Chapter 3 – Greek Mathematics

Greeks made mathematics into one discipline with basic rules and systematic way of proofs using logic.
Greeks introduced abstract concepts.
For example, instead of considering a triangular field (or land), they considered a ‘triangle’ that might be
adapted to any triangular-shaped object.

They ‘proved’ that √2 is not rational, while the Babylonians, not knowing this, found fractions (rational
numbers) highly close to √2.
Geometry was considered sacred and part of intellectual ability.
Plato inscribed on his door
‘Let no man ignorant of geometry enter here’
‘He is unworthy of name of man who does not know that the diagonal of a square is incommensurable
with its side’.

In Greece, geometry and number theory were developed rapidly.

Prominent Greek thinkers are
1. Thales of Miletos (625 – 547 B.C.)
2. Pythagoras of Samos (580 – 500 B.C.)
3. Euclid
4. Archimedes
5. Apollonius
6.
Thales was the first person to use logical proofs based on deductive reasoning.
The following geometric propositions are attributed to Thales.
1. An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.
2. A circle is bisected by its diameter.
3. The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal.
4. If two straight lines intersect, the opposite angles are equal.
5. The sides of similar triangles are proportional.
6. Two triangles are congruent if they have one side and two adjacent angles, respectively, equal.

Thales of Miletos (625 – 547 B.C.)

Thales was a mathematician and astronomer. Some of his discoveries are listed here.
Measurements by geometry
Thales of Miletos is known for measuring the height of a pyramid by using shadows.
 1. If a man’s shadow equals his height, the height of a pyramid will be the length of its shadows.
This is the simplest method. However, it requires waiting for the Sun to cast the shadow of an
object to equal its height.
2. The second method uses similar triangles.
Measure the shadow of a pyramid (say 𝑠) . Place a pole vertically at the top of the shadow of the
pyramid and the shadow of the pole (say 𝑠′). If the heights of the pyramid and the pole are ℎ and
ℎ′ respectively, then by similar triangle ratios
ℎ 𝑠
′
= ′.
ℎ 𝑠
Hence,
ℎ′ 𝑠
ℎ= ′.
𝑠

Distance of a ship from shore.

Thales is also known for the problem of determining the distance of a ship at sea from the shore.
1. From a tower of length ℎ, a man of height 𝑙 observes the ship. Using a tool with two
perpendicular extendable legs, extend the horizontal leg such that the tip of the leg touches line of
sight with the ship. If the distance from the shore to the ship is 𝑥 and the length of the horizontal
leg is 𝑦, then
𝑙 𝑦
= .
𝑙+ℎ 𝑥
Hence,
𝑦(𝑙 + ℎ)
𝑥= .
𝑙
This requires a tower and a perpendicular instrument.
2. Another possible approach is that to find the distance 𝑥 from shore A to ship B, one measures from
A along a straight line perpendicular to AB an arbitrary length AC and determines its midpoint D.
From C, construct a line CE perpendicular to AC (in a direction opposite to AB) and let E be the
point on it which is in a straight line with B and D. CE has the same length as AB, and CE can be
measured so that AB is known.
This approach requires a vast area in the land to draw a massive triangle.
3. (Modern approach)

Thales also predicted the solar eclipse in 585 B.C. But, it is well known earlier to the Babylonians.

Pythagoras of Samos (580 – 500 B.C.)

Pythagoras is considered Thales's student (disciple) who taught everything he knows to Pythagoras.
Pythagoras formed a religious sect based on the theories of numbers and geometry. The members of his
followers are called the Pythagoreans.
The study of numbers in abstract form began in six century B.C. with Pythagoras and his followers.
𝑝
Pythagoreans considered natural numbers (1,2,3,… ) and fractions (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑞 ) as sacred
(holy). Numbers were practically represented by a line (or stick). Higher integer numbers were ‘measured’
by smaller integers.
Members of the Pythagorean religious sect were initiated by taking oath on a ‘Tetractys’ (or holy
fourfoldness).
Tetractys is ten dots arranged in a triangular form. Ten is the 4th triangular number 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10.
Pythagoreans discovered that the music notes sounded by the vibrating strings depended on its length.
Harmonious sound can be produced by doubling the length of the string.
The Pythagoras theorem, although was attributed to him, it was known long before him.
Nicomachus of Gerasa (circa 100) recorded most of the Pythagorean mathematics in his book Introductio
Arithmeticae. It is almost similar to Euclid’s Elements.
Pythagoreans knew of the number patterns. The triangular and square numbers and relations among them.

If 𝑡𝑛 is the nth triangular number, then

𝑡𝑛 = 𝑡𝑛−1 + 𝑛.
They also derived the sum of the first 𝑛 in tegers is the nth triangular number.
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = 𝑡𝑛 = .
2
If 𝑠𝑛 is the nth square number, then
𝑠𝑛 = 𝑡𝑛−1 + 𝑡𝑛 .
An odd number is the difference of two consecutive square numbers.
The sum of first 𝑛 odd numbers is the nth square number, namely,

1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2 .

Zeno’s Paradox
(1) the Achilles,
(2) the Arrow and
(3) the Stade (Studium).

(1) The Dichotomy: To travel from a point A to another point B 0 one must reach the midpoint B 1
on the way. To reach B 1 , one must reach the midpoint B 2 and so on. Therefore, one has to pass
 infinitely many points thus it takes infinite time but it is impossible so one cannot travel from A to
B0.
(2) The Achilles: Achilles is in a footrace with the tortoise. Achilles gives the tortoise a head start;
say, put its starting point in 100 meters ahead of Achilles. They start at the same time. When
Achilles reach the starting point of the tortoise, the tortoise has moved away from the point. then
Achilles reach the second point of the tortoise, the tortoise has move away from the second point
and so on. Achilles has to reach infinite number of points, thus he can never overtake the tortoise.
(3) The Arrow: A flying arrow occupies an equal space at any moment, thus the arrow is motionless.
(4) The Stade: Let 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 and 𝐴4 be bodies in the line of equal size that are stationary; let
𝐵1 , 𝐵2 , 𝐵3 and 𝐵4 be bodies in the line, of the same size as the 𝐴’s, and let 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 and 𝐶4 be
bodies in the line of the same size as the 𝐴’s and 𝐵’s. The bodies 𝐵’s are moving to the right parallel
to the 𝐴’s and 𝐶’s are moving to the left parallel to the 𝐴’s so that each 𝐵 passes each 𝐴 and each
𝐶 passes each 𝐴 in an instant of time. Let us assume that at a given time, the bodies have the
following positions.

Ex 3.2 1—6, 13—15,

3.3 Proof of Pythagoras Theorem

The Pythagoras theorem is stated as follows:

The area of the square built upon the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the areas of the
squares upon the remaining sides.

The proof of Pythagoras theorem by Euclid.

Early solutions the Pythagoras Equation

Pythagorean problem: Find all positive integer triples (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) such that 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑧 2 .
One partial solution attributed to Pythagoras is

𝑥 = 2𝑛 + 1, 𝑦 = 2𝑛2 + 2𝑛, 𝑧 = 2𝑛2 + 2𝑛 + 1, 𝑛 ≥ 1.

Another form of the above solution is, for any odd integer 𝑚,

𝑚2 − 1 𝑚2 + 1
𝑥 = 𝑚, 𝑦= , 𝑧 == .
2 2
Plato gave another solution, for any integer 𝑚,

𝑥 = 2𝑚, 𝑦 = 𝑚2 − 1, 𝑧 = = 𝑚2 + 1.
A general solution, when 𝑥 is even, is given by Euclid, for any positive integers 𝑚, 𝑛,

𝑥 = 2𝑚𝑛, 𝑦 = 𝑚2 − 𝑛2 , 𝑧 = = 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 .

The converse of Pythagorean problem appeared in the work of Arab mathematicians later.

Discovery of irrational numbers

Measure of a line (number): Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 are two (straight) lines. The line 𝑎 is said to measure 𝑏
if 𝑎 can be used to count the length of 𝑏. That is, if 𝑘𝑎 = 𝑏, where 𝑘 is a positive integer.
Prime number: If a number has 𝑎 has no measures other than one and itself, it is called the prime
number.
Commensurable numbers: Two numbers
Pythagoreans believed that two line segments had a common measure.