then you will need a
broadband router to connect your Internet
to your phone. These are often a special
type of modem that will have both
Ethernet and phone jacks. Although this
may seem a little confusing, simply follow
the instructions that your VoIP provider
sends with your broadband router - usually
you must purchase the router from the company in order to obtain the service.

Wireless Routers

Wireless routers connect to your modem and create a wireless signal in your
home or office. So, any computer within range can connect to your wireless
router and use your broadband Internet for free. The only way to keep anyone
from connecting to your system is to secure your router.
A word of warning about wireless routers: Be sure your secure them, or you will
be susceptible to hackers and identity thieves. In order to secure your router,
you simply need to come to WhatIsMyIPAddress.com, and get your IP address.
Then, you'll type that into your web browser and log into your router (the user ID
and password will come with your router).

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Remember to change the router ID and password as well or someone else might lock you out of your
system.
Once there, visit the wireless settings, type in a security key and you'll be about ready to go. Make
sure you write down the key or save it in a Word document. When you try to log onto your Internet
connection, you'll just need to enter the key. Your computer should remember the key, but write it
down somewhere for safe keeping just in case.

What is a Network Switch?

To understand basic networking, you first need to answer

the question, "What is a network switch?"

Most business networks today use switches to connect

computers, printers and servers within a building or
campus. A switch serves as a controller, enabling
networked devices to talk to each other efficiently.
Through information sharing and resource allocation,
switches save businesses money and increase employee
productivity.

A network switch is a small hardware device that joins

multiple computers together within one local area network
(LAN). Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model.

Network Hubs

Hub can be defined as one common point for connecting

all the network devices. Various LAN segments are
connected to hub in order to organize the working of the
network. A network hub connects the various ports of the
optic fiber cable and helps establish a single network
connection or segment.

What is the difference between a hub and a switch?

Hubs and switches are different types of network equipment that connect devices. They differ in the
way that they pass on the network traffic that they receive.

Hubs

The term ‘hub’ is sometimes used to refer to any piece of network equipment that connects PCs
together, but it actually refers to a multi-port repeater. This type of device simply passes on (repeats)
all the information it receives, so that all devices connected to its ports receive that information.
Hubs repeat everything they receive and can be used to extend the network. However, this can result
in a lot of unnecessary traffic being sent to all devices on the network. Hubs pass on traffic to the
network regardless of the intended destination; the PCs to which the packets are sent use the address
information in each packet to work out which packets are meant for them. In a small network
repeating is not a problem but for a larger, more heavily used network, another piece of networking
equipment (such as a switch) may be required to help reduce the amount of unnecessary traffic being
generated.

Switches

Switches control the flow of network traffic based on the address information in each packet. A switch
learns which devices are connected to its ports (by monitoring the packets it receives), and then
forwards on packets to the appropriate port only. This allows simultaneous communication across the
switch, improving bandwidth.
This switching operation reduces the amount of unnecessary traffic that would have occurred if the
same information had been sent from every port (as with a hub).

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Switches and hubs are often used in the same network; the hubs extend the network by providing
more ports, and the switches divide the network into smaller, less congested sections.
When Should I Use a Hub or Switch?
In a small network (less than 30 users), a hub (or collection of hubs) can easily cope with the network
traffic generated and is the ideal piece of equipment to use for connecting the users.
When the network gets larger (about 50 users), you may need to use a switch to divide the groups of
hubs, to cut down the amount of unnecessary traffic being generated.
If there is a hub or switch with Network Utilization LEDs, you can use the LEDs to view the amount of
traffic on the network. If the traffic is constantly high, you may need to divide up the network using a
switch.
When adding hubs to the network (to add more users), there are rules about the number of hubs you
can connect together. Switches can be used to extend the number of hubs that you can use in the
network.

Networking bridge

A bridge device filters data traffic at a network

boundary. Bridges reduce the amount of
traffic on a LAN by dividing it into two
segments.

Network Bridge is a feature that is used to

combine two or more local area networks (such
as wired and wireless) into one logicalnetwork.
Computers on each network can communicate
with computers on all of the other networks,
sharing files, printers and even an Internet connection.

Network Repeater

Network repeaters regenerate incoming electrical, wireless or optical signals. With physical
media like Ethernet or Wi-Fi, data transmissions can only span a limited distance before the
quality of the signal degrades. Repeaters attempt to preserve signal integrity and extend
the distance over which data can safely travel.
Modem-
Short for modulator- demodulator. is a device
that modulates
an analog carrier signal to
encode digital information,
and also demodulates such
a carrier signal to decode
the transmitted
information. The goal is to
produce a signal that can
be transmitted easily and
decoded to reproduce the
original digital data.

Internal modem
external modem

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 Common Types of Network Cabling

Networking cables -are used to connect one network device to other network devices or to connect
two or more computers to share printer, scanner etc. Different types of network cables like Coaxial
cable, Optical fiber cable, Twisted Pair cables are used depending on the
network's topology, protocol and size.

Coaxial cable- A type of wire that consists of a center wire

surrounded by insulation and then a grounded shield of braided
wire. The shield minimizes electrical and radio frequency
interference.
Coaxial cabling is the primary type of cabling used by the cable
television industry and is also widely used
for computer networks, such as Ethernet. Although more
expensive than standard telephone wire, it is much less
susceptible to interference and can carry much more data.

Optical fiber cable- is a network cable that contains strands of glass

fibers inside an insulated casing. These cables are designed for long
distance and very high bandwidth (gigabit speed) network
communications.

Fiber optic cables carry communication signals using pulses of light.

While expensive, these cables are increasingly being used instead of
traditional copper cables, because fiber offers more capacity and is
less susceptible to electrical interference. So-called Fiber to the
Home (FTTH) installations are becoming more common as a way to
bring ultra high speed Internet service (100 Mbps and higher) to
residences.

Twisted Pair cables- Twisted pair is the ordinary copper wire that
connects home and many business computers to the telephone
company. To reduce crosstalk or electromagnetic induction
between pairs of wires, two insulated copper wires are twisted
around each other. Each connection on twisted pair requires
both wires. Since some telephone sets or desktop locations
require multiple connections, twisted pair is sometimes installed
in two or more pairs, all within a single cable. For some business
locations, twisted pair is enclosed in a shield that functions as a
ground. This is known as shielded twisted pair (STP). Ordinary

wire to the home is unshielded

twisted pair (UTP).

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Different Kinds of Network Topology In Computer Networks

The way in which the connections are made is called the topology of thecomputer network. Now I
am discussing about network topology, Network topology specifically refers to the physical layout
of the network, especially the locations of the computers and how the cable is run between them.

Four most common topologies are:

 Bus
 Star
 Ring
 Mesh

Bus topologies

All the devices on a bus topology are connected by one single cable. When one
computer sends a signal up the wire, all the computers on the network receive
the information, but only one accepts the information. The rest regrets the
message. One computer can send a message at a time. A computer must wait
until the bus is free before it can transmit. When the signal reaches the end of
the wire, it bounces back and travels back up the wire. When a signal echoes
back and forth along an unterminated bus, it is called ringing. To stop the signals
from ringing, attach terminators at either end of the segment. The terminators
absorb the electrical energy and stop the reflection.

Advantages and disadvantages of network topology:

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 advantage of network topology
1. The bus is simple, reliable in small network, easy to use and understand
2. Requires the least amount of cable to connect the computers and less expensive
3. Easy to extend the bus
 Disadvantage of network topology
1. Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably
2. Each barrel connector weakens the electrical signal
3. Difficult to troubleshoot a bus

Star Topology

All the cables run from the computers to a central location, where
they are all connected by a device called a hub. Each computer on a
star network communicates with a central hub that resends the
message either to all the computers or only to the destination
computers. Hub can be active or passive in the star network Active
hub regenerates the electrical signal and sends it to all the
computers connected to it. Passive hub does not amplify or
regenerate signal and does not require electrical power to run. We
can expand a star network by placing another star hub.

Advantages:
 Easy to modify and add new computers to a star net
 Center of a star net is a good place to diagnose network faults
 Single computer failure do not necessarily bring down the whole net
 Several cable types can be used with the hub
Disadvantages:
 Central hub fails, the whole network fails to operate
 Many star networks require a device at the central point to rebroadcast or switch network
traffic.
 Costs more for cabling in star net than bus.

Ring Topology

Each computer is connected to the next computer ,with the last

one connected to the first. Every computer is connected to the next
computer in the ring, and each retransmits what it receives from
the previous computer. The message flow around the ring in one
direction. Some ring networks do token passing. It passes around
the ring until a computer wishes to send information to another
computer.

The computer adds an electronic address and data and sends it

around the ring. Each computer in sequence receives the token and the information and passes them
to the next until either the electronic address matches the address of the computer or the token
returns to the origin. The receiving computer returns a message to the originator indicating that the
message has been received. The sending computer then creates another token and place it on the
network, allowing another station to capture the token and being transmitted.

Advantages:

 No computer can monopolize the network

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 The fair sharing of the network allows the net to degrade gracefully as more user are
added.
Disadvantages:
 Failure of one compute can affect the total network
 Difficult to troubleshoot
 Adding or removing Computers disrupts the network

Mesh Topology

The mesh topology connects all devices (nodes) to each other for
redundancy and fault tolerance. It is used in WANs to
interconnect LANs and for mission critical networks like those used
by banks and financial institutions. Implementing the mesh
topology is expensive and difficult.

Advantages:

 Fault tolerance
 Guaranteed communication channel capacity
 Easy to troubleshoot
Disadvantages:
 Difficulty of installation and reconfiguration
 Cost of maintaining redundant link

LOCAL AREA NETWORK CONFIGURATION

Local Area Network - a computer network that links devices within a building or group of adjacent
buildings, especially one with a radius of less
than 1 km.

IP address
An IP address is a binary number that
uniquely identifies computers and other devices on a TCP/IP network.

Every machine on a network has a unique identifier. Just as you would address a letter to send in the
mail, computers use the unique identifier to send data to specific computers on a network. Most
networks today, including all computers on the Internet, use the TCP/IP protocol as the standard for
how to communicate on the network. In the TCP/IP protocol, the unique identifier for a computer is
called its IP address.

There are two standards for IP addresses: IP Version 4 (IPv4) and IP Version 6 (IPv6). All computers
with IP addresses have an IPv4 address, and many are starting to use the new IPv6 address system as
well. Here's what these two address types mean:

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* IPv4 uses 32 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. An IPv4 address is
expressed by four numbers separated by dots. Each number is the decimal (base-10) representation
for an eight-digit binary (base-2) number, also called an octet. For example: 216.27.61.137
* IPv6 uses 128 binary bits to create a single unique address on the network. An IPv6 address is
expressed by eight groups of hexadecimal (base-16) numbers separated by colons, as in
2001:cdba:0000:0000:0000:0000:3257:9652. Groups of numbers that contain all zeros are often
omitted to save space, leaving a colon separator to mark the gap (as in 2001:cdba::3257:9652).

MAC ADDRESS
In computer networking, the Media Access Control (MAC) address is every bit as important as
an IP address. Learn in this article how MAC addresses work and how to find the MAC addresses being
used by a computer.

What Is a MAC Address?

The MAC address is a unique value associated with a networkadapter. MAC addresses are also known
as hardware addresses or physical addresses. They uniquely identify an adapter on a LAN.

MAC addresses are 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in length). By convention, MAC addresses
are usually written in one of the following two formats:

MM:MM:MM:SS:SS:SS

MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS

The first half of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter manufacturer. These IDs are
regulated by an Internet standards body (see sidebar). The second half of a MAC address represents
the serial number assigned to the adapter by the manufacturer. In the example,

00:A0:C9:14:C8:29

The prefix

00A0C9

indicates the manufacturer is Intel Corporation.

Why MAC Addresses?

Recall that TCP/IP and other mainstream networking architectures generally adopt the OSI model. In
this model, network functionality is subdivided into layers. MAC addresses function at the data link
layer (layer 2 in the OSI model). They allow computers to uniquely identify themselves on a network at
this relatively low level.

MAC vs. IP Addressing

Whereas MAC addressing works at the data link layer, IP addressing functions at the network layer
(layer 3). It's a slight oversimplification, but one can think of IP addressing as supporting the software
implementation and MAC addresses as supporting the hardware implementation of the network stack.
The MAC address generally remains fixed and follows the network device, but the IP address changes

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as the network device moves from one network to another.

IP networks maintain a mapping between the IP address of a device and its MAC address. This mapping
is known as the ARP cache or ARP table. ARP, the Address Resolution Protocol, supports the logic for
obtaining this mapping and keeping the cache up to date.
DHCP also usually relies on MAC addresses to manage the unique assignment of IP addresses to
devices.
IP Classes
The Internet community originally defined five address classes to accommodate networks of varying
sizes. Microsoft TCP/IP supports class A, B, and C addresses assigned to hosts. The class of address
defines which bits are used for the network ID and which bits are used for the host ID. It also defines
the possible number of networks and the number of hosts per network.

Hosts per
1st Octet 1st Octet Network/Host ID
Default Number of Network
Class Decimal High (N=Network,
Subnet Mask Networks (Usable
Range Order Bits H=Host)
Addresses)

16,777,214
A 1 – 126* 0 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 126 (27 – 2)
(224 – 2)

16,382
B 128 – 191 10 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 65,534 (216 – 2)
(214 – 2)

2,097,150
C 192 – 223 110 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 254 (28 – 2)
(221 – 2)

D 224 – 239 1110 Reserved for Multicasting

E 240 – 254 1111 Experimental; used for research

Note: Class A addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 cannot be used and is reserved for
loopback and diagnostic functions.

Private IP Addresses
Subnet
Class Private Networks Address Range
Mask

A 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255

B 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.0.0 255.240.0.0 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255

C 192.168.0.0 255.255.0.0 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255

What is dynamic and static ip address?

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Static IP Addressing

If you feel the need to always know what your IP address is then you need a Static IP address, because
it is constant. Static IP addresses are more reliable for Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP), more
reliable to host a gaming website or to play X-Box, Play Station, use Virtual Private Network for secure
access to files from your company network computer, etc. Static IP addresses are also great if you use
your computer as a server, as it should give your file server faster file uploads and downloads. Another
plus with Static IP's, when hosting a website you are not sharing your IP with another company who
sends out a lot of E-mail SPAM and not only has their website been shut down but in turn gets your IP
address blacklisted.
In contrast a static IP address can become a security risk, because the address is always the same.
Static IP's are easier to track for data mining companies. Static IP addressing is less cost effective than
Dynamic IP Addressing.

Dynamic IP Addressing

The biggest advantages of Dynamic IP Addressing are less security risk as the computer is assigned a
new IP address each time the customer logs on, they are cost effective and there is automatic network
configuration (the less human intervention with network configuration the better). Dynamic addressing
is usually used by ISP's so that one IP address can be assigned to several users, however some ISP's
use Sticky Dynamic IP Addressing and do not change the IP address very often. Dynamic IP Addressing
can be used by families with several computers or by a small business owner who has a home office.
The software that comes with a router allows for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) setup
and assigns each computer attached to the router an IP address automatically.

In contrast, Dynamic IP addressing should not be used for VOIP, VPN, playing online games or game
hosting because Dynamic IP addressing is less reliable then Static IP addressing and could cause the
service to disconnect while you are on a VOIP, VPN or gaming.

TCP and UDP -TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol) are the core
protocols of the Transport Layer

Difference between TCP and UDP

TCP UDP
Reliability: TCP is connection-oriented protocol. When a file Reliability: UDP is connectionless protocol. When you a
or message send it will get delivered unless connections send a data or message, you don't know if it'll get there, it
fails. If connection lost, the server will request the lost part. could get lost on the way. There may be corruption while
There is no corruption while transferring a message. transferring a message.
Ordered: If you send two messages along a connection, Ordered: If you send two messages out, you don't know
one after the other, you know the first message will get what order they'll arrive in i.e. no ordered
there first. You don't have to worry about data arriving in
the wrong order.
Heavyweight: - when the low level parts of the TCP Lightweight: No ordering of messages, no tracking
"stream" arrive in the wrong order, resend requests have to connections, etc. It's just fire and forget! This means it's a
be sent, and all the out of sequence parts have to be put lot quicker, and the network card / OS have to do very
back together, so requires a bit of work to piece together. little work to translate the data back from the packets.
Streaming: Data is read as a "stream," with nothing Datagrams: Packets are sent individually and are

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 distinguishing where one packet ends and another begins. guaranteed to be whole if they arrive. One packet per one
There may be multiple packets per read call. read call.
Examples: World Wide Web (Apache TCP port 80), e-mail Examples: Domain Name System (DNS UDP port 53),
(SMTP TCP port 25 Postfix MTA), File Transfer Protocol streaming media applications such as IPTV or movies,
(FTP port 21) and Secure Shell (OpenSSH port 22) etc. Voice over IP (VoIP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
and online multiplayer games etc

Subnet Mask

Short for subnetwork mask, a subnet mask, subnet, or subnetting is a method of dividing a
network of IP addresses into groups. Subnetting allows each computer or networking device in its own
subnet to communicate with each other and still allow communication between subnets by routing the
traffic through the network router. By dividing a network into subnets, it can improve network security
and keep overall network traffic balanced. A common example of a subnet mask for class C IP
addresses is 255.255.255.0 and is the default subnet mask for many computers and network routers.

Gateway
A node on a network that serves as an entrance to another network. In enterprises, the gateway is the
computer that routes the traffic from aworkstation to the outside network that is serving the Web
pages. In homes, the gateway is the ISP that connects the user to the internet.
In enterprises, the gateway node often acts as a proxy server and a firewall. The gateway is also
associated with both a router, which use headers and forwarding tables to determine
where packets are sent, and a switch, which provides the actual path for the packet in and out of the
gateway.

DNS

Short for Domain Name System (or Service or Server), an Internet service that translates domain
names into IP addresses. Because domain names are alphabetic, they're easier to remember. The
Internet however, is really based on IP addresses. Every time you use a domain name, therefore, a
DNS service must translate the name into the corresponding IP address. For example, the domain
name www.example.com might translate to198.105.232.4.
The DNS system is, in fact, its own network. If one DNS server doesn't know how to translate a
particular domain name, it asks another one, and so on, until the correct IP address is returned.

Preferred and Alternate DNS server - This is a server that translates domain names into IP addresses.
Because domain names are alphabetic, they're easier to remember. The Internet however, is really
based on IP addresses. Every time you use a domain name, therefore, a DNS service must translate
the name into the corresponding IP address. For example, the domain name www.example.com might
translate to 198.105.232.4.
The DNS system is, in fact, its own network. If one DNS server doesn't know how to translate a
particular domain name, it asks another one, and so on, until the correct IP address is returned. So, it
will check the "Preferred" DNS server first, if it can't translate the name, then it will hit the "Alternate"
DNS server.

This is how you gonna find out your DNS Server.

Find Out DNS Server IP Address Under MS-Windows Version 7/Vista/XP/NT/2003

Click on Start button > Run > and Type command cmd > Press [enter] key

At DOS prompt type the command:

C:\>ipconfig /all

You should DNS server IP address, and other information related to Windows networking:

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 Configuration of peer to peer using windows xp to xp
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, The student will be able to:

1. Learn how to configure two computers using peer to peer connection

2. Learn how to troubleshoot peer to peer connection
3. How to setup file and printer sharing
 Peer to peer configuration using xp to xp
 Right click on my network places
 Properties
 Setup a home or small office network
 Next
 Next
 Check the box “ignore disconnected network hardware”
 Next
 Fill up computer description and computer name
 Next
 Fill up work group “take note” when making computer work group it always be the same with
the other computer”.
 Netxt
 Check turn on file and printer sharing
 Next
 Next
 Check just finish the wizard : I don’t need to run the wizard on the other computers.
 Next
 Finish
 The next step you will do is to assign an ip address to your computers.
 Right click internet protocol ( tcp/ip)
 Check use the following ip address
 Assign ip address ( ex. Class c- 192.168.0.1)
 Then press tab
 Subnet mask
 Ok
 Ok
 The next step is to make new folder to desktop
 Make a file inside the folder
 And save
 Right click the folder
 Click sharing and security
 Click share this folder on the network
 Ok
 Double click “My network places”
 Click view work group computers
 You will see the networked computers
 Do this configuration on the other computer you want to share.

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Activity 1.5

1. The practice of linking two or more computing devices together for the purpose of sharing data?

2. Are linked within a small geographic area using a network, and often the same technology (the most
widespread being Ethernet).

3. Is a binary number that uniquely identifies computers and other devices on a TCP/IP network.

4. Connect multiple geographically nearby LANs to one another (over an area of up to a few dozen
kilometers) at high speeds.

5. Connects multiple LANs to one another over great geographic distances.

6. Is a method of dividing a network of IP addresses into groups.

7. An Internet service that translates domain names into IP addresses.

8. A node on a network that serves as an entrance to another network.

9. All the devices on a ____________________ are connected by one single cable. When one computer
sends a signal up the wire, all the computers on the network receive the information.

10. It is used in WANs to interconnect LANs and for mission critical networks like those used by banks
and financial institutions.

11. are more reliable for Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP), more reliable to host a gaming website or
to play X-Box, Play Station, use Virtual Private Network for secure access to files from your company
network computer, etc.

12. This ip address are less security risk as the computer is assigned a new IP address each time the
customer logs on, they are cost effective and there is automatic network configuration (the less human
intervention with network configuration the better).

13. It is the ordinary copper wire that connects home and many business computers to the telephone
company.

14. These cables are designed for long distance and very high bandwidth (gigabit speed) network
communications.

15. A type of wire that consists of a center wire surrounded by insulation and then a grounded shield of
braided wire.

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 TOOLS AND MATERIALS NEDDED BY THE STUDENTS

Crimping tools Screw Drivers

Volt Ohms Multi meter (v.o.m) Lan tester

WINDOWS7 DRIVERS WIN XP

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 COMPUTER DICTIONARY
WINDOWS7AGP
Accelerated Graphics Port is a type of expansion card slot on the mother board that is optimized to
work with high performance video cards. They enable better viewing of 3D graphics and full motion
video on your display.

BIOS
Basic Input Output System is code used when a PC first starts up. It contains configuration information
about all the Input and Output devices in the PC so that the processor chip knows how to connect to
and work with them.

BIT
This is binary digit and is the smallest piece of information a computer uses. A bit is always in one of
two states, either 0 or 1, except for the tiny instant of time required to switch from one state to the
other.

BYTE
A byte is eight bits. The data and instructions (code) that a CPU uses are coded into bytes. For
example capital letter 'A' in ASCII (PC) code is byte 0100 0001. A lower case 'a' is byte 0110 0001.

BROWSER
Software on a computer used to request and display web pages from a Server.

CABLE MODEM
A type of modem that provides very high speed access to the Internet over the same cable that your
cable TV service uses. Rates are asymmetric. This means that downloads are much faster than
uploads. Typical download rates are 2 to 3 Mbps and uploads are in the 500Kbs range. This is blazing
speed compared to a 56Kbps dial-up modem.

CACHE
Cache is a small fast SRAM type of memory. It prevents CPU slowdown, which happens when the CPU
has to wait on slower devices like RAM memory and the hard drive. There are two levels of cache.

Level 1 or L1 cache is a small fast memory located on the same chip as the CPU. When files are first
requested by the CPU they are read into the CPU from the hard drive and written into the L1 cache at
the same time. When the CPU needs data again it checks the L1 cache and if it finds it there it gets it
instantly. If not, it looks successively in the L2 cache, RAM and finally the hard drive, each of which is a
little slower in delivering the data the CPU has requested.

If the CPU finds the data it wants in a cache it's called a 'hit' and that's good. If it doesn't it's called a
'miss' which makes the CPU wait a little longer to get the data or instruction it needs from one of the
other slower devices.

This little bit of time saved by cache hits may not seem significant, but keep in mind that millions of
accesses can be performed in a second. Every cache hit shaves time off the data access. Every cache
miss adds time to the access. Cache misses lower performance and cache hits raise it!

Because level 2 or L2 cache is located in chips on the motherboard or on the board that holds the CPU
it takes a little longer to access than the L1 cache.

L2 cache is becoming more important as it grows in size and performance. The L1 cache is very small
because it is on the same chip as the large CPU. Due to it's small size, chances are high that the CPU
won't find the data it needs there. An L1 cache miss causes the CPU to look in the L2 cache for the
data.

The long and short of all this - If the data the CPU needs is not found in the L1 cache or L2 cache, the

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CPU must to wait to get it from the RAM memory. And if it isn't in RAM, then the CPU goes on vacation
for a number of milliseconds, which is a long time in the CPU world, while the data is retrieved from the
hard drive.

CDD
Compact Disk Drive is a storage device that uses optics to read data from compact disks. CDDs that
can read as well as write are very popular now.

CPU
The Central Processing Unit is a special chip that controls what happens in a PC. It fetches instructions
and does high speed computations on data. It is somewhat like our brain in that it controls everything
we do.

DIMM
Dual Inline Memory Module is a small printed circuit board that contains DRAM memory chips. When
we say a PC has 256 MBytes of memory we are talking about the total capacity of all the DIMM
modules installed in it.
Modern motherboard provide two to four sockets that accept DIMMs.

DOMAIN NAME
A unique name, formed with letters and numbers, that points to the actual numerical Internet address
which locates a particular computer connected to the Internet. For instance, The Yahoo domain name
points to Internet address 66.218.71.198.

So when you enter www.yahoo.com in your browser and click go, a special server called a domain
name server intercepts and directs your request to the server located at address 66.218.71.198.

DRAM
Dynamic Random Access Memory is type of memory that must constantly be refreshed to retain it
contents. It is used as the main memory in a PC and is packaged in DIMMs which plug into the
motherboard.

DSL Modem
DSL stands Digital Subscriber Line. The DSL modem is a fairly new device, which allows high speed
data to move between your PC and the telephone company on the same line that you use for your
telephone calls. Yes. you can use your PC and talk over this line at the same time without
interference!

How? Picture of a double-decker bridge with two levels. The traffic on the two levels does not interfere
with each other even though it is the same bridge, right? Think of your phone call using the lower level
and your PC using the upper level. Instead of being separated by different levels in space, the
separation is done by your PC and voice each using a different carrier frequency, just like two different
radio stations.

FAT16
FAT is the abbreviation for File Allocation Table. It is a table where the system keeps basic information
for each file on your hard drive. The 16 indicates the number of bits used to address the hard drive.
The largest partition FAT16 can access is 2MB. When used on a hard drive that is bigger than 2MB the
drive space will be divided into a number of partitions.

For example a 10MB drive would be divided into five partitions of 2MB each. If the drive were the only
one in the system the partitions would be called C:, D:, E:, F:, and G:.

FAT32
FAT is the abbreviation for File Allocation Table. It is a table where the system keeps basic information
for each file on your hard drive. The 32 indicates the number of bits used to address the hard drive.
The largest partition FAT32 can access is 2 Terabytes (two trillion bytes)! So far there are no hard
drives I know of that begin to approach this size. Windows 98 was the first of the Windows OS to
support this file structure.

FDD

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Floppy Disk Drive is a device which provides a way for the PC to read and write floppy disks, which are
a type of removable storage media. Floppy disks (3 1/2 inch) have a capacity of 1.44 Mbytes. When
PCs first came out, floppy disks were 5 1/4 inch and held 720 Kbytes.

FIREWIRE
Firewire also known as IEEE 1394 or iLink is a very fast serial bus that runs at 400 Mbps. It competes
directly against USB 2.0. Transmit and Receive data are carried on two separately-shielded twisted
pair transmission lines. There are two other, rarely used, wires that provide power to remote devices.
Many newer computers have Firewire ports that are used to connect them to very fast external
devices.

FTP
File Transfer Protocol is the method used by computers to send and receive files over the Internet.

HTML
Hyper Text Markup Language is the coding that is used to format web pages on Servers so that
Browsers can display them.

HTTP
Hyper Text Transport Protocol is used by browsers and servers to facilitate the transport of web pages
across the Internet.

HDD
Hard Disk Drive is a device that provides a large fixed typically (non removable) storage area. Some
units today easily removable from the front of the PC. The capacity of HDDs has continued to increase.
40Gbyte drives are readily available and inexpensive. The HDDs used in the first PC had only 10Mbytes
of storage.

IDE
Integrated Drive Electronics refers to the electronic control section of a Hard or Floppy Drive. This
control section coordinates the electromechanical operation of the drive so that data can be written to
and read from the spinning disk inside it. The motherboard connects to Drives over an IDE ribbon
cable.

I/O
This means Input/Output. Input is data or signals that are fed into a device. Output is data or signals
that a device drives to the outside. Some devices can do both, others are only one or the other.

ISA
Industry Standard Architecture refers to a type of expansion slot on the motherboard. It is the oldest of
all expansion type slots and first appeared in the IBM PC XT. Thousands of expansion or add-on cards
as they are also called, have been designed to plug into the ISA slot. The use of expansion cards vastly
extends the function and capability of the PC.

MEMORY NON-VOLATILE
Memory is a device that retains information electronically. When power is removed the information is
retained.

MEMORY VOLATILE
Memory is a device that retains information electronically. When power is removed the information is
lost. The DRAM memory used in a PC is the volatile type.

OS
Operating Systems are the basic foundation or platform programs that allow you to load and run other
programs on a PC. Windows 95 is an example of an Operating System.

PARALLEL PORT
The parallel port is a standard port on a PC and moves data out of the PC. One byte (eight bits in
parallel) are sent out on 8 pins for each data transfer. Historically this port is connected to your printer.
It also known as a 'Centronics' port, named after the manufacturer of the 38- pin connector first used
on the parallel port.

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PCI
Peripheral Component Interconnect refers to a type of expansion slot found on PC motherboards. It is a
newer type of expansion slot than ISA, and many types of Add-On cards have been designed to use it.

RANDOM ACCESS
This refers to an access method. It means that any random location in a storage or memory device can
be immediately accessed, with out going serially to get there. It's like a cassette where your at the
beginning and have to wind through everything on the tape to get to the last song! Compact Disks and
PC Main memory are random access devices.

SERIAL ACCESS
This access method is found in audio or video cassettes. It means you can not access any location you
choose to instantly. You might have to rewind or fast forward through lots of information you are not
interested in to get to where you want to go.

SERIAL PORT
The serial port is standard port on a PC and can move data in and out of the PC. The serial port moves
one bit on each data transfer. Many different types of devices connect to a PC through it.

SERVER
Software on a computer that serves web pages in response to requests from a Browser.

SIMM
Single Inline Memory Module is a small printed circuit board that contains DRAM memory. This is an
older board style that was used in PCs before DIMMs were developed.

SRAM
Static Random Access Memory is type of memory that retains data without being refreshed. It is used
in the cache memories of the PC.

TROJAN HORSE
Trojan horses are dangerous programs that appear like they might perform some useful task, or
provide entertainment. This false appearance encourages people to run them. When they are run, they
can damage files or place a virus on your computer.

Unlike a virus a Trojan horse does not replicate and spread. Since it isn't a virus it can't be repaired
and must be erased from your computer.

USB
Universal Serial Bus is a high speed serial bus found on all newer PCs. Eventually it will obsolete the
serial and parallel ports still found on most PCs.

USB specifies three data rates. Every USB port may not support the highest rate. If you buy a device
with a USB port, make sure out find out which rates it does support.

 Low speed - 1.5Mb/s

 Full Speed - 12Mb/s
 High Speed - 480 Mb/s

VIDEO ADAPTER
The video adapter is circuit board found in the PC or monitor that controls how data is converted and
sent to the monitor for viewing.

Most displays and video adapters adhere to the Video Graphics Array (VGA) standard, which describes
how data - the red, green, blue data streams - are passed from the computer to the display.

In addition, it defines the frame refresh rates in hertz and the number and width of horizontal lines,
which in turn identifies the screen resolution in pixels.

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Here are some of the video standards that have been used:

 CGA is 320 x 200 - developed in 1981 by IBM, no longer in use.

 EGA is 640 x 350 - developed in 1984 by IBM, no longer in use.
 VGA is 640 x 480 - developed in 1987 by IBM and still in use.
 Super VGA is 800 x 600.
 Extended Graphics Adapter, XGA is 1024 x 768.
 Super XGA is 1280 x 1024.
 Ultra XGA is 1600 x 1200.

VIRUS
It is a program designed to change the way your computer operates without your permission or
knowledge. When a virus attaches itself to another file, it infects it. Any time you activate an infected
file it can damage files, cause erratic system behavior, or display messages. Some system viruses are
programmed specifically to corrupt programs, delete files, or erase your disk.

Viruses are inactive until you run an infected program, start your computer from a disk with infected
system files, or open an infected file. Once a virus is active in memory it can infect any other
programs, local or network, that you run.

Files infected with a virus can be inoculated (the virus is removed from the program).

WORM
Worms are a close cousin to viruses and Trojan Horses. Unlike a virus they don't infect other programs.
They do however make many copies of themselves in memory, which effectively consumes all your
memory. This leaves no memory to run you regular programs. Your PC may behave very erratically, or
just grind to a halt!

Some worms get into your e-mail list and e-mail themselves to everyone on your e-mail list without
you knowledge. When each unsuspecting recipient opens such an e-mail, it broadcasts itself to
everyone on their e-mail list. This is how worms rapidly travel throughout the Internet! Worms can not
be repaired since they are not viruses. They must be erased from your computer, the sooner the
better!

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Student progress chart

Student name: ____________________________________

Install computer Diagnose and Configure computer Maintain computer
systems and troubleshoot systems and systems and
networks computer systems networks networks
1.1.1 Plan and 2.1.1 Plan and 3.1.1 Plan and 4.1.1 Plan and
prepare for prepare for prepare for prepare for
installation diagnosis of configuration the
1.1.2 Install faults of 3.1.2 Configure maintenance
equipment/de computer computer of computer
vice system systems systems and systems and
1.1.3 Conduct test 2.1.2 Diagnose networks networks
faults of 3.1.3 Inspect and 4.1.2 Maintain
computer test computer
systems configured systems
2.1.3 Repair defects computer 4.1.3 Maintain
in computer systems and network
systems and networks systems
networks 4.1.4 Inspect and
2.1.4 Test systems Test
and networks Configured
repaired
computer
system and
networks

Student summary result in each core:

Competent / Not Yet Competent

Instructor’s signature:

_________________

COMPUTER HARDWARE SERVICING NC2 Page 87

MR. EMERSON B. ARCITA
TRAINER