FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING

1. Overview of Welding Technology

2. The Weld Joint
3. Physics of Welding
4. Features of a Fusion Welded Joint
Joining and Assembly Distinguished
Joining - welding, brazing, soldering, and
adhesive bonding
 These processes form a permanent joint
between parts
Assembly - mechanical methods (usually) of
fastening parts together
 Some of these methods allow for easy
disassembly, while others do not
 Welding
 Welding is the consolidation of two materials
by means of temperature and/or pressure to
cause the materials to melt or diffuse at the
joint.
 Welding can be done in a wide variety of
conditions and methods and is therefore on of
the most common consolidation processes.
Principal Applications of Welding
 Construction - buildings and bridges
 Piping, pressure vessels, boilers, and storage
tanks
 Shipbuilding
 Aircraft and aerospace
 Automotive
 Railroad
 Welding Definition
Joining process in which two (or more) parts are
coalesced at their contacting surfaces by application
of heat and/or pressure

Welding is a metal joining process in which

coalescence is obtained by heat and/or pressure. It
may also be defined as a metallurgical bond
accomplished by the attracting forces between
atoms.
 Welding Definition
 Many welding processes are accomplished by heat
alone, with no pressure (force) applied
 Others by a combination of heat and pressure
 Still others by pressure alone with no external heat
 In some welding processes a filler material is added to
facilitate coalescence

If pressure (force) is applied between two smooth metal

surfaces to be joined, some crystals will crush through
the surfaces and be in contact. As temperature is
increased, the ductility of the base metal is increased
and atomic diffusion progresses more rapidly.
 Why Welding is Important
 Provides a permanent joint
 Welded components become a single entity
 Usually the most economical way to join parts in
terms of material usage and fabrication costs
 Mechanical fastening usually requires additional
hardware components (e.g., screws and nuts)
and geometric alterations of the parts being
assembled (e.g., holes)
 Not restricted to a factory environment
 Welding can be accomplished "in the field"
Limitations and Drawbacks of Welding
 Most welding operations are performed manually
and are expensive in terms of labor cost
 Most welding processes utilize high energy and
are inherently dangerous
 Welded joints do not allow for convenient
disassembly
 Welded joints can have quality defects that are
difficult to detect
 Some Common Concerns
 Proper joint design is critical to a successful weld
 Heating, melting, and resolidification can all produce changes in
microstructure of the material and produce residual stress
 Welding can result in defects
 Cracks Cavities
 Inclusions Unacceptable weld shape
 Incomplete fusion Incomplete penetration
 Arc Strikes Spatter
 Metallurgical changes Excessive Distortion
 Some Common Concerns
 Welding produces monolithic structures
 Welded joints do not stop crack propagation, cracks
propagation typically does not travel through a bolted
joint
 Vibration stresses are transferred through a weld
joint, bolted joints absorb some of the vibration
 Welded structure are more rigid than bolted
assemblies
 Faying Surfaces in Welding
The part surfaces in contact or close proximity that
are being joined
 Welding involves localized coalescence of the
two metallic parts at their faying surfaces
 Welding is usually performed on parts made of
the same metal
 However, some welding operations can be
used to join dissimilar metals
 Types of Welding Processes
 Some 50 different types of welding processes
have been catalogued by the American
Welding Society (AWS)
 Welding processes can be divided into two
major categories:
 Fusion welding
 Solid state welding
 Classification of Weld Process

Classification of
common welding
processes
along with their AWS
(American
Welding Society)
designations.
AWS Weldability
 Fusion Welding
Joining processes that melt the base metals
 In many fusion welding operations, a filler
metal is added to the molten pool to facilitate
the process and provide bulk and added
strength to the welded joint
 A fusion welding operation in which no filler
metal is added is called an autogenous weld
 Features of Fusion Welded Joint
Typical fusion weld joint in which filler metal has
been added consists of:
 Fusion zone
 Weld interface
 Heat affected zone (HAZ)
 Unaffected base metal zone
 Heat Effects
 In fusion welding, the heat melts some of the
base material, which is then rapidly cooled,
creating changes in the granular structure.
 The pool of metal bonding the base material is a
blend of each material, and forms a cast structure
in the joint zone.
 Surrounding the pool of metal is the heat affected
zone, where metallurgical properties have been
changed.
 Heat Effects
 Deposition materials need as deposited
properties equal to the base metal.
 Solidification zone is subject to the all the
problems associated with casting.
 Heat affected zone is subjected to enough
heat to cause metallurgical changes, leading
to phase transformations, embrittlement,
precipitation, or cracking.
 The changes in properties are a function of
the heat input rate, which are a function of
the weld process used.
 Heat Affected Zone
Metal has experienced temperatures below melting
point, but high enough to cause microstructural
changes in the solid metal

Chemical composition same as base metal, but this

region has been heat treated so that its properties
and structure have been altered

 Effect on mechanical properties in HAZ

is usually negative, and it is here that
welding failures often occur
Typical Fusion Welded Joint

Cross section of a typical fusion welded joint:

(a) principal zones in the joint, and
(b) typical grain structure.
 Microstructure of a Fusion Weld

Grain structure and various

zones in a fusion weld.
 Zone in a Fusion Weld

Schematic of a fusion weld in steel, presenting proper terminology for the various regions and interfaces. Part of
the heat-affected zone has been heated above the transformation temperature and will form a new structure upon
cooling. The remaining segment of the heat-affected zone experiences heat alteration of the initial structure.
Some Fusion Welding Processes
 Arc welding (AW) – melting of the metals is
accomplished by electric arc
 Resistance welding (RW) - melting is
accomplished by heat from resistance to an
electrical current between faying surfaces held
together under pressure
 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) - melting is
accomplished by an oxyfuel gas such as
acetylene
 Arc Welding

A manual
arc welding
operation
 Solid State Welding
Joining processes in which coalescence results
from application of pressure alone or a
combination of heat and pressure
 If heat is used, temperature is below melting
point of metals being welded
 No filler metal is added in solid state welding
Some Solid State Welding Processes
 Diffusion welding (DFW) –coalescence is by solid
state fusion between two surfaces held together
under pressure at elevated temperature
 Friction welding (FRW) - coalescence by heat of
friction between two surfaces
 Ultrasonic welding (USW) - coalescence by
ultrasonic oscillating motion in a direction parallel
to contacting surfaces of two parts held together
under pressure
 Automation in Welding
 Because of the hazards of manual welding,
and to increase productivity and improve
quality, various forms of mechanization and
automation are used
 Machine welding – mechanized welding
under supervision and control of human
operator
 Automatic welding – equipment performs
welding without operator control
 Robotic welding - automatic welding
implemented by industrial robot
 The Weld Joint
The junction of the edges or surfaces of parts that
have been joined by welding
 Two issues about weld joints:
 Types of joints
 Types of welds used to join the pieces that
form the joints
 Five Types of Joints
1. Butt joint
2. Corner joint
3. Lap joint
4. Tee joint
5. Edge joint
 Basic Joint Designs of Fusion Welds

Five basic joint designs for fusion

welding.
 Welding Geometries

A, Butt weld (alın kaynağı). B, Single vee (tek V). C, Double vee (çift V) (heavy plates).
D, U-shaped (U-kaynağı) (heavy casting). E, Flange weld (flanş kaynağı) (thin metal).
F, Single-strap butt joint (kuvvetlendirilmiş/takviyeli alın kaynağı).
G, Lap joint (bindirme kaynağı) (single-or double-fillet weld).
H, Joggled lap joint (single or double weld). I, Tee joint (T-kaynağı) (fillet welds).
J, Edge weld (kenar kaynağı) (used on thin plates). K, Corner welds (köşe kaynağı) (thin metal). L, Plug or
rivet butt joint.
 Butt Joint

Parts lie in same plane and are joined at their

edges

Five basic types of joints: (a) butt

 Butt Weld with Backing Plate

Schematic of a butt weld

between a plate of metal A and a plate of
metal B, with a backing plate of metal C and
filler of metal D. The resulting weld nugget
becomes a complex alloy of all four metals.
 Corner Joint

Parts in a corner
joint form a right
angle and are joined
at the corner of the
angle

(b) corner
 Lap Joint
Consists of two
overlapping parts

(c) lap
 Tee Joint

One part is perpendicular

to the other in the
approximate shape of the
letter "T"

(d) tee
 Edge Joint

Parts in an edge joint

are parallel with at
least one of their
edges in common,
and the joint is made
at the common
edge(s)

(e) edge
 Weld Procedures

Various weld
procedures used to
produce welded
joints.
 Basic Fusion Welds

Four basic types

of fusion welds.

Preferred shape and the

method of measuring
the size of fillet welds.
 Fillet Weld
 Used to fill in the edges of plates created by
corner, lap, and tee joints
 Filler metal used to provide cross section in
approximate shape of a right triangle
 Most common weld type in arc and oxyfuel
welding
 Requires minimum edge preparation
 Fillet Welds

Various forms of fillet welds: (a) inside single fillet

corner joint; (b) outside single fillet corner joint; (c)
double fillet lap joint; and (d) double fillet tee joint.
Dashed lines show the original part edges.
 Groove Welds
 Usually requires part edges to be shaped into a
groove to facilitate weld penetration
 Edge preparation increases cost of parts
fabrication
 Grooved shapes include square, bevel, V, U,
and J, in single or double sides
 Most closely associated with butt joints
 Groove Welds
Some groove welds: (a) square groove weld, one side; (b) single
bevel groove weld; (c) single V-groove weld; (d) single U-groove
weld; (e) single J-groove weld; (f) double V-groove weld for thicker
sections. Dashed lines show original part edges.
 Spot Weld
Fused section between surfaces of two plates
 Used for lap joints
 Closely associated with resistance welding

(a) Spot
weld
 Physics of Welding
 Fusion is most common means of achieving
coalescence in welding
 To accomplish fusion, a source of high density
heat energy must be supplied to the faying
surfaces, so the resulting temperatures cause
localized melting of base metals (and filler
metal, if used)
 For metallurgical reasons, it is desirable to melt
the metal with minimum energy but high heat
densities
 Power Density
Power transferred to work per unit surface area,
W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2)
 If power density is too low, heat is conducted
into work, so melting never occurs
 If power density too high, localized
temperatures vaporize metal in affected region
 There is a practical range of values for heat
density within which welding can be performed
Comparisons Among Welding Processes
 Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) develops large
amounts of heat, but heat density is relatively
low because heat is spread over a large area
 Oxyacetylene gas, the hottest of the OFW
fuels, burns at a top temperature of around
3500 C (6300 F)
 Arc welding produces high energy over a
smaller area, resulting in local temperatures of
5500 to 6600 C (10,000 to 12,000 F)
Power Densities for Welding Processes

Welding process W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2)

Oxyfuel 10 (6)
Arc 50 (30)
Resistance 1,000 (600)

Laser beam 9,000 (5,000)

Electron beam 10,000 (6,000)

 Power Density
Power entering surface divided by corresponding
surface area:
P
PD
A
where PD = power density, W/mm2 (Btu/sec-in2);
P = power entering surface, W (Btu/sec); and A
= surface area over which energy is entering,
mm2 (in2)
 Unit Energy for Melting

Quantity of heat required to melt a unit volume

of metal
 Symbolized Um
 It is the sum of:
 Heat to raise temperature of solid metal
to melting point
 Depends on volumetric specific heat

 Heat to transform metal from solid to

liquid phase at melting point
 Depends on heat of fusion
Heat Transfer Mechanisms in Welding
 Not all of the input energy is used to melt the
weld metal
1. Heat transfer efficiency f1 - actual heat
received by workpiece divided by total heat
generated at source
2. Melting efficiency f2 - proportion of heat
received at work surface used for melting;
the rest is conducted into work metal
 Heat Available for Welding

Hw = f1 f2 H

where Hw = net heat available for welding; f1 =

heat transfer efficiency; f2 = melting efficiency;
and H = total heat generated by welding
process
 Heat Transfer Efficiency f1
Proportion of heat received at work surface
relative to total heat generated at source
 Depends on welding process and capacity to
convert power source (e.g., electrical energy)
into usable heat at work surface
 Oxyfuel gas welding processes are
relatively inefficient
 Arc welding processes are relatively efficient
 Melting Efficiency f2
Proportion of heat received at work surface used
for melting; the rest is conducted into the work
 Depends on welding process but also
influenced by thermal properties of metal, joint
configuration, and work thickness
 Metals with high thermal conductivity, such
as aluminum and copper, present a problem
in welding because of the rapid dissipation
of heat away from the heat contact area
 Energy Balance Equation
 Net heat energy into welding operation equals
heat energy required to melt the volume of
metal welded
Hw = Um V

where Hw = net heat energy delivered to

operation, J (Btu); Um = unit energy required to
melt the metal, J/mm3 (Btu/in3); and V =
volume of metal melted, mm3 (in3)