Computer Art: Artificial Intelligence and the Arts

Author(s): Stephen Wilson

Source: Leonardo , Winter, 1983, Vol. 16, No. 1 (Winter, 1983), pp. 15-20
Published by: The MIT Press

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Leonardo, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 15-20, 1983 0024-094X/83/010015-06$03.00/0
Printed in Great Britain Pergamon Press Ltd.

COMPUTER ART: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

AND THE ARTS

Stephen Wilson*

Abstract-The author briefly reviews the recent development of Computer Art. He considers some of the aesth
issues raised, including play with human control/noncontrol, interest in sets of possibilities rather than
particular manifestation, the blurring of the distinction between object and process and the reduction of the ba
between computer artists and viewers of their works. Future trendsfor Computer Art are considered, in part
the artificial intelligence (AI) potentialities of computers for processing information in a way related to that done
humans. An example from the author's interactive computer video piece illustrates one of these potentialitie

I. INTRODUCTION such Computer Art works were viewed as interesting, but their
In the late 1960s and in the 1970s some artists and art writers prolific production has resulted in their being taken as evidence
prognosticated enthusiastically about the promise of artworks of an imaginative poverty and of infatuation with computer
technology for its own sake. Actually, artists have used digital
made with the aid of digital computers [1-4]. Although
computers in more ways than these illustrations suggest and
interesting artworks have been made, there is a wide feeling that
the artistic potential of computers has been exploited only towitha more subtlety, for example they have worked with graphics
limited degree. However, research now going on in artificial [8-12], video, words, music [4, 13], sculpture [4, 14] and
Conceptual Art.
intelligence (AI) could radically alter the way one thinks about
making artworks. Part of the appeal of early Computer Art graphics was, I
Artificial intelligence is a domain of computer science believe, the same as that of Op Art-systematic attention paid to
the manipulation of human perception both in its regularities
devoted to the exploration of the limits and the methods of using
digital computers to perform functions carried out by humanand in the ambiguities to which it is subject. The graphics of this
brains, such as understanding natural languages and kind, however, raised special concerns. The precision of the
information obtained through the senses and solving complex plottings was for some viewers both fascinating and, perhaps,
problems [5]. Work in this domain is essential if computers frightening.
are The possibilities of repeatedly plotting patterns of
curves of such accuracy and intricacy with variations were a
to be applicable to a wider range of matters than possible at
present in science, technology and daily life. tribute to computer technology and to the human search for
Developments in AI might permit artists to make artworks but they were also regarded by some as a foreboding of an
order,
accelerating development of a culture unaffected by human
with human-like sensibilities [6], those that interact with viewers
sensibilities.
in ways considered intelligent [7] and those that learn from
experience. Imagine, for instance, a sculpture that solicits and Another aspect of the digital computer is its capacity to
understands comments from viewers and responds in produce drawings of a mathematical character that have no
accordance with a personality provided to it by its sculptor. physical
The counterpart-curves can be merged (Fig. 3) and objects
potential applications of AI in the visual arts add challenging depicted that are impossible to construct. The artistic joy of
seeing impossible representations, however, will be missed by
perspectives on theoretical debates about the relationship
between artists and viewers and between artistic processes and
artworks and about the fundamental characteristics of aesthetic
qualities of artworks.
My purpose here is to stress to visual artists the importance of
AI research and the need for more of them to participate in it,
since at present AI research is dominated by those concerned
with scientific, engineering, commercial and military applica-
tions. First, I review briefly computer artworks with which I am
familiar. Next I discuss briefly the present state of AI research,
what I think remains to be done and what are some of the issues
in the domain that are relevant to the visual arts. Finally, I
consider some of the aesthetic issues raised by AI and describe
some of my artworks and participation in AI research.

II. A BRIEF REVIEW OF COMPUTER ART

The term Computer Art commonly brings to mind plotted

mathematical curves (Fig. 1) and the transformation of a
photographic image into digitized blocks (Fig. 2) [8]. At first

Fig. 1. Vichy Chaet. Computer Art, computer-plotted curves, 1968.

*Computer artist, Conceptual Design Area, Art Dept., San (From R. Leavitt, ed., Artist and Computer (New York: Crown, 1972).)
Francisco State University, 1600 Holloway Ave., San Francisco, CA (Copyright by Creative Computing Press, Morristown, New Jersey,
94132, U.S.A. (Received 10 Feb. 1981.) U.S.A.)

15

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16 Stephen Wilson

those who lack the necessary mathematical background. In such program that presents the transformation of objects as they
pieces computer artists often focus their attention on the search move in a hypothetical gravity field whose properties can be
for computer generational principles, rather than on the defined to be much different from gravity existing in the
production of particular computer drawings. universe.
Introduction of the time dimension, of course, adds to the The focus of these artists' work challenges traditional ways
complexity of the visual experience of Computer Art. Some thinking about making artworks. For some of them the prima
visual artists and music composers have been intrigued by goal seems not to be a particular completed work, but the desig
results produced easily by using chance and random factors in of computer hardware and software tools for the generation
computer programs, perhaps in response to an interest in images and events. This tool-making is not just an incidenta
Oriental ideas about time and causality or to a fascination with part of making an artwork, for the tools and the possibilit
chance and randomness as a philosophical question of the role they offer are in themselves the crux of art-making [16].
of human will in life. In these programs the programmer cannot Programmed computer systems and cybernetic systems
predict what a computer will produce at any given point. provided with or without sensors have been applied in pictorial
Computer Video Art images can be animated, that is, and sculptural Kinetic Art. Vladimir Bonacic (Yugoslavia) has
transformed in appearance and moved about in pictorial space, constructed the piece 'Dynamic Object G.F.E. (16,4) 69/71', an
and, if desired, they can be arranged to present impossible audio-kinetic pictorial artwork with computer-controlled
events. Special synthetizers have been built for video animation flashing lights and sound combinations [17]. Edward
and for processing of video images of real objects [15] and Ihnatowicz (U.K.) constructed the object 'Senster' that moves
events, for example in the U.S.A. by Dan Sandin, Tom Di its arms toward the source of a soft sound and away from a
Fanti and Phil Morton at the Electronic Utilization Workshop source of sound exceeding a threshold of sound intensity under
of the University of Illinois-Chicago. The computer artist the control of a cybernetic system (Fig. 4). Harold Cohen
John Dunn (U.S.A.) has produced a Video Art computer (U.S.A.) has devised a computer-controlled robot that applied
program that allows 16 viewer-drawn images to be transformed, paint to a canvas placed flat on a floor as the robot moved in
moved about and made to interact. Duane Pulka (U.S.A.) has accordance with programs incorporating random factors [18].
produced a program that transforms one depicted object intoNicholas Negroponte (U.S.A.) has produced an installation
another, for example a leopard into an automobile, and a (Fig. 5), called 'SEEK', consisting of a group of cubical blocks
with small rodents (gerbils) living among them. A computer-
controlled motorized arm moves and rearranges the blocks. The
computer system was equipped with pressure sensors to
determine changes in block positions caused by the movement
of the gerbils. The system then attempted to place the blocks in
positions responsive to the gerbils' 'desires' as indicated by their
previous movements [19]. Several years ago Nicholas Schoeffer
(France) proposed the construction of a tower whose movable
parts and lights would be controlled by a cybernetic system with
sensors responding to atmospheric temperature, wind speed,

Ii

"N

Fig. 2. Ed Manning. Computer Art, digitized photographic image, 1965.

Fig. 3.Crown,
(From R. Leavitt, ed., Artist and Computer (New York: Stephen Wilson. Computer Art, computer-p
1972).)
(Copyright by Creative Computing Press) merged curves, 1980.

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 Artificial Intelligence and the Arts 17

sound level, etc. Numerous artists have produced audiokinetic

pictorial and sculptural artworks controlled by electronic-
mechanical systems responding to sound [20, 21].
Artists are also attempting to devise interactive video
performances in which widely separated participants would be
able to modify each other's images with the help of computers
by means of a satellite television communications system
[22, 23]. Microcomputers provided with television-type screens
or personal computers produced for office, school and home use
are being applied by some artists [24], and the relatively low
price of the devices can be expected to play an important role in
broadening the artistic application of computers. Because
artists have employed increasingly the more unique capabilities
of digital computers, the development of various aspects of Al
will, I am sure, be of more and more importance.

III. ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

There has been much discussion about the capacity

Fig. 4. EdwardIhnatowicz. 'Senster', Computer Art, responsive sculpture,
1970. (From R. Leavitt, ed., Artist and Computer (New York: Crown,
computers (here taken to include both hardware an
1972).) (Copyright by Creative Computing Press) programs) and their social implications [5, 25, 26]. As regards
computer AI, some theorists have serious reservations about
claims made for its future. For example, Hubert Dreyfus [27] is
of the view that there are aspects of human mental functioning
that cannot be matched by computer AI, because it is doubtful
that a computer program can be devised to take account of a
human's background awareness, such as what it is to have a
body, to have feelings and other intangible mental aspects that
humans possess.
Nevertheless, some impressive AI accomplishments have
been recorded. There are now chess-playing programs for the
most advanced computers that are capable of playing master-
level games-a master has been defeated by one of the
programs, but a program lost a match of several games.
Translation of natural languages has made a little progress, but
no program has been devised to deal comprehensively with a
text of ordinary conversation. Also good progress has been
made with computer systems for pattern recognition, for
example of clearly defined letters of the Latin alphabet, but no
computer at present could read my handwriting!
A general definition of human intelligence points to the
capability of a quick and often effective response to novel
situations [28]. Narrower definitions stress human capabilities,
such as perception through the five senses, memory, learning
from experience, problem-solving, various kinds of com-
munication, mathematics and the experience of emotions
[29, 30]. Therefore, the definition of human intelligence one
adopts affects the judgement one makes of AI accomplishments.
One might say that a mechanical device that operates
repetitively has designed into it a kind of 'memory'. Kinetic Art
works that function in a cyclical way are devices of this kind
[20, 21]. Some consider responsiveness and adaptability as a key
characteristic of intelligence. Audio-kinetic artworks, that is,
those whose motion or whose illumination of sculptured parts
or of images on a screen respond to variations in intensity or in
frequency of sounds [20, 21], might be said to behave
intelligently. Intelligence can be thought of as a kind of
continuous spectrum of ascending complexity of characteristics
on which one might choose a lower boundary above which 'real'
intelligence is said to be manifested. Artworks that have been
made of the kind that I have mentioned above have an
'intelligence' of a very low level.
In the application of computers for scientific and for
technological purposes AI researchers find little manifestation
of 'real' intelligence. Through speed of calculation, computers
Fig. 5. Nicholas Negroponte. 'SEEK', Computer Art, responsive are capable of controlling accurately the flight of a spacecraft to
environment for small animals, gerbils, computer-controlled array of the Moon, which is impressive, but none is as yet capable of
cubical blocks, 1970. (From SOFTWARE, exhibition catalog, Jewish 'understanding' the full range of simple natural language
Museum, Brooklyn, N.Y., U.S.A. 1970.) sentences spoken by children.

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18 Stephen Wilson
Natural languages, by means of which abstract ideas can be
communicated and processed, are considered by some
researchers as the most distinctive manifestation of human
intelligence. As pointed out above, computers so far developed
can deal with such languages to only a very limited extent. A
computer programming language may artificially resemble a
written natural language, but in it each word has only one
meaning and the order in which words are used is strictly
controlled by arbitrary rules.
Nevertheless, AI researchers are making progress with
computer programs that genuinely 'understand' newly
encountered, simple conversational strings of words within
limited domains and respond appropriately. An AI computer
program called SHRDLU has been developed at Stanford
University in California. It can 'understand' commands relating
to video images of a collection of depicted forms of different
shape, size and color and manipulate the forms correctly on the
TV monitor (Fig. 6). For example, consider the request: Will
you please stack up both of the red blocks and either a green
cube or a green pyramid. The request will be met, or the
program will say why it cannot meet the request.
AI researchers are also working on computer 'understanding'
of visual information. They have designed robot systems with
video 'eyes' which can control industrial processes, such as
welding, cutting, forming, etc. and which can scan production
items to indicate flaws (Fig. 7). Discussions of this application of
AI can be found in Refs. 26 and 30.
Much AI research is now concerned with commercial and
military applications of computers. This research tends to Fig. 7. PUMA industrial robot, 1981. General Motors Research Institute,
neglect the idiosyncratic and imaginative aspects of human Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.
intelligence, which are especially important in the arts. My
research focuses on these aspects, especially on the possibility of
simulating mentalities and personalities.
In creating an AI program, one must make a choice about the a solution is not found, then the options are again pursued for a
characteristics of a mentality one wishes to program. I am larger number of steps. The depth-first method can be
interested in character uniqueness rather than some optimized considered as impulsive and risk-taking, and the breadth-first
convergent process leading to the solution of a given problem. method as conservative. One interested in programming unique
One of the choices, for example, involves the type of problem- mentalities might choose a strategy that does not necessarily
solving strategy to use. At present there are two strategy lead to a computer providing a solution most rapidly.
methods available. The depth-first method instructs a computer
to select one programmed option for a solution and to pursue it
IV. MY PERSONAL RESEARCH
until a solution is found or until it is evident there is no solution
and another option is selected. The breadth-first method I view the visual arts as attempts by artists to exte
instructs a computer to explore simultaneously those options aspects of their intelligence and sensibilities for presen
provided in a program only for a certain number of steps, and,viewers. if Sometimes viewers feel that an artwork has its own
personality. Developments in AI already allow artists to go
beyond the possibilities of the past, for example by making
artworks that respond differently for different viewers, as in the
case of a Computer Art kinetic sculpture that, upon being
informed about a viewer's age, performs motions the
artist-programmer chose to be appropriate for that age.
r-\,e ..~,~: : .. ~ ;.~;: . . - > X , ... ......... .. ... . ... AI developments are pertinent for discussions of the relative
importance for viewers of artworks and of the concepts and
information underlying their making. For example, in
Conceptual Art artists, instead of making an artwork, present
eC : :.> .. .. . .... only a collection of verbal information, sometimes sup-
plemented with sketches and photographs, that could serve as a
-"'~? ii.^ ..' w.
? ? ~ ; ,,-- "??~~~forii'1':'::?.:!:;'::./'::::;!::
" " ~7 .... . ? i:?"~':~, basis
;- W c ii-
it [31]. AI developments for Computer Art are
,~.~?.--.,.!-;i:i"-i:-:;:'-
pertinent for discussion about whether the process of
--'
making
also i..
an
artwork is aesthetically of equal or more importance for viewers
than the artwork itself and about the significance of viewer
participation in the creation of artworks. The heart of the
simulated personality provided by an example of Al Computer
Art is the conceptual information inherent in its program, and it
can exist and unfold only through a process of collaborative
interaction between viewer and machine.

Fig. 6. Patrick I have Video

Winston. tried to introduce AI into my artworks,
image but they must
generate
(AI) program, SHRDLU, 1972. (From Patrick Winston, Artificial be regarded as elementary applications of AI. They can be
Intelligence (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1977).) regarded as simulated personalities with which viewers can

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 Artificial Intelligence and the Arts 19

attempt to establish relationships. My 'Responsive Linking Piece answer to a question by a previous viewer is desired, and, if the
No. 1' (Fig. 8) is a program on a computer disk that requires a answer is yes, then the viewer is shown the statement that an
viewer to sit in front of a computer keyboard, loudspeaker and answer of a previous viewer is a private matter.
TV monitors. The viewer is first invited to sit down and to type Later in the program of the piece, when the viewer has become
out his or her name on the keyboard, and the computer, in reply, accustomed to the experience provided and is comfortable with
shows its own name in type on the black-and-white monitor. the relationships, the color monitor in the midst of a graphic
Thereafter, the viewer will be addressed by name in type. The presentation goes blank, bells are heard ringing and on the black
computer then presents on the monitor questions such as, How and white monitor appears the statement: Emergency
old are you? Do you feel sad or happy today? Are you generally transmission from national defense computer network
optimistic or pessimistic? Do you feel alone or linked to other discontinues present activity! Viewers tend to show concern
people? The viewer answers by punching an appropriate because they fear they will lose their final personal kinetic
response on the keyboard, for example 'optimistic' or graphic that has been accumulating on the basis of answers
'pessimistic'. For each reply to a question the computer already given. In about 15 seconds the message is displayed
generates sounds and presents on the color monitor a kinetic saying: Art Institute computer, identify your operator and
graphic image keyed to the answer. For instance, if the viewer relevant information. The machine then identifies itself and
replies: I am generally optimistic, the graphic image consists ofdisplays
a the viewer's name and each piece of information the
spiral of increasing diameter in a bright color and, if generallyviewer has typed into the machine's memory. Then the machine
displays the cumulative graphic stored up to the response to the
pessimistic, the spiral decreases in diameter and is in a dull color.
The graphic computer response to each answer a viewer gives answer
is of the viewer to the last question posed before the
added to provide a cumulative design, so that the viewer at the interruption, apologizes for revealing the viewer's 'private'
answers and requests the viewer to answer the next questions,
end of the program is presented with a final design that is unique
until the last one is displayed.
for the viewer, since it is a cumulative one based on the viewer's
answers. Other interacting Computer Art programs I have completed
Finally, the computer system is programmed to generate a are similar in having the objective of bringing about a
cumulative graphic based on the most frequently given answers personality/mentality relationship between a viewer and a
by previous viewers of 'Responsive Linking Piece No. 1'. Thus, computer/video machine. In 'Responsive Linking Piece No. 1',
viewers, except the first one, are able to compare their unique my objective was to produce in a viewer a sense of loss of
graphic with a cumulative one based on the answers of previous security of personal information, in other pieces I have chosen
viewers. different objectives.
The 'relationship' the program is intended to establish with This type of interactive Computer Art is limited by the need to
viewers is as important as the cumulative graphic. The built-in use the readily available keyboard/video system as an
simulated 'mentality' does more than ask questions and interaction medium, which introduces a high level of
generate graphics. It addresses viewers personally, comments artificiality.
on I am now investigating with colleagues the
answers to personal questions, remembers and comments on possibility of developing interactive Computer Art in which
previous answers, compares answers with those of other there is a program that is capable of causing the computer to
participants, informally jokes about itself as a Computer Art respond orally to questions posed by viewers orally and
program, makes comments about the sexiness of their touch on simultaneously to present color kinetic graphics on the TV
its keyboard and so on. The success of the relationship buildingmonitor. I am investigating whether the sense of touch or the
has been evidenced by some viewers reporting that they movement of a viewer might be used to bring about some kind of
occasionally forgot they were interacting with a machine andinteractive
by Computer Art, for example by a viewer's stroking
others that they thought of the machine as their 'friend'. specially sensitized surfaces or by the computer system's sensing
The program is also designed to make the viewer more by means of an array of photocells a viewer's body movement
comfortable when providing answers to highly personal blocking and unblocking some of the photocells.
questions. For example, at one point the viewer is asked if theThe interactive Computer Art programs I have produced tap
only a small part of presently available AI capabilities. While
the programs respond differently to the answers of each person,
the range of responses is very limited. The program can cope
with only simple codified responses, not with its interpretations
of complex verbal responses humans usually make to a question
such as, Are you generally optimistic or pessimistic?
Furthermore, the programs depend on a choice of computer
self-generated random numbers to make a response, in terms of
the graphic presentation and of the sounds produced. If AI is
developed that matches human intelligence, then the machine
would accumulate information and learn to deal with it in order
to make responses that humans feel are truly intelligent.
Applications of AI in the arts require research into how AI
systems can deal with human manifestations such as emotion,
humor and taste and how computers might themselves simulate
these characteristics. A future computerized society is often
conceived as a drab, sterile world full of highly intelligent but
cold and humorless computer servants. Such a society need not
be like that, and artists can help to explore ways to 'humanize'
computerized systems. Computer Art has already contributed
significantly to studies of aesthethics, of distinctions between
Fig. 8. Stephen Wilson. 'Responsive Linking Piece No. 1', Computer Art,
artistic processes and artworks and of relationships between
an interactive Artificial Intelligence (AI) installation, 1980. Participant
converses with computer via a computer terminal, Each element of viewersthe and artworks. Those who produce Computer Art can be
expected to raise other issues in the world of art as they apply AI,
video image reflects the sense of the participant's answer to personal
questions. which is only at the beginning of its development.

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20 Stephen Wilson

I am grateful for the generous assistance and comments given 14. R. A. Baladi, Kinetic Art: Special Bas-Reliefs with Solar
me in the preparation of this by the following persons: Phyllis Illumination, Leonardo 13, 1 (1980).
Wilson, Robert Loescher, Susan Connell, Kathleen Moore and 15. S. Daly, Video Relief Images Produced by Using a Regenerative
Process, Leonardo 15, 43 (1981).
Frank J. Malina. However, I am solely responsible for the
16. S. Sheridan, Generative Systems, Afterimage, p. 6 (Mar. 1975).
contents of this article.
17. V. Bonacic, Kinetic Art: Application of Abstract Algebra to
Objects with Computer Controlled Flashing Lights and Sound
Combinations, Leonardo 7, 193 (1974).
18. R. Cohen, Interview with Harold Cohen at Stedelijk Museum,
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2. J. Burnham, Beyond Modern Sculpture (New York: Braziller, the Journal Leonardo (New York: Dover, 1974).
1965). 21. F. J. Malina, Electric Light as a Medium in the Visual Fine Arts: A
3. D. Davis, Art and the Future (New York: Praeger, 1973). Memoir, Leonardo 8, 109 (1975).
4. F. Popper, Art, Action and Participation (New York: New York 22. H. Shore, Report on the International Workshop-Seminar on the
University Press, 1975). Interaction of Arts and Technology, University of Southern
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(1981). 15, 49 (1981).
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Leonardo 10, 17 (1977). See also Ref. 1, p. 85. National Endowment for the Arts, 1980.
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Geometrical Nonfigurative Pictures, Leonardo 11, 13 (1978). 28. L. Terman and M. Terman, Measuring Intelligence (Boston:
11. R. Cogart, Computer Graphics: Grid Structures, Leonardo 11, 118 Houghton Mifflin, 1959).
(1978). 29. J. P. Guilford and R. Hoepfer, Analysis of Intelligence (New York:
12. A. S. De Guthman, A Study in Variation of Types of Computer McGraw-Hill, 1971).
Drawings Obtainable by Small Program Changes, Leonardo 12, 37 30. P. Winston, Artificial Intelligence (Reading, Mass: Addison
(1979). Wesley, 1977).
13. F. Brown, Computer Music, Produced with the Aid of a Digital- 31. D. Brook, Toward a Definition of Conceptual Art, Leonardo 5,49
to-Analog Converter, Leonardo 11, 39 (1978). (1972).

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