SETTLING AND SEDIMENTATION

❖Two general methods are:

➢The use of a sieve, septum or membrane, such
as a screen or a filter, which retains one
component and allows the other to pass; and
➢Separation based on the motion of particles
through fluids: the utilization of differences in
the rate of sedimentation of particles or drops
as they move through a liquid or gas.
 Separation based on motion of
particles through fluids
▪ Many method of mechanical separations are
based on the movement of solid particles or
droplets through a fluid. The fluid may be gas or
liquid. It may be flowing or at rest.
▪ Industrial separators provide continuous removal
of settled particles. The separation may be partial
or complete.
▪ A settler that removes virtually all the particles
from a liquid is known as clarifier.
▪ A device that separates the solids into two
fractions called a classifier.
▪ The same principles of sedimentation apply to
both kind of equipment.
 CLASSIFICATION
➢ Classification is the separation of solid particles
into several fractions based upon their terminal
settling velocities.

Definitions for Terminal settling velocity:

* The maximum velocity or maximum rate of sedimentation
of a suspended particle that is not hindered in any way is
called terminal settling velocity.
* The steady velocity achieved by a falling particle when
gravitational forces are balanced by viscous forces is
called terminal settling velocity. Terminal settling
velocity is a function of particle size.
 Gravity settling process
➢ It is a simplest type of classifier. It consists of a
large tank with provisions for inlet and outlet.
➢ A slurry feed enters the tank through inlet. As
soon as the feed enters the tank, its linear velocity
decreases as a result of enlargement of cross-
sectional area.
➢ Particles start to settle under the influence of
gravity. The faster setting particles will be
collected near the inlet while the slower settling
particles which are carried further and will
concentrate near the exit.
• The very fine particles will be carried away in the
liquid overflow.
• With this classifier the separation is not sharp one,
since considerable overlapping of size occurs.
❖Mechanical Classifiers:
➢ A typical mechanical classifier is shown in the
diagram. In this device, the settling vessel is an
inclined semi-cylindrical trough, set at an angle of
120 with the horizontal. Slurry is continuously fed
to the trough at an intermediate point. The liquid
overflow is at the lower end.
➢The flow rate and slurry concentrations are
adjusted, so that the fines do not have time to
settle ; they are carried out with the overflow.
➢Larger particles sink to the bottom of the
trough, from which they must be removed. A
rotating cylindrical conveyor moves the settled
solids upward along the floor of the trough, out
of the pool of liquid and up to the sands
discharge chute.
➢Such classifiers works well with coarse
particles where exact separation is not
required.
➢Mechanical classifiers are extensively used in
closed circuit grinding especially in
metallurgical operations.

❖Sorting classifiers:
➢Devices which separate particles of different
densities are known as sorting classifiers. They
use one or two principal separation methods
sink and float and differential settling
methods.
 Sink and Float method
➢This method depends on the principle that
difference in densities of two substances and in
independent of particle size. This method also
called heavy fluid separation.
➢A sink and float method uses a liquid sorting
medium, the density of which is intermediate
between that of the light material and that of
heavy.
➢The heavy particles settle through the medium
and the lighter ones float, and a separation is
thus obtained.
➢This method is used to treat relatively coarse
particles usually greater than 10 meshes.
➢The main problem in the use of sink and float
method is the choice of a liquid medium to
allow the light material to float and the heavy
to sink.
➢The medium used to be sufficiently heavy,
cheap, nontoxic and non-corrosive.
Halogenated hydrocarbons are used for the
purpose. Calcium chloride solutions are used
for cleaning of coal.
 Differential settling methods
➢ Differential settling methods utilizes the
difference in terminal velocities that can exist
between substances of different density. The
density of the medium is lighter than that of either
of two substances.
➢ In this method both the light and heavy materials
settle through the same medium.
➢ The disadvantage of this method is that since the
mixture of materials to be separated covers a
range of particle sizes, the larger, light particles
settle at the same rate as the smaller, heavy ones
and a mixed fraction is obtained.
❖Free and Hindered settling:
➢When the particle is at sufficient distance
from the boundaries of the container and
from other particles, so that settling of
particles is not affected by them and the
process is called FREE SETTLING.
➢If the motion of the particle is impeded by
other particles, which will happen when the
particles are nearer each other, the process is
called HINDERED SETTLING.
 SEDIMENTATION
➢The separation of solids from suspension in
liquid by gravity settling is called
sedimentation.
➢In this process the dilute slurry is converted
into clear liquid and a slurry of higher solids
content.
➢The Dorr thickener is a common equipment
used for sedimentation.
❖BATCH SEDIMENTATION
➢There are several stages in the settling of a
flocculated suspension, and different zones are
formed as sedimentation proceeds.
➢At first, the solid is uniformly distributed in
the liquid, as shown in figure 1(a).
➢The total depth of the suspension is Z0.
• After a short time, the solids have settled to
give a zone of clear liquid, zone A in figure
1(b) and zone D of settled solids.
Batch Sedimentation test
• Above zone D is a transition layer, zone C, in
which the solids content varies from that in the
original pulp to that in zone D.
• In zone B, the concentration is uniform and
equal to the original concentration, since the
settling rate is the same throughout this zone.
• The boundaries between zones D and C and
between C and B may not be distinct, but the
boundary between zones A and B is usually sharp.
• As settling continues, the depths of zones D and A
increase.
• The depth of zone C remains nearly constant, and
that of zone B decreases.
• This is shown in figure 1(c).
• Eventually zone B disappears and all the solids are in
zones C and D. See fig 1(d).
• Meanwhile the gradual accumulation of the solids puts
stress on the material at the bottom, which compresses
solids in layer D.
• Compression breaks down the structure of flocs or
aggregates, and liquid is expelled into the upper zones.
• Sometimes, liquid in the flocs spurts out of zone D like
small geysers as layer D compresses.
• Finally, when the weight of the solid is balanced by the
compressive strength of the flocs, the settling process
stops, as shown in figure 1 (e).
• The entire process shown in figure 1 (a to e) is called
BATCH SEDIMENTATION.
❖ Rate of Sedimentation:
• A typical plot of interface height (the boundary
between zones A and B) Vs. time is shown in fig. During
the early stages of settling the velocity is constant, as
shown by the first portion of the curve. When zone B
disappears, the rate of settling starts to decrease and
steadily drops until the ultimate height is reached.
• The initial rate is a function of feed concentration, but
in the late stages, the settling rate also depends on the
initial height Z0, since the compression effects are more
important with the thicker sludge layers.
• Experimental studies of the settling rate for different
initial heights and concentrations are needed for the
design of a thickener.
FIGURE 4. Batch sedimentation results:
(a) original uniform suspension,
(b) zones of settling after a given time,
(c) compression of zone D after zones B and C
disappear,
(d) clear liquid interface height z versus time of
settling.
 Sedimentation and Thickening
2. Determination of settling velocity
• The velocity of settling, which is the slope of the line, is constant at first
• The critical point is shown at point C.
• Since sludges vary greatly in their settling rates, experimental rates for each sludge are
necessary.
• The settling velocity v is determined by drawing a tangent to the curve at a given time t1,
with slope –dz/dt=v1.
• At this point the height is z1, and z1 is the intercept of the tangent to the curve. Then,

(31)
• The concentrated c1 is therefore, the average concentration of the suspension if zi is the
height of the slurry. This is calculated by

(32)

• This is repeated for other times, and a plot of settling velocity versus concentration is made
 Equipments for Settling and
Sedimentation
❖Gravity Classifiers
➢A typical Mechanical classifier is shown in fig.
➢In this device the settling vessel is an inclined
trough, set at an angle of about 120 with the
horizontal,
➢It has liquid overflow at the lower end.
➢Slurry is continuously fed to the trough at an
intermediate point.
• The flow rate and slurry concentration are
adjusted so that the fines do not have enough
time to settle but they are carried out with the
liquid leaving the classifier.
• Larger particles sink to the floor of the trough,
from which they must be removed.
• A rotating helical conveyor moves the settles
solids upward along the floor of the trough,
out of the pool of liquid and up to the sands
discharge chute.
 Equipments for Settling and
Sedimentation
❖Simple gravity settling tank
• In Fig b), dust-laden air enters at one end of a large,
boxlike chamber.
• Particles settle toward the floor at their terminal
settling velocities.
• The air must remain in the chamber a sufficient
length of time (residence time) so that particles
reach the floor of the chamber
• The vertical height of the chamber must be small
enough that this height, divided by settling velocity,
gives a time less than the residence time of the air
2. Simplest type of classifier
•The simplest type of classifier is simple gravity
settling classifier
•A liquid slurry feed enters the tank containing a
size range of solid particles
•The larger, faster-settling particles settle to the
bottom close to the entrance and the slower-
settling particles settle to the bottom close to the
exit
•The linear velocity of the entering feed decreases
as a result of the enlargement of the cross-
sectional area at the entrance
•The vertical baffles in the tank allow for the
collection of several fractions
•The settling-velocity equations derived in this
section hold
3. Spitzkasten classifier
• Consists of a series of conical vessels on increasing
diameter in the direction of flow
• The slurry enters the first vessel, where the largest
and fastest-settling particles are separated
• The overflow goes to the next vessel, where another
separation occurs.
• This continues in the succeeding vessel or vessels.
• In each vessels the velocity of upflowing inlet water is
controlled to give the desired range for each vessel
❖Sedimentation thickener
• The slurry is fed at the center of the tank several
feet below the surface of the liquid
• Around the top edge of the tank is a clear-liquid-
overflow outlet
• The rake serves to scrape the sludge toward the
center of the bottom for removal. This gentle
stirring aids in removing water from sludge
• In the thickener, the entering sludge spreads
radially through the cross section of the thickener
and the liquid flows upward and out the overflow.
 Double cone classifier
• It consists of two cones: inner and outer cones.
• The feed enters the inner cone A and hydraulic
water is introduced in the outer cone B
(Additional water stream).
• As the feed enters, the coarser fractions settled at
the inner cone. It meets a rising stream of water
at point C.
• The fine particles pass upward and escaped by
the peripheral launder D, while the coarse
particles settle into the chamber E and are
withdrawn at intervals.
• The degree of separation depends both on
hydraulic water supply at B and height of inner
cone regulated by hand wheel F.

• Mechanical Classifiers:
• The capacity of Spitzkasten and Cone
classifiers are limited for relatively small
production.
• For larger capacity devices like Dorr thickeners
or rake classifiers are used.
 THICKENERS
• Industrially the sedimentation process is carried
out on a large scale in equipment called
THICKENERS.
➢ The figure shows a mechanically agitated
thickener.
➢ It consists of a large, fairly shallow tank with
slow-moving radial rakes driven from a central
shaft.
➢ Its bottom may be flat or a shallow cone.
➢ Dilute feed slurry flows from an inclined trough
into the centre of the thickener.
➢ The feed slurry, being more dense than water, tends to
flow downward.
➢ Then it moves radially outward at a constantly
decreasing velocity, and the flow gradually divides
between the downward-moving suspension and the
upward-moving flow that is nearly free of solids.
➢ Thus, the liquor moves radially at a constantly
decreasing velocity, allowing the solids to settle to the
bottom of the tank.
➢ Clear liquor spills over the edge of the tank into a
launder.
➢ The rake arms gently agitate the sludge and move it to
the center of the tank, where it flows through a large
opening to the inlet of a sludge pump.
➢ Mechanically agitated thickeners are usually large, typically
10 to 100 m in diameter and 2.5 to 3.5 m in deep.
➢ In a large thickener, the rakes may revolve once every 30
min.
➢ These thickeners are especially valuable when large
volumes of dilute slurry must be thickened, as in cement
manufacture or the production of magnesium from
seawater.
➢ They are also used extensively in sewage treatment and in
water purification.
➢ The feed pulp is generally admitted at the centreline of the
unit at a depth of 1 m or so below the surface of the liquid.
➢ Above the feed level is a clarification zone in which the
liquid is almost free of solids.
➢ Below the feed level is a zone of hindered settling and, near
the bottom, a compression zone in which the solids
concentration is high.
 JIGGING
✓ It is one of the oldest methods for concentrating the minerals based
on difference in density of particles by the pulsation of a stream of
liquid flowing through the bed of materials.

✓ The liquid pulsation causes the heavy particles to migrate through the
bed to bottom of bed and light particles rise to top.

✓ The main phenomenon of particle segregation in jigging by hindered

settling.

✓ Jigging is widely employed for coal concentration

✓ Other uses are recovery of gold, tin and tungsten

➢ The small particles of heavy material will pass through
the screen and are collected at the bottom of jig.
➢ Small particles of less dense material are removed
through overflow
➢ Material retained on screen is removed through gates at
the side of jig.
➢ Four different fractions are obtained from the jig and
the successful operation of the plant depends on their
rapid removal.
➢ This is one of the oldest method and commonly
employed for coarse material in the size range 20 mesh
and coarser.
➢ Used mostly to treat iron ores, lead-zinc ores and for
concentration of coal.
✓ A Jig is mechanical device is used for separating the materials using the
jigging principle

✓ The elementary jig is open tank filled with the water fitted with horizontal
screen at the top and a conical compartment at the bottom

✓ A thick bed of particles is called “ Ragging” is spread on the top of screen,

through which water is pulsated up and down by some means(jigging action)

✓ Eg: for jigging: Remer jig

✓ Remer jig is used to treat metallic ores and minerals and industrial
minerals(barite, coal, lignite, sand and gravel)
 Electrostatic Separation
If one or more of the materials of a granular mixture
can acquire a surface charge on or just before
entering an electrostatic field, the grains/particles of
that material will be attracted towards the active
electrode or repelled from it depending upon the
sign of the charge on the grains/particles.
 Electrostatic Separator
• Electrostatic separation depends on differences
in the electrical properties.
• The electrostatic separator shown in Fig.
consists of a grounded rotor/rotating drum, a
hopper for feeding the solids, an active
electrode, situated/placed at a small distance
from the drum and collecting bins.
Conductivity) of the materials to be treated.
 Separation of Solid Particles based on
Magnetic Properties
• Magnetic separation is a method of separating
solid particles by means of a magnetic field. In
this method, materials having different
magnetic attractability are separated by
passing them through a magnetic field.
• The difference in magnetic properties of
different materials is responsible for such a
separation.
• Solids are classified as
(i) diamagnetic solids – which when placed in a
magnetic field are repelled by it and
(ii) paramagnetic solids – which when placed in
a magnetic field are attracted by the magnetic
field. Therefore, when a mixture of above
solids is subjected to/is passed through a
magnetic field, magnetic solids are attracted
towards it and non-magnetic solids are
repelled and collected in separate bins.
 Magnetic Head Pulley
• A magnetic pulley/magnetised pulley is used
for the removal of tramp-iron from the
products handled on a belt conveyor.
• Magnetic pulleys (either electromagnetic or
permanent-magnetic) having a diameter upto
1500 mm and a width upto 1500 mm are
available. The belt speed ranges from 53 m/min
for a pulley of diameter of 300 mm to 150 m/min
for a pulley of 1500 mm diameter.
• A magnetic pulley is incorporated in a belt
conveyor (carrying the charge/feed to a
machine/equipment) at the discharge end.
• As the material is conveyed over this pulley,
the magnetically inert material/non-magnetic
material drops-off the belt (or is discharged
from the belt) in a normal manner, whereas the
magnetic material adheres to the belt and falls
off from the underside where the belt loses
contact with the pulley (i.e., when the belt
leaves the magnetic field of the pulley).
• The material to be separated must be supplied
in the form of a thin sheet/layer in order to
subject all the particles to a magnetic field of
the same intensity (power is applied to the
magnetic pulley).
Magnetic Drum Separator
Ball-Norton Type Separator (Magnetic
separators as concentrators)
 Bowl Classifier
• The bowl classifier incorporates a two-stage
baffled-return separating action, and it consists
of a straight classifier with the usual
reciprocating rakes, upon which is
superimposed at the lower end a shallow
circular bowl with a revolving rake
mechanism.
• The general construction of the Dorr Bowl
Classifier is shown in Fig
• The movement of the rakes in the restricted
space beneath the bowl is regulated to give
enough agitation to throw the finer solids into
suspension.
• The diluting water is added in the
reciprocating rake compartment ; it flows back
towards the bowl and then up through the
opening in the bottom.
• This back flow is of sufficient velocity and
quantity to carry the solids thrown into
suspension by the rakes back into the bowl for
re-classification.
• A final cleaning of the oversize is affected by
the rakes as they turn over the sand in dragging
it up the slope and by a water spray which
washes it at its point of emergence from the
pulp.
DORR RAKE CLASSIFIER
 Centrifugation

• Centrifugal separators are driven by the

technique of centrifugation.
• Centrifugation utilizes centrifugal force to
separate particles from the solution.
• This process is mainly employed to separate
two immiscible substances existing in a
solution.
 Centrifugal Separator
Working Principle
• The centrifugal separator features an inlet, outlet,
and separator.
• The liquid-solid, solid-liquid, or gas-solid mixture
is pumped into a cone-shaped working apparatus
in the separator.
• The separator produces a spinning vortex, which
leads to the filtration of solids from liquids.
• The separated solids are collected at the bottom of
the separator, and they are purged from there.
• High-density liquid flows out of the separator,
along with the contaminant, and low-density
component will remain inside.
• Water is one of the denser liquids, so it flows
outside, and is removed through a discharged
outlet.
• However, lower density fluids such as oil will
remain at the center of the vortex.
• Segregated oil can be easily recovered from
the suction orifice of the separator.
Centrifugal separators are available in different
designs and capacities. Depending on their
designs, they are utilized in different ways across
various industries. Here are a few applications of
these separators:
• Pre-Filtration
• Protecting Heat Exchangers
• Protecting Spray Nozzles
• Reducing Industrial Waste
 Types of Centrifugal Separation

• Centrifugal separators are mainly used for

liquid-based applications. They are widely
used to separate
• liquid-solid suspensions
• liquid-liquid mixtures
• solid/gas-liquid mixtures
 CENTRIFUGE/DECANTERS
• Disk centrifuge
• Tubular centrifuge
 Cyclone Separator
• Cyclones are mostly used for
removing industrials dust from
air or process gases.
• They are the principal type of gas
solid separator Most common
form of particulate removal gas is
spun rapidly – heavier particulate
matter to collect on outside of
separator by centrifugal force,
where it is collected and
removed.
 Principles of Operation
• As with centrifugation, the driving force
behind cyclone separation is centrifugal force
and the difference in specific gravity between
the particle and the carrier gas.
• In a Cyclone, the air or vapor containing
particulate material is forced into along the
tangential axis.
• A helical flow pattern is set
up within the chamber.
• The centrifugal force
causes the particles to
migrate to the outside of
the chamber.
• Here they fall down to the
bottom of the cyclone by
gravity. The air moves up
the center of the cyclone
and reaches the top.
 Advantages and Disadvantages

There are many advantages associated with

cyclone separators, some of these include:
• Cheap to purchase.
• Low maintenance.
• Suitable for high temperatures.
• Suitable for liquid mists.
• Do not require much space.
• Some disadvantages are associated with
cyclone separators, but these disadvantages
can be reduced in severity if the correct
separator is selected for the correct application.
Disadvantages may include:
• Increased operating costs associated with the
pressure drop (assuming large pressure drop).
• Inefficient when handling small/fine particles.
• Not suitable for ‘sticky’ substances.
Two main types of cyclone separators:

• Axial-the material enters from the top of the

cyclone and is forced to move tangentially by a
grate at the top
• Tangential-the material enters from an inlet
on the side which is positioned tangentially to
the body.
Cyclone separator is used :

• For removal of dust particles from emissions

from cotton gins, grain elevators, tractors,
grain mixers, and other agricultural machinery.
• In the food industry for the separation of
agglomerated particles and for the separation
of starch and protein.
• For cleaning flue gases from Power Plants.
 HYDROCYCLONES
• The hydrocyclone is a simple piece of
equipment that uses fluid pressure to generate
centrifugal force and a flow pattern which can
separate particles or droplets from a liquid
medium.
• These particles or droplets must have a
sufficiently different density relative to the
medium in order to achieve separation.
• Applications of the hydrocyclone were
originally in the mineral processing industry
for solid-liquid separation, i.e., the dewatering
of particulate solids suspended in a water
stream.
• The mechanism of separation is, however,
dependent on both the difference in specific
gravity of the particles and the liquid medium
as well as the size of the particles.
• This means that the hydro cyclone is also a
classifier if the range of size of particles
present in the feed stream is such that large
will pass to the outer vortex and small will be
entrained in the inner vortex.
 Elutriation
• Elutriation is a process for separating particles
based on their size, shape and density, using a
stream of gas or liquid flowing in a direction
usually opposite to the direction of
sedimentation.
• This method is mainly used for particles
smaller than 1 μm.
• The smaller or lighter particles rise to the top
(overflow) because their terminal
sedimentation velocities are lower than the
velocity of the rising fluid.
• The terminal velocity of any particle in any
medium can be calculated using Stokes' law if
the particle's Reynolds number is below 0.2.
 Elutriator
• An air elutriator
is a simple device
which can
separate particles
into two or more
groups.
• Material may be separated by means of an
elutriator, which consists of a vertical tube up
which fluid is passed at a controlled velocity.
• When the particles are introduced, often
through a side tube, the smaller particles are
carried over in the fluid stream while the larger
particles settle against the upward current.
• If one starts with low flow rates, small less
dense particles attain their terminal velocities,
and flow with the stream.
• The particle from the stream is collected in
overflow and hence will be separated from the
feed.
• Flow rates can be increased to separate higher
size ranges.
• Further size fractions may be collected if the
overflow from the first tube is passed
vertically upwards through a second tube of
greater cross-section, and any number of such
tubes can be arranged in series.
 Uses
• It is used in mineral processing for size
classification.
• The elutriation dust value is a usual measure
for quantification of dust, generated by testing
wherein mechanical forces such as vibration
are applied to granules of e.g. a detergent
agent.
 Points to remember
• A settler that removes virtually all the particles from a liquid is known as clarifier

• A device that separates the solids into two fractions called a classifier

• The steady velocity achieved by a falling particle when gravitational forces are
balanced by viscous forces is called terminal settling velocity.

• When the particle is at sufficient distance from the boundaries of the container and
from other particles, so that settling of particles is not affected by them and the
process is called free settling.

• If the motion of the particle is impeded by other particles, which will happen when
the particles are nearer each other, the process is called hindered settling.
 Points to remember
• Cone classifiers are used in Ore dressing plants.
• Jigging is a process of gravity concentration where solids are separated based
upon the differences in the behaviour of particles through a moving fluid which in
turn, depends upon densities/specific gravities.
• A commonly used promotor is in froth flotation process is sodium ethyl xanthate.
• In Hindered settling process the particle collide with the other particles and with
the wall of the container.
• Thickening in sedimentation tanks is the process in which the settled impurities
are concentrated and compacted on the floor of the tank.
• Most widely used coagulant is ALUM.
 Points to remember
• For separating Ferrous fine particles in sand, which one of the following method can be
used? Magnetic separator.
• The driving force behind the cyclone separation is Centrifugal force and difference in
specific gravity.
• Elutriation method is mainly used for particles smaller than 1 μm.
• The purpose of rake in the sedimentation thickener is to scrape the sludge toward the
center of the bottom for removal.

• Devices which separate particles of different densities are known as sorting classifiers.
• The principle used in Differential settling methods are difference in terminal velocities.
• The flow rate between each vessel is adjustable in order to provide the desired degree of
separation. This is the unique feature of Spitzkasten classifier
 Points to remember
• When a particle settles in a fluid under gravity, the forces acting on it are gravity,
buoyant, and drag.
• The size of dust particles that can be effectively handled in cyclones varies from
5 to 10 microns.
• The tangential velocity of gas in cyclones is nearly equal to 30 m/s.
• The rate of sedimentation can be artificially increased by the addition
of Coagulating agents
• In batch settling test carried out in the laboratory, the height of the liquid-solid
interface (between zones A and B) is measured as a function of TIME
• Top suspended basket centrifuge is used in Sugar crystal manufacturing