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UNIT - I
DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM MODELS AND ENABLING
TECHNOLOGIES
This chapter presents the evolutionary changes that
have occurred in parallel, distributed, and cloud computing
over the past 30 years, driven by applications with variable
workloads and large data sets.

 We study both high-performance and high-

throughput computing systems in parallel computers
appearing as computer clusters, service- oriented
architecture, computational grids, peer-to-peer networks,
Internet clouds, and the Internet of Things.

 These systems are distinguished by their hardware

architectures, OS platforms, processing algorithms,
communication protocols, and service models applied. We
also introduce essential issues on the scalability,
performance, availability, security, and energy efficiency in
distributed systems.

1.1 SCALABLE COMPUTING OVER THE INTERNET

Scalability is the ability of a system, network, or
process to handle a growing amount of work in a capable
manner or its ability to be enlarged to accommodate that

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growth. For example, it can refer to the capability of a system

to increase its total output under an increased load when
resources (typically hardware) are added.
1.1.1The Age of Internet Computing
Billions of people use the Internet every day. As a
result, supercomputer sites and large data centers must
provide high-performance computing services to huge
numbers of Internet users concurrently Because of this high
demand, high-performance computing (HPC)applications is
no longer optimal for measuring system performance. The
emergence of computing clouds instead demands high-
throughput computing (HTC) systems built with parallel and
distributed computing technologies.

 Internet computing is the foundation on which e-

business runs.
 It is the only architecture that can run all facets of
business, from supplier collaboration and merchandise
purchasing, to distribution and store operations, to
customer sales and service.

The Platform Evolution

 Computer technology has gone through five
generations of development, with each generation

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lasting from 10 to 20 years. Successive generations are

overlapped in about 10 years.
 For instance, From 1950 to 1970, a handful of
mainframes, including the IBM 360 and CDC 6400,
were built to satisfy the demands of large businesses and
government organizations.

 From 1960 to 1980, lower-cost minicomputers such as

the DEC PDP 11 and VAX Series became popular among
small businesses and on college campuses.
 From 1970 to 1990, we saw widespread use of
personal computers built with VLSI microprocessors.
 From 1980 to 2000, massive numbers of portable
computers and pervasive devices appeared in both wired
and wireless applications.

Explanation
 On the HPC side, supercomputers (massively parallel
processors or MPPs) are gradually replaced by clusters
of cooperative computers out of a desire to share
computing resources. The cluster is often a collection of
homogeneous compute nodes that are physically connected
in close range to one another.
 On the HTC side, peer-to-peer (P2P) networks are
formed for distributed file sharing and content delivery
applications. A P2P system is built over many client.
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Peer machines are globally distributed in nature. P2P, cloud

computing, and web service platforms are more focused on
HTC applications than on HPC applications.
High-Performance Computing
1 The development of market-oriented high-end
computing systems is undergoing a strategic change from
an HPC paradigm to an HTC paradigm. This HTC
paradigm pays more attention to high-flux computing. The
main application for high-flux computing.

2 The performance goal thus shifts to measure high

throughput or the number of tasks completed per unit of
time. HTC technology needs to not only improve in terms
of batch processing speed, but also address the acute
problems of cost, energy savings, security, and reliability at
many data and enterprise computing centers.
Three New Computing Paradigms
 The maturity of Radio-frequency Identification
(Rfid), Global Positioning System (GPS), and sensor
technologies has triggered the development of the Internet
of Things (IoT).
Computing Paradigm Distinctions
 In general, distributed computing is the opposite of
centralized computing. The field of parallel computing

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overlaps with distributed computing to a great extent, and

cloud computing overlaps with distributed, centralized.
 Centralized computing This is a computing paradigm
by which all computer resources are centralized in one
physical system. All resources (processors, memory, and
storage) are fully shared and tightly coupled within one
integrated OS. Many data centers and supercomputers are
centralized systems, but they are used in parallel, distributed,
and cloud computing applications.
 Parallel computing In parallel computing, all
processors are either tightly coupled with centralized
shared memory or loosely coupled with distributed
memory. Interprocessor communication is accomplished
through shared memory or via message passing.
 Distributed computing This is a field of computer
science/engineering that studies distributed systems. A
distributed system consists of multiple autonomous
computers, each having its own private memory,
communicating through a computer network. Information
exchange in a distributed system is accomplished
through message passing.
 Cloud computing An Internet cloud of resources can
be either a centralized or a distributed computing system.
The cloud applies parallel or distributed computing, or
both. Clouds can be built with physical or virtualized

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resources over large data centers that are centralized or

distributed.

Scalable Computing Trends and New Paradigms

Includes,
 Degrees of Parallelism
 Innovative Applications
 The Trend toward Utility Computing
 The Hype Cycle of New Technologies
 Fifty years ago, when hardware was bulky and
expensive, most computers were designed in a bit-serial
fashion.
 Data-level parallelism (DLP) was made popular through
SIMD (single instruction, multiple data) and vector
machines using vector or array types of instructions. DLP
requires even more hardware support and compiler
assistance to work properly.
Innovative Applications
 Both HPC and HTC systems desire transparency in
many application aspects. For example, data access,
resource allocation, process location, concurrency in
execution, job replication, and failure recovery should be
made transparent to both users and system management.

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 For example, distributed transaction processing is often

practiced in the banking and finance industry.
Transactions represent 90 percent of the existing market
for reliable banking systems. Users must deal with multiple
database servers in distributed transactions.
The Trend toward Utility Computing
 Utility computing focuses on a business model in which
customers receive computing resources from a paid service
provider. All grid/cloud platforms are regarded as utility
service providers.

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 Figure 1.2 identifies major computing paradigms to

facilitate the study of distributed systems and their
applications. These paradigms share some common
characteristics.
 First, they are all ubiquitous in daily life. Reliability
and scalability are two major design objectives in these
computing models.
 Second, they are aimed at autonomic operations that
can be self- organized to support dynamic discovery.
The Hype Cycle of New Technologies
 Any new and emerging computing and information
technology may go through a hype cycle, Generally
illustrated in Figure 1.3. This cycle shows the expectations
for the technology at five different stages.

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 Also as shown in Figure 1.3, the cloud technology had

just crossed the peak of the expectation stage in 2010,
and it was expected to take two to five more years to
reach the productivity stage.
1.1.3 The Internet of Things and Cyber-Physical
Systems
 Two Internet development trends:
 The Internet of Things
 Cyber-Physical Systems.
These evolutionary trends emphasize the extension of
the Internet to everyday objects.
The Internet of Things
 The concept of the IoT was introduced in 1999 at MIT .
The IoT refers to the networked interconnection of
everyday objects, tools, devices, or computers. One can
view the IoT as a wireless network of sensors that
interconnect all things in our daily life.
 The IoT needs to be designed to track 100 trillion static
or moving objects simultaneously. The IoT demands
universal addressability of all of the objects or things. To
reduce the complexity of identification, search, and storage,
one can set the threshold to filter out fine-grain objects.

Cyber-Physical Systems:

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 A cyber-physical system (CPS) is the result of

interaction between computational processes and the
physical world. A CPS integrates “cyber” (heterogeneous,
asynchronous) with “physical” (concurrent and information-
dense) objects. A CPS merges the “3C” technologies of
computation, communication, and control into an intelligent
closed feedback system between the physical world and the
information world.

 The IoT emphasizes various networking connections

among physical objects, while the CPS emphasizes
exploration of virtual reality (VR) applications in the
physical world

TECHNOLOGIES FOR NETWORK-BASED SYSTEMS

 Multicore CPUs and Multithreading Technologies
 Advances in CPU Processors
 Multicore CPU and Many-Core GPU Architectures
 Multithreading Technology
 GPU Computing to Exascale and Beyond
 How GPUs Work
 GPU Programming Model
 Power Efficiency of the GPU
 Memory, Storage, and Wide-Area Networking
 Memory Technology
 Disks and Storage Technology
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 System-Area Interconnects
 Wide-Area Networking
 Virtual Machines and Virtualization Middleware
 Virtual Machines
 VM Primitive Operations
 Virtual Infrastructures
 Data Center Virtualization for Cloud Computing
 Data Center Growth and Cost Breakdown
 Low-Cost Design Philosophy
 Convergence of Technologies

Multi core CPUs and Multithreading Technologies

Advances in CPU Processors:
 Today, advanced CPUs or microprocessor chips assume
a multi core architecture with dual, quad, six, or more
processing cores. These processors exploit parallelism at ILP
and TLP levels.

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 Both multi-core CPU and many-core GPU processors

can handle multiple instruction threads at different
magnitudes today. Figure 1.5 shows the architecture of a
typical multicore processor. Each core is essentially a
processor with its own private cache (L1 cache). Multiple
cores are housed in the same chip with an L2 cache that is
shared by all cores.

2. Multicore CPU and Many-Core GPU

Architectures:
 Multicore CPUs may increase from the tens of cores
to hundreds or more in the future. But the CPU has
reached its limit in terms of exploiting massive DLP due to
the aforementioned memory wall problem. This has triggered
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the development of many-core GPUs with hundreds or more

thin cores. Both IA-32 and IA-64 instruction set
architectures are built into commercial CPUs. Now, x-86
processors have been extended to serve HPC and HTC
systems in some high-end server processors.

 Consider in Figure 1.6 the dispatch of five independent

threads of instructions to four pipelined data paths
(functional units) in each of the following five processor
categories, from left to right: a four-issue superscalar
processor, a fine-grain multithreaded processor, a coarse-
grain multithreaded processor, a two-core CMP, and a
simultaneous multithreaded (SMT) processor. The
superscalar processor is single- threaded with four functional

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units. Each of the three multithreaded processors is four-way

multithreaded over four functional data paths.
2.2 GPU Computing to Exascale and Beyond
How GPUs Work:
 Early GPUs functioned as coprocessors attached to the
CPU. Today, the NVIDIA GPU has been upgraded to 128
cores on a single chip. Furthermore, each core on a GPU
can handle eight threads of instructions. This translates
to having up to 1,024 threads executed concurrently on a
single GPU. This is true massive parallelism, compared to
only a few threads that can be handled by a conventional
CPU.
2. GPU Programming Model:
The interaction between a CPU and GPU in performing
parallel execution of floating-point operations
concurrently. The CPU is the conventional multicore
processor with limited parallelism to exploit. The GPU has
a many-core architecture that has hundreds of simple
processing cores organized as multiprocessors. Each core can
have one or more threads. Essentially, the CPU’s floating-
point kernel computation role is largely offloaded to the
many-core GPU. The CPU instructs the GPU to perform
massive data processing. The bandwidth must be matched
between the on-board main memory and the on-chip GPU
memory.

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3. Power Efficiency of the GPU:

 Bill Dally of Stanford University considers power and
massive parallelism as the major benefits of GPUs over
CPUs for the future.

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Memory, Storage, and Wide-Area Networking

1. Memory Technology:
 The upper curve in Figure 1.10 plots the growth of
DRAM chip capacity from 16 KB in 1976 to 64 GB in
2011. This shows that memory chips have experienced a
4x increase in capacity every three years.

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Disks and Storage Technology:

 Beyond 2011, disks or disk arrays have exceeded 3 TB
in capacity. The lower curve in Figure 1.10 shows the disk
storage growth in 7 orders of magnitude in 33 years.
 The rapid growth of flash memory and solid-state
drives (SSDs) also impacts the future of HPC and HTC
systems.

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3 Virtual Machines and Virtualization

Middleware
 A conventional computer has a single OS image. This
offers a rigid architecture that tightly couples
application software to a specific hardware platform.
 Some software running well on one machine may not
be executable on another platform with a different
instruction set under a fixed OS.

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1. Virtual Machines:
 The VM can be provisioned for any hardware system.
The VM is built with virtual resources managed by a
guest OS to run a specific application. Between the VMs and
the host platform, one needs to deploy a middleware
layer called a virtual machine monitor (VMM).
 The guest OS could be a Linux system and the
hypervisor is the XEN system developed at Cambridge
University. This hypervisor approach is also called bare-
metal VM, because the hypervisor handles the bare hardware
(CPU, memory, and I/O) directly.
2. VM Primitive Operations:
 The VMM provides the VM abstraction to the guest OS.
 With full virtualization, the VMM exports a VM
abstraction identical to the physical machine so that a

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standard OS such as Windows 2000 or Linux can run just as

it would on the physical hardware.

 First, the VMs can be multiplexed between hardware

machines, as shown in Figure 1.13(a).
 Second, a VM can be suspended and stored in stable
storage, as shown in Figure 1.13(b).
 Third, a suspended VM can be resumed or provisioned
to a new hardware platform, as shown inFigure 1.13(c).

3. Virtual Infrastructures:
Physical resources for compute, storage, and
networking at the bottom of Figure 1.14 are mapped to
the needy applications embedded in various VMs at the top.

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 Hardware and software are then separated. Virtual

infrastructure is what connects resources to distributed
applications.

1.2.5 Data Center Virtualization for Cloud

Computing
 Almost all cloud platforms choose the popular x86
processors. Low-cost terabyte disks and Gigabit Ethernet
are used to build data centers.

1. Data Center Growth and Cost Breakdown:

A large data center may be built with thousands of
servers. Smaller data centers are typically built with
hundreds of servers.
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2. Low-Cost Design Philosophy:

 High-end switches or routers may be too cost-
prohibitive for building data centers. Thus, using high-
bandwidth networks may not fit the economics of cloud
computing.
 Recent advances in SOA, Web 2.0, and mashups of
platforms are pushing the cloud another step forward.
 Finally, achievements in autonomic computing and
automated data center operations contribute to the rise of
cloud computing.

Software Environments For Distributed Systems

And Clouds
Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA):
1.1 Layered Architecture for Web Services and
Grids:
These interfaces are linked with customized, high-level
communication systems: SOAP, RMI, and IIOP in the
three examples.

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 These communication systems support features

including particular message patterns (such as Remote
Procedure Call or RPC), fault recovery, and specialized
routing.

2. Web Services and Tools:

 Loose coupling and support of heterogeneous
implementations make services more attractive than
distributed objects.
1.4.2 Trends toward Distributed Operating
Systems:

1.4.2.1 Distributed Operating Systems:

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 Tanenbaum identifies three approaches for distributing

resource management functions in a distributed computer
system.

1.4.2.2 Amoeba versus DCE:

DCE is a middleware-based system for distributed
computing environments. The Amoeba was academically
developed at Free University in the Netherlands.
1.4.2.3 MOSIX2 for Linux Clusters:
 MOSIX2 is a distributed OS [3], which runs with a
virtualization layer in the Linux environment.
1.4.2.3 Transparency in Programming
Environments:

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The user data, applications, OS, and hardware are

separated into four levels. Data is owned by users,
independent of the applications.
 The OS provides clear interfaces, standard
programming interfaces, or system calls to application
programmers.

1.4.3 Parallel and Distributed Programming

Models
 we will explore four programming models for
distributed computing with expected scalable
performance and application flexibility.

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1.4.3.1 Message-Passing Interface (MPI):

 This is the primary programming standard used to
develop parallel and concurrent programs to run on a
distributed system.
 Besides MPI, distributed programming can be also
supported with low-level primitives such as the
Parallel Virtual Machine (PVM).
1.4.3.2 MapReduce:
 This is a web programming model for scalable
data processing on large clusters over large data
sets.

 A typical MapReduce computation process can

handle terabytes of data on tens of thousands or
more client machines.
1.4.3.3 Hadoop Library:
 Hadoop offers a software platform that was
originally developed by a Yahoo! group. The package
enables users to write and run applications over vast
amounts of distributed data.
1.4.3.4 Open Grid Services Architecture
(OGSA) :
 The development of grid infrastructure is driven
by large-scale distributed computing applications.

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1.4.3.5 Globus Toolkits and Extensions:

 Globus is a middleware library jointly developed by the
U.S. Argonne National Laboratory and USC Information
Science Institute over the past decade.
1.5 PERFORMANCE, SECURITY, AND ENERGY
EFFICIENCY
1.5.1 Performance Metrics and Scalability Analysis:
 Performance metrics are needed to measure various
distributed systems. In this section, we will discuss
various dimensions of scalability and performance laws.
Then we will examine system scalability against OS images
and the limiting factors encountered.
1.5.1.1 Performance Metrics :

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 We discussed CPU speed in MIPS and network

bandwidth in Mbps to estimate processor and network
performance.
1.5.1.2 Dimensions of Scalability
The following dimensions of scalability are characterized
in parallel and distributed systems:
Size scalability
This refers to achieving higher performance or more
functionality by increasing the machine size.
Software scalability
This refers to upgrades in the OS or compilers, adding
mathematical and engineering libraries, porting new
application software, and installing more user-friendly
programming environments.
Application scalability
This refers to matching problem size scalability with
machine size scalability. Problem size affects the size of the
data set or the workload increase.

Technology scalability

This refers to a system that can adapt to changes in

building technologies, such as the component and networking
technologies.

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1.5.1.3 Scalability versus OS Image Count:

 In Figure 1.23, scalable performance is estimated

against the multiplicity of OS images in distributed systems
deployed up to 2010.
 Scalable performance implies that the system can
achieve higher speed by adding more processors or servers,
enlarging the physical node’s memory size, extending the disk
capacity, or adding more I/O channels.

1.5.1.4 Amdahl’s Law:

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 Amdahl’s Law states that the speedup factor of using

the n-processor system over the use of a single processor
is expressed by:

 The maximum speed up of n is achieved only if the

sequential bottleneck α is reduced to zero or the code is
fully parallelizable with α = 0.
 As the cluster becomes sufficiently large, that is, n →
∞, S approaches 1/α, an upper bound on the speedup S.
 Surprisingly, this upper bound is independent of the
cluster size n. The sequential bottleneck is the portion of the
code that cannot be parallelized.
 For example, the maximum speedup achieved is 4, if α
= 0.25 or 1 − α = 0.75, even if one uses hundreds of
processors.
 Amdahl’s law teaches us that we should make the
sequential bottleneck as small as possible.
 Increasing the cluster size alone may not result in a
good speedup in this case.
1.5.1.5 Problem with Fixed Workload:

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In Amdahl’s law, we have assumed the same amount

of workload for both sequential and parallel execution of the
program with a fixed problem size or data set. This was
called fixed-workload speedup .

 Very often the system efficiency is rather low,

especially when the cluster size is very large.
 To execute the aforementioned program on a cluster
with n = 256 nodes, extremely low efficiency E =
1/[0.25 × 256 + 0.75] = 1.5% is observed. This is because
only a few processors (say, 4) are kept busy, while the
majority of the nodes are left idling.
1.5.1.6 Gustafson’s Law :

 To achieve higher efficiency when using a large cluster,

we must consider scaling the problem size to match the
cluster capability. This leads to the following speedup law
proposed by John Gustafson (1988), referred as scaled-
workload speedup in.
 Let W be the workload in a givenprogram.When using
an n-processor system, the user scales the workload to
W′ = αW+ (1 − α)nW.

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 Note that only the parallelizable portion of the

workload is scaled n times in the second term. This
scaled workload W′ is essentially the sequential execution
time on a single processor.
 The parallel execution time of a scaled workload W′ on
n processors is defined by a scaled-workload speedup as
follows:

 For the preceding program with a scaled

workload, we can improve the efficiency of using a
256-node cluster to
E′ = 0.25/256 + 0.75 = 0.751.
 One should apply Amdahl’s law and Gustafson’s
law under different workload conditions. For a
fixed workload, users should apply Amdahl’s law.

1.5.2 Fault Tolerance and System Availability:

 In addition to performance, system availability and
application flexibility are two other important design
goals in a distributed computing system.

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1.5.2.1 System Availability:

HA (high availability) is desired in all clusters,
grids, P2P networks, and cloud systems. A system is
highly available if it has a long mean time to failure
(MTTF) and a short mean time to repair(MTTR). System
availability is formally defined as follows:

 In Figure 1.24, the effects on system availability

are estimated by scaling the system size in terms of
the number of processor
cores in the system.

1.5.3 Network Threats and Data Integrity:

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 Clusters, grids, P2P networks, and clouds demand

security and copyright protection if they are to be
accepted in today’s digital society.
 This section introduces system vulnerability, network
threats, defense countermeasures, and copyright
protection in distributed or cloud computing systems.
1.5.3.1 Threats to Systems and Networks:
 Network viruses have threatened many users in
widespread attacks. These incidents have created a
worm epidemic by pulling down many routers and servers,
and are responsible for the loss of billions of dollars in
business, government, and services.
 Figure 1.25 summarizes various attack types
and their potential damage to users. As the figure shows,
information leaks lead to a loss of confidentiality.

1.5.3.2 Security Responsibilities:

 Three security requirements are often considered:
confidentiality, integrity, and availability for most
Internet service providers and cloud users.
 The PaaS model relies on the provider to maintain data
integrity and availability, but burdens the user with
confidentiality and privacy control.
1.5.3.3 Copyright Protection:

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 Collusive piracy is the main source of intellectual

property violations within the boundary of a P2P network.
 Paid clients (colluders) may illegally share copyrighted
content files with unpaid clients (pirates).
1.5.3.4 System Defense Technologies:
 Three generations of network defense technologies
have appeared in the past.
 In the first generation, tools were designed to prevent
or avoid intrusions. These tools usually manifested
themselves as access control policies or tokens,
cryptographic systems, and so forth.
 The second generation detected intrusions in a timely
manner to exercise remedial actions.
 The third generation provides more intelligent
responses to intrusions.
1.5.4 Energy Efficiency in Distributed
Computing:
 Primary performance goals in conventional parallel and
distributed computing systems are high performance and
high throughput, considering some form of performance
reliability (e.g., fault tolerance and security).
 Protection of data centers demands integrated
solutions. Energy consumption in parallel and distributed
computing systems raises various monetary,
environmental, and system performance issues.

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Application Layer

Middleware layer, Resource layer

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 The middleware layer acts as a bridge between the

application layer and the resource layer.
Resource Layer
 In DVFS, energy savings are achieved based on the
fact that the power consumption in CMOS circuits has a
direct relationship with frequency and the square of the
voltage supply.
 Execution time and power consumption are controllable
by switching among different frequencies and voltages.

 Routing and transferring packets and enabling network

services to the resource layer are the main responsibility
of the network layer in distributed computing systems.

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 The major challenge to build energy-efficient networks

is, again, determining how to measure, predict, and create
a balance between energy consumption and performance.

 As information resources drive economic and social

development, data centers become increasingly important in
terms of where the information items are stored and
processed, and where services are provided.
 The relationship between energy and voltage frequency
in CMOS circuits is related by:

SYSTEM MODELS FOR DISTRIBUTED AND CLOUD

COMPUTING
Distributed and cloud computing systems are built over a
large number of autonomous computer nodes.
• These node machines are interconnected by SANs,
LANs, or WANs in a hierarchical manner.

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• A WAN can connect many local clusters to form a very

large cluster of clusters.
• Many national grids built in the past decade were
underutilized for lack of reliable middleware or well-coded
applications.
• Potential advantages of cloud computing include its low
cost and simplicity for both providers and users.
•

Clusters of Cooperative Computers

• A computing cluster consists of interconnected stand-
alone computers which work cooperatively as a single
integrated computing resource.
Cluster Architecture
• Figure 1.15 shows the architecture of a typical server
cluster built around a low-latency, high bandwidth
interconnection network.

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Single-System Image
• Cluster designers desire a cluster operating system or
some middleware to support SSI at various levels,
including the sharing of CPUs, memory, and I/O across all
cluster nodes.
Hardware, Software, and Middleware Support
• Clusters exploring massive parallelism are commonly
known as MPPs. Almost all HPC clusters in the Top500 list
are also MPPs.
• Special cluster middleware supports are needed to
create SSI or high availability (HA).

Major Cluster Design Issues

• Unfortunately, a cluster-wide OS for complete resource
sharing is not available yet. Middleware or OS

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extensions were developed at the user space to achieve

SSI at selected functional levels.
Grid Computing Infrastructures
• Internet services such as the Telnet command enables
a local computer to connect to a remote computer. A
web service such as HTTP enables remote access of
remote webpages.

Computational Grids

• Like an electric utility power grid, a computing grid

offers an infrastructure that couples computers,
software/middleware, special instruments, and people
and sensors together

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Peer-to-Peer Network Families

• The P2P architecture offers a distributed model of
networked systems.
P2P Systems
• In a P2P system, every node acts as both a client and a
server, providing part of the system resources. Peer
machines are simply client computers connected to the
Internet. All client machines act autonomously to join or leave
the system freely.

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1.3.4 Cloud Computing over the Internet

• Cloud computing has been defined differently by many
users and designers. For example, IBM, a major player in
cloud computing, has defined it as follows: “A cloud is a
pool of virtualized computer resources.
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Internet Clouds
• Cloud computing applies a virtualized platform with
elastic resources on demand by provisioning hardware,
software, and data sets dynamically (see Figure 1.18).
The Cloud Landscape
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
This model puts together infrastructures demanded by
users—namely servers, storage, networks, and the data
center fabric. The user can deploy and run on multiple
VMs running guest OSes on specific applications.

Platform as a Service (PaaS)

 This model enables the user to deploy user-built
applications onto a virtualized cloud platform. PaaS
includes middleware, databases, development tools,
and some runtime support such as Web 2.0 and Java. The
platform includes both hardware and software integrated with
specific programming interfaces. The provider supplies
the API and software tools (e.g., Java, Python, Web 2.0,
.NET). The user is freed from managing the cloud
infrastructure
Software as a Service (SaaS)
• This refers to browser-initiated application software
over thousands of paid cloud customers. The SaaS model
applies to business processes, industry applications,
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consumer relationship management (CRM), enterprise

resources planning (ERP),human resources (HR), and
collaborative applications. On the customer side, there
is no upfront investment in servers or software licensing.
On the provider side, costs are rather low, compared with
conventional hosting of user applications.

The following list highlights eight reasons to adapt

the cloud for upgraded Internet applications and
web services.
1. Desired location in areas with protected space and
higher energy efficiency
2. Sharing of peak-load capacity among a large pool of
users, improving overall utilization

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3. Separation of infrastructure maintenance duties from

domain-specific application development
4. Significant reduction in cloud computing cost,
compared with traditional computing paradigms
2. Computer Clusters for Scalable Parallel
Computing
2.1 Clustering for Massive Parallelism
 A computer cluster is a collection of interconnected
stand-alone computers which can work together collectively
and cooperatively as a single integrated computing
resource pool.
2.1.1 Cluster Development Trends
 Milestone Cluster Systems
 hot research challenge
 fast communication
2.1.2 Design Objectives of Computer Clusters
 Scalability
 Packaging
 Cluster nodes can be packaged in a compact or a slack
fashion.

2.1.3 Fundamental Cluster Design Issues

 Scalable Performance
 Single-System Image (SSI)
 Availability Support

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 Clusters can provide cost-effective HA capability with

lots of redundancy in processors, memory, disks, I/O
devices, networks, and operating system images.
 Cluster Job Management
 Internode Communication
 Fault Tolerance and Recovery
 Cluster Family Classification
 Load-balancing clusters
 These clusters shoot for higher resource utilization
through load balancing among all participating nodes in the
cluster.
2.2.3 Cluster System Interconnects
 High-Bandwidth Interconnects
2.2.4 Hardware, Software, and Middleware
Support
 The middleware, OS extensions, and hardware support
needed to achieve HA in a typical Linux cluster system (Fig.
2.10).
2.2.5 GPU Clusters for Massive Parallelism
 A GPU cluster is often built as a heterogeneous system
consisting of three major components: the CPU host nodes,
the GPU nodes and the cluster interconnect between them.
Difference between Traditional Computer and Virtual
machines

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Virtual Machine, Guest Operating System,

and VMM (Virtual Machine Monitor) :

Virtualization at ISA (Instruction Set Architecture)

level:
Emulating a given ISA by the ISA of the host
machine.

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• e.g, MIPS binary code can run on an x-86-based host

machine with the help of ISA emulation.
• Typical systems: Bochs, Crusoe, Quemu, BIRD,
Dynamo Advantage:

Virtualization at OS Level

Virtualization for Linux and Windows NT Platforms

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Library Support level:

It creates execution environments for running alien
programs on a platform rather than creating VM to run the
entire operating system.
Shortcoming & limitation:
• poor application flexibility and isolation
Library Support level:
It creates execution environments for running alien
programs on a platform rather than creating VM to run the
entire operating system.
Advantage:
• It has very low implementation effort
Shortcoming & limitation:
• poor application flexibility and isolation
Virtualization with Middleware/Library Support

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User-Application level:
It virtualizes an application as a virtual machine.
• This layer sits as an application program on top of an
operating system and exports an abstraction.
•

Hypervisor
A hypervisor is a hardware virtualization technique
allowing multiple operating systems, called guests to run on a

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host machine. This is also called the Virtual Machine Monitor

(VMM).
Major VMM and Hypervisor Providers

The XEN Architecture (1)

The XEN Architecture (2)

The XEN Architecture (3)
Full virtualization
• Does not need to modify guest OS, and critical
instructions are emulated by software through the use
of binary translation.
Para virtualization
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• Reduces the overhead, but cost of maintaining a

paravirtualized OS is high.
Full Virtualization

Binary Translation of Guest OS Requests using

a VMM:

Para- Virtualization with Compiler Support.

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The KVM builds offers kernel-based VM on the Linux

platform, based on para-virtualization

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VMWare ESX Server for Para-Virtualization

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Multi-Core Virtualization: VCPU vs. traditional CPU

Physical cores Virtual cores

The actual physical cores present There can be more virtual cores
in the processor. visible to a single OS than there
are physical cores.

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More burden on the software to Design of software becomes

write applications which can run easier as the hardware assists the
directly on the cores. software in dynamic resource
utilization.

Hardware provides no assistance Hardware provides assistance to

to the software and is hence the software and is hence more
simpler. complex.

Poor resource management. Better resource management.

The lowest level of system The lowest level of system

software has to be modified. software need not be modified.

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Virtual Clusters in Many CoresSpace Sharing

of VMs -- Virtual Hierarchy

Virtual Cluster Characteristics

 The virtual cluster nodes can be either physical or
virtual machines. Multiple VMs running with different OSs
can be deployed on the same physical node.
Virtual Clusters vs. Physical Clusters

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Live Migration of Virtual Machines

Virtual Cluster Projects

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VIOLIN Project at Purdue University

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Eucalyptus : An Open-Source OS for Setting Up and

Managing Private Clouds

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Trusted Zones for VM Insulation

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