Flow over Cylinders and Spheres

Rounded objects like spheres and cylinders show a distinct dip in

the CD where 105 > Re < 106 . This is where the change occurs
from laminar to turbulent boundary layer and the turbulent
boundary layer is able to cling more effectively to the object – and
therefore reduce the width of the wake (thus reducing the pressure
drag).
B.L. changes from
(Fig 11-34, Cengel) laminar to turbulent
 For Re < 1, Stokes (creeping) flow, CD sphere = 24/Re, no flow
separation.
At Re = 10 separation starts occurring. At Re = 90 cylinders start
vortex shedding (spheres don’t shed vortices). Up until Re 103 the
CD steadily decreases (while drag increases!). Cylinders can shed
× 105
vortices up until Re = 2×
Fig 11-33 Cylinder, Re = 2×103, vortex shedding
Source:
Meyer
Frequency of Vortex Shedding
The frequency of vortex shedding f is given by the Strouhal
equation, where d is cylinder diameter and V is fluid velocity
fd  19,7  5
Str = 
= 0,198 1 −  250 < Re < 2 × 10
V  Re 
In engineering design, it is important to identify if vortex
shedding will happen and whether the frequency of vortex
shedding is a harmonic (an exact multiple or fraction) of the
natural frequency of the object. If it is, the object may start to
vibrate at certain flow rates – which could cause damage. See
the Tacoma Narrows Bridge video.
Vortex shedding as winds pass Heard
Island (bottom left) in the southern
Indian Ocean resulted in this Kármán
vortex street in the clouds.
Helical Strake – A “Stockbridge Damper” is used to reduce
used to reduce effect vortex shedding vibrations in cables. Vibrations
of vortex shedding. in the cable cause the symmetrically-placed
For maximum masses at its ends to oscillate. Careful choice of
effectiveness each fin the mass of the blocks, and the stiffness and length
or strake should have of the damper cable matches the mechanical
a height of about 10 impedance of the damper to that of the line, and
percent of the greatly reduces oscillation of the main cable.
cylinder diameter and
a pitch for each fin of
approximately 5
times the cylinder
diameter.
In the range 103 > Re < 105, CD
remains roughly constant.
Boundary layer is laminar and a
wide wake is formed.
Re = 15 000, wide wake
In the range 105 > Re < 106 CD is
suddenly reduced. Boundary layer A narrow wake, Re = 30 000 but boundary
flow changes from laminar to layer has been tripped. This type of wake
is usually formed where 105 > Re < 106
turbulent and a narrow wake is
formed.
Note: Streamlined objects experience a
sudden increase in CD when the boundary
layer changes from laminar to turbulent
because most of the drag is generated by skin
friction and a turbulent b.l generates more
skin friction drag than a laminar b.l.
Effect of Surface roughness
Remember that golf ball?
A golf ball reaches a maximum velocity of about 150m/s. This means
that the Re of a golf ball reaches a maximum of about 4×105. The
dimples reduce the CD at the expected operating range of Re.
Drag coefficients for infinite and finite
cylinders
To calculate drag force of spheres and infinite
cylinders (very long cylinders, or if there is no flow
around the ends of the cylinder), calculate the Re
first and then use the CD vs Re graphs (Fig 11-34,
Cengel) to obtain the CD.
For finite (short) cylinders with flow around both
ends, first calculate the L/D ratio and then multiply
the CD∞ by the CD/CD∞ ratio from Table 8.1 (slide
after next).
For finite cylinders with flow around one end, first
double the length of the cylinder, then calculate the
L/D ratio and then multiply the CD∞ by the CD/CD∞
ratio from Table 8.1 (slide after next).
Figure 11.34 (Cengel) – Cd for sphere and infinite, smooth cylinder
long
B.L. changes from
laminar to turbulent
Terminal velocity of a sphere in any fluid
When an object falls freely in a fluid (water, oil,
hydrogen, air…) three forces act on it:
– Weight (W) due to gravity (acting downwards) = mg
– Buoyancy (B) due to displaced fluid (upwards) = ρfluidgV
(V is volume of object) D
B
– Drag force (D) (upwards) = ½CDρAv2 (v is terminal
velocity of object)
Solve for terminal velocity by assuming v, calculating
Re, getting CD from Fig 11-34, solving for a new v from
equation:
mg = ρfluidgV + ½CDρAv2 W
Then repeat the process using the new v to calculate Re.
Continued on next page…
To simplify this equation even further, volume of a
sphere is given by:
d3 d3 d3
V = 43 πr 3 = 43 π =π ∴ m = ρ Sπ
8 6 6
πd 2
also A =
4
d3 d3 1 πd 2 2
∴ρ πS g = ρg π + C ρ
2 D v
6 6 4
d3
πg ( ρ S − ρ ) 4 gd ( ρ − ρ ) 4 gd  ρ 
∴v = 6 = S
=  S
− 1
πd 2 3CD ρ 3CD  ρ 
1
2 CD ρ
4
Terminal velocity of a sphere in air.
When an object falls freely in the atmosphere (air) the buoyancy
force is relatively small and is sometimes ignored. In this
simplified case, just two forces are considered:
– Weight (W) due to gravity (acting downwards) = mg
– Drag force (D) (upwards) = ½CDρAv2 (v is terminal
velocity of object) D
Where mg = ½CDρAv2
Rearranging gives: v = [2mg/(CD ρA)]½
Solve using the same process as the previous slide.
Note: Because of buoyancy, accurate mass measurement
requires correction for the density of the object being measured
relative to the comparison mass-piece density (8000kg/m3). For W
general engineering activities this is usually also ignored.
For completeness, we will always include the density of air (just
use the previous slide only).
Aerofoils
Theories of Lift: Pressure Theory
Lift is generated entirely from pressure forces. The shape of an aerofoil makes
fluid travel faster over the upper surface.
Pressure is low at locations where the flow velocity is high (where streamlines
are close together – think Bernoulli)
Pressure is high at locations where velocity is low (where streamlines are far
apart – think Bernoulli)
Lift is therefore generated by positive pressure under the wing and negative
pressure (suction) above the wing.
Theories of Lift: Circulation Theory (also explains lift)
An anti-clockwise vortex is always created downwind of the trailing edge (which can be seen
in practice).
A balancing clockwise circulation around the wing explains the streamlines separating at the
tip of the trailing edge.
Above the wing, clockwise circulation speeds up the flow (and makes low pressure).
Below the wing, clockwise circulation slows down the flow (and makes high pressure).
Trailing edge
Unbalanced circulation (doesn’t Balanced circulation (explains flow
occur under normal lift conditions) and lift under normal lift conditions)
 Lift to Drag Ratio
It is useful to compare CL/CD
at various angles of attack at
a particular velocity.
For fuel efficient flight, the
wings of aircraft are set at
the angle of attack at the
maximum CL/CD ratio at the
design cruising speed.
During take-off and landing,
the angle of attack is
adjusted for maximum lift at
low speed.
Stalling happens shortly
after CL/CD max where the
CL/CD ratio drops rapidly.
CL/CD max can also be found from a CL vs CD
graph. See CLvs CD graph (top left).
1 CL vs CD CL vs α
2
CL CL
CL/CD max
Most efficient flight CL max at αcritical. Stall happens at higher α
(considering wing Corresponding CL and angles (considering wing aerodynamics only).
aerodynamics only) α for most efficient .
flight (considering wing
aerodynamics only)
To find α, CL and CD at
max CL/CD, draw line 1,
3 then 2, then 3, then 4.
CD α
CD vs α
Check this max
CL/CD on the graphs
alongside.
Pitching
moment vs CD
Corresponding CD for
most efficient flight
alpha. Not (considering wing
aerodynamics only)
covered in
this course. 4 Go and have a look at:
http://airfoiltools.com/
α
Minimum flight velocity
In steady flight, with horizontal engine thrust, and if buoyancy is
ignored, the weight of an aircraft is balanced by the lift force,
therefore, the minimum flight velocity can be determined. Note that
the minimum flight velocity occurs at the maximum coefficient of lift.
2
W = FL = 12 CL max ρAVmin
2W
∴ Vmin =
ρACL max
Slots and extendable flaps on wings increases
A and CL.
Extended flaps on aircraft Retracted flaps allow drag to
wings allow the lift be reduced at high speed
coefficient to be improved for during cruising.
low speeds during takeoff .
This also increases the
planform area of the wing.
Slots in a wing prevent the
separation of the boundary
layer from the upper surface
of the wing, prevent “stall”
and improve lift coefficient.
The effect of slotted flaps
on CL and CD is shown in
Fig 11-45. Notice that CL
is increased but CD is also
increased.
Wing Tip Vortices
Flow around the tips of wings
causes wing tip vortices. This
causes flow over the wing to
be less efficient near the wing
tips
A wing tip vortex can be
seen in this photo of a light
aircraft flying under a
cloud of smoke.
 Induced Drag (CDi)
Wing tip vortices cause a downwash velocity component, a
change in the effective angle of attack and induced drag (CDi)
The drag of an ‘infinite’ wing CD∞ can be adjusted for induced
drag using:
[( )]
C D = C D∞ + C Di = C D∞ + C L2 / π b 2 A = C D∞ + C L2 /[π ( AR )]
where CL is the lift coefficient, b is the wing span, A is the wing
plan area (b × c), and AR is the aspect ratio:
span b
AR = =
chord c
See Sayers Fig 12.35 note “Induced Drag” for derivation and vector diagram.
Also, be sure to work through Example 12.6 (Induced drag) – also on the
hand-out provided in class.
A vulture with fanned out
wing tip feathers to reduce
the effect of wing tip
vortices.
Endplates reduce the effect
of wing tip vortices
Source: Sayers AT, Fluid Mechanics – An Introduction
The solution was done on the board in class.
Lift Generated by Spinning
A spinning object in a flowing fluid generates lift. This is
called the Magnus effect.
Examples where this effect is clearly visible are table tennis
(top spin so that the ball curves downwards towards the
table) and soccer (where the ball is curved into the goals
from a “corner”). Note which way the ball spins, the
direction of fluid flow and which way the ball moves.
The lift and drag coefficients of a
rotating sphere at Re = 6×104 are shown.
Lift FL and drag FD can be calculated
using the normal equations as shown.
Note that units of ω are rad/s.