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What is Database
The database is a collection of inter-related data which is used to retrieve, insert and delete the
data efficiently. It is also used to organize the data in the form of a table, schema, views, and
reports, etc.

For example: The college Database organizes the data about the admin, staff, students and
faculty etc.

Using the database, you can easily retrieve, insert, and delete the information.

Database Management System

o Database management system is a software which is used to manage the database. For
example: MySQL, Oracle, etc are a very popular commercial database which is used in
different applications.
o DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like database creation, storing
data in it, updating data, creating a table in the database and a lot more.
o It provides protection and security to the database. In the case of multiple users, it also
maintains data consistency.

DBMS allows users the following tasks:

o Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and removal of definition that
defines the organization of data in the database.
o Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion of the actual data
in the database.
o Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database which can be used by
applications for various purposes.
o User Administration: It is used for registering and monitoring users, maintain data
integrity, enforcing data security, dealing with concurrency control, monitoring
performance and recovering information corrupted by unexpected failure.

Characteristics of DBMS
o It uses a digital repository established on a server to store and manage the information.
o It can provide a clear and logical view of the process that manipulates data.
o DBMS contains automatic backup and recovery procedures.

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o It contains ACID properties which maintain data in a healthy state in case of failure.
o It can reduce the complex relationship between data.
o It is used to support manipulation and processing of data.
o It is used to provide security of data.
o It can view the database from different viewpoints according to the requirements of the
user.

Advantages of DBMS
o Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because it stores all the
data in one single database file and that recorded data is placed in the database.
o Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can share the data
among multiple users.
o Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the centralized nature of the
database system.
o Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.
o Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create automatic backup of
data from hardware and software failures and restores the data if required.
o multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like graphical user
interfaces, application program interfaces

Disadvantages of DBMS
o Cost of Hardware and Software: It requires a high speed of data processor and large
memory size to run DBMS software.
o Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run them efficiently.
o Complexity: Database system creates additional complexity and requirements.
o Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the database because in most of
the organization, all the data stored in a single database and if the database is damaged
due to electric failure or database corruption then the data may be lost forever.

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Database

What is Data?
Data is a collection of a distinct small unit of information. It can be used in a variety of forms like
text, numbers, media, bytes, etc. it can be stored in pieces of paper or electronic memory, etc.

Word 'Data' is originated from the word 'datum' that means 'single piece of information.' It is
plural of the word datum.

In computing, Data is information that can be translated into a form for efficient movement and
processing. Data is interchangeable.

What is Database?
A database is an organized collection of data, so that it can be easily accessed and managed.

You can organize data into tables, rows, columns, and index it to make it easier to find relevant
information.

Database handlers create a database in such a way that only one set of software program
provides access of data to all the users.

The main purpose of the database is to operate a large amount of information by storing,
retrieving, and managing data.

There are many dynamic websites on the World Wide Web nowadays which are handled
through databases. For example, a model that checks the availability of rooms in a hotel. It is an
example of a dynamic website that uses a database.

There are many databases available like MySQL, Sybase, Oracle, MongoDB, Informix,
PostgreSQL, SQL Server, etc.

Modern databases are managed by the database management system (DBMS).

SQL or Structured Query Language is used to operate on the data stored in a database. SQL
depends on relational algebra and tuple relational calculus.

A cylindrical structure is used to display the image of a database.

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DBMS (Data Base Management System)

Database management System is software which is used to store and retrieve the database. For
example, Oracle, MySQL, etc.; these are some popular DBMS tools.

o DBMS provides the interface to perform the various operations like creation, deletion,
modification, etc.
o DBMS allows the user to create their databases as per their requirement.
o DBMS accepts the request from the application and provides specific data through the
operating system.
o DBMS contains the group of programs which acts according to the user instruction.
o It provides security to the database.

Advantage of DBMS
Controls redundancy

It stores all the data in a single database file, so it can control data redundancy.

Data sharing

An authorized user can share the data among multiple users.

Backup

It providesBackup and recovery subsystem. This recovery system creates automatic data from
system failure and restores data if required.

Multiple user interfaces

It provides a different type of user interfaces like GUI, application interfaces.

Disadvantage of DBMS

Size

It occupies large disk space and large memory to run efficiently.

Cost

DBMS requires a high-speed data processor and larger memory to run DBMS software, so it is
costly.

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Complexity

DBMS creates additional complexity and requirements.

Types of Databases
There are various types of databases used for storing different varieties of data:

1) Centralized Database
It is the type of database that stores data at a centralized database system. It comforts the users
to access the stored data from different locations through several applications. These
applications contain the authentication process to let users access data securely. An example of
a Centralized database can be Central Library that carries a central database of each library in a
college/university.

Advantages of Centralized Database

o It has decreased the risk of data management, i.e., manipulation of data will not affect
the core data.
o Data consistency is maintained as it manages data in a central repository.
o It provides better data quality, which enables organizations to establish data standards.
o It is less costly because fewer vendors are required to handle the data sets.

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Disadvantages of Centralized Database

o The size of the centralized database is large, which increases the response time for
fetching the data.
o It is not easy to update such an extensive database system.
o If any server failure occurs, entire data will be lost, which could be a huge loss.

2) Distributed Database
Unlike a centralized database system, in distributed systems, data is distributed among different
database systems of an organization. These database systems are connected via communication
links. Such links help the end-users to access the data easily. Examples of the Distributed
database are Apache Cassandra, HBase, Ignite, etc.

We can further divide a distributed database system into:

o Homogeneous DDB: Those database systems which execute on the same operating
system and use the same application process and carry the same hardware devices.
o Heterogeneous DDB: Those database systems which execute on different operating
systems under different application procedures, and carries different hardware devices.

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Advantages of Distributed Database

o Modular development is possible in a distributed database, i.e., the system can be
expanded by including new computers and connecting them to the distributed system.
o One server failure will not affect the entire data set.

3) Relational Database
This database is based on the relational data model, which stores data in the form of rows(tuple)
and columns(attributes), and together forms a table(relation). A relational database uses SQL for
storing, manipulating, as well as maintaining the data. E.F. Codd invented the database in 1970.
Each table in the database carries a key that makes the data unique from others. Examples of
Relational databases are MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, etc.

Properties of Relational Database

There are following four commonly known properties of a relational model known as ACID
properties, where:

A means Atomicity: This ensures the data operation will complete either with success or with
failure. It follows the 'all or nothing' strategy. For example, a transaction will either be committed
or will abort.

C means Consistency: If we perform any operation over the data, its value before and after the
operation should be preserved. For example, the account balance before and after the
transaction should be correct, i.e., it should remain conserved.

I means Isolation: There can be concurrent users for accessing data at the same time from the
database. Thus, isolation between the data should remain isolated. For example, when multiple
transactions occur at the same time, one transaction effects should not be visible to the other
transactions in the database.

D means Durability: It ensures that once it completes the operation and commits the data, data
changes should remain permanent.

DBMS Architecture
o The DBMS design depends upon its architecture. The basic client/server architecture is
used to deal with a large number of PCs, web servers, database servers and other
components that are connected with networks.
o The client/server architecture consists of many PCs and a workstation which are
connected via the network.

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o DBMS architecture depends upon how users are connected to the database to get their
request done.

Types of DBMS Architecture

Database architecture can be seen as a single tier or multi-tier. But logically, database
architecture is of two types like: 2-tier architecture and 3-tier architecture.

1-Tier Architecture
o In this architecture, the database is directly available to the user. It means the user can
directly sit on the DBMS and uses it.
o Any changes done here will directly be done on the database itself. It doesn't provide a
handy tool for end users.
o The 1-Tier architecture is used for development of the local application, where
programmers can directly communicate with the database for the quick response.

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2-Tier Architecture
o The 2-Tier architecture is same as basic client-server. In the two-tier architecture,
applications on the client end can directly communicate with the database at the server
side. For this interaction, API's like: ODBC, JDBC are used.
o The user interfaces and application programs are run on the client-side.
o The server side is responsible to provide the functionalities like: query processing and
transaction management.
o To communicate with the DBMS, client-side application establishes a connection with the
server side.

Fig: 2-tier Architecture

3-Tier Architecture
o The 3-Tier architecture contains another layer between the client and server. In this
architecture, client can't directly communicate with the server.
o The application on the client-end interacts with an application server which further
communicates with the database system.
o End user has no idea about the existence of the database beyond the application server.
The database also has no idea about any other user beyond the application.

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o The 3-Tier architecture is used in case of large web application.

Fig: 3-tier Architecture

Three schema Architecture

o The three schema architecture is also called ANSI/SPARC architecture or three-level
architecture.
o This framework is used to describe the structure of a specific database system.
o The three schema architecture is also used to separate the user applications and physical
database.
o The three schema architecture contains three-levels. It breaks the database down into
three different categories.

The three-schema architecture is as follows:

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In the above diagram:

o It shows the DBMS architecture.

o Mapping is used to transform the request and response between various database levels
of architecture.
o Mapping is not good for small DBMS because it takes more time.
o In External / Conceptual mapping, it is necessary to transform the request from external
level to conceptual schema.
o In Conceptual / Internal mapping, DBMS transform the request from the conceptual to
internal level.

Objectives of Three schema Architecture

The main objective of three level architecture is to enable multiple users to access the same data
with a personalized view while storing the underlying data only once. Thus it separates the user's

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view from the physical structure of the database. This separation is desirable for the following
reasons:

o Different users need different views of the same data.

o The approach in which a particular user needs to see the data may change over time.
o The users of the database should not worry about the physical implementation and
internal workings of the database such as data compression and encryption techniques,
hashing, optimization of the internal structures etc.
o All users should be able to access the same data according to their requirements.
o DBA should be able to change the conceptual structure of the database without
affecting the user's
o Internal structure of the database should be unaffected by changes to physical aspects of
the storage.

1. Internal Level

o The internal level has an internal schema which describes the physical storage structure
of the database.
o The internal schema is also known as a physical schema.
o It uses the physical data model. It is used to define that how the data will be stored in a
block.
o The physical level is used to describe complex low-level data structures in detail.

The internal level is generally is concerned with the following activities:

o Storage space allocations.

For Example: B-Trees, Hashing etc.

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o Access paths.
For Example: Specification of primary and secondary keys, indexes, pointers and
sequencing.
o Data compression and encryption techniques.
o Optimization of internal structures.
o Representation of stored fields.

2. Conceptual Level

o The conceptual schema describes the design of a database at the conceptual level.
Conceptual level is also known as logical level.
o The conceptual schema describes the structure of the whole database.
o The conceptual level describes what data are to be stored in the database and also
describes what relationship exists among those data.
o In the conceptual level, internal details such as an implementation of the data structure
are hidden.
o Programmers and database administrators work at this level.

3. External Level

o At the external level, a database contains several schemas that sometimes called as
subschema. The subschema is used to describe the different view of the database.
o An external schema is also known as view schema.
o Each view schema describes the database part that a particular user group is interested
and hides the remaining database from that user group.

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o The view schema describes the end user interaction with database systems.

Mapping between Views

The three levels of DBMS architecture don't exist independently of each other. There must be
correspondence between the three levels i.e. how they actually correspond with each other.
DBMS is responsible for correspondence between the three types of schema. This
correspondence is called Mapping.

There are basically two types of mapping in the database architecture:

o Conceptual/ Internal Mapping

o External / Conceptual Mapping

Conceptual/ Internal Mapping

The Conceptual/ Internal Mapping lies between the conceptual level and the internal level. Its
role is to define the correspondence between the records and fields of the conceptual level and
files and data structures of the internal level.

External/ Conceptual Mapping

The external/Conceptual Mapping lies between the external level and the Conceptual level. Its
role is to define the correspondence between a particular external and the conceptual view.

Data Models
Data Model is the modeling of the data description, data semantics, and consistency constraints
of the data. It provides the conceptual tools for describing the design of a database at each level
of data abstraction. Therefore, there are following four data models used for understanding the
structure of the database:

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1) Relational Data Model: This type of model designs the data in the form of rows and
columns within a table. Thus, a relational model uses tables for representing data and in-
between relationships. Tables are also called relations. This model was initially described by
Edgar F. Codd, in 1969. The relational data model is the widely used model which is primarily
used by commercial data processing applications.

2) Entity-Relationship Data Model: An ER model is the logical representation of data as

objects and relationships among them. These objects are known as entities, and relationship is
an association among these entities. This model was designed by Peter Chen and published in
1976 papers. It was widely used in database designing. A set of attributes describe the entities.
For example, student_name, student_id describes the 'student' entity. A set of the same type of
entities is known as an 'Entity set', and the set of the same type of relationships is known as
'relationship set'.

3) Object-based Data Model: An extension of the ER model with notions of functions,

encapsulation, and object identity, as well. This model supports a rich type system that includes
structured and collection types. Thus, in 1980s, various database systems following the object-
oriented approach were developed. Here, the objects are nothing but the data carrying its
properties.

) Semistructured Data Model: This type of data model is different from the other three data
models (explained above). The semistructured data model allows the data specifications at
places where the individual data items of the same type may have different attributes sets. The
Extensible Markup Language, also known as XML, is widely used for representing the

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semistructured data. Although XML was initially designed for including the markup information
to the text document, it gains importance because of its application in the exchange of data.

Data model Schema and Instance

o The data which is stored in the database at a particular moment of time is called an
instance of the database.
o The overall design of a database is called schema.
o A database schema is the skeleton structure of the database. It represents the logical
view of the entire database.
o A schema contains schema objects like table, foreign key, primary key, views, columns,
data types, stored procedure, etc.
o A database schema can be represented by using the visual diagram. That diagram shows
the database objects and relationship with each other.
o A database schema is designed by the database designers to help programmers whose
software will interact with the database. The process of database creation is called data
modeling.

A schema diagram can display only some aspects of a schema like the name of record type, data
type, and constraints. Other aspects can't be specified through the schema diagram. For
example, the given figure neither show the data type of each data item nor the relationship
among various files.

In the database, actual data changes quite frequently. For example, in the given figure, the
database changes whenever we add a new grade or add a student. The data at a particular
moment of time is called the instance of the database.

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database administrator (DBA) is a person or group in charge of implementing DBMS in an

organization. The DBA job requires a high degree of technical expertise. DBA consists of a
team of people rather than just one person.
The primary role of Database administrator is as follows −
• Database design
• Performance issues
• Database accessibility
• Capacity issues
• Data replication
• Table Maintenance

Responsibilities of DBA
The responsibilities of DBA are as follows −
• Makes the decision concerning the content of the database.
• Plans the storage structure and access strategy.
• Provides the support to the users.
• Defines the security and integrity checks.
• Interpreter backup and recovery strategies.
• Monitoring the performance and responding to the changes in the requirements.

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Skills required for DBA

The skills required to be a successful DBA are as follows −
• Database designing.
• Knowledge of Structured Query Language (SQL).
• Know about distributed architecture.
• Knowledge on different operating servers.
• Idea on Relational Database Management System (RDBMS).
• Ready to face challenges and solve the problems quickly.
The role of DBA is as shown below −

Data Abstraction is a process of hiding unwanted or irrelevant details from the end user. It
provides a different view and helps in achieving data independence which is used to enhance
the security of data.
The database systems consist of complicated data structures and relations. For users to
access the data easily, these complications are kept hidden, and only the relevant part of the
database is made accessible to the users through data abstraction.

Levels of abstraction for DBMS

Database systems include complex data-structures. In terms of retrieval of data, reduce
complexity in terms of usability of users and in order to make the system efficient, developers
use levels of abstraction that hide irrelevant details from the users. Levels of abstraction
simplify database design.
Mainly there are three levels of abstraction for DBMS, which are as follows −

• Physical or Internal Level

• Logical or Conceptual Level
• View or External Level

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These levels are shown in the diagram below −

Let us discuss each level in detail.

Physical or Internal Level

It is the lowest level of abstraction for DBMS which defines how the data is actually stored, it
defines data-structures to store data and access methods used by the database. Actually, it is
decided by developers or database application programmers how to store the data in the
database.
So, overall, the entire database is described in this level that is physical or internal level. It is a
very complex level to understand. For example, customer's information is stored in tables and
data is stored in the form of blocks of storage such as bytes, gigabytes etc.

Logical or Conceptual Level

Logical level is the intermediate level or next higher level. It describes what data is stored in the
database and what relationship exists among those data. It tries to describe the entire or whole
data because it describes what tables to be created and what are the links among those tables
that are created.
It is less complex than the physical level. Logical level is used by developers or database
administrators (DBA). So, overall, the logical level contains tables (fields and attributes) and
relationships among table attributes.

View or External Level

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It is the highest level. In view level, there are different levels of views and every view only
defines a part of the entire data. It also simplifies interaction with the user and it provides many
views or multiple views of the same database.
View level can be used by all users (all levels' users). This level is the least complex and easy
to understand.
For example, a user can interact with a system using GUI that is view level and can enter
details at GUI or screen and the user does not know how data is stored and what data is
stored, this detail is hidden from the user.

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