Subject Code : CP1 01 08

Subject Title : MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY

1.0 Scope of Material Technology
1.1 Historical perspective: Role of engineering material.
1.2 Classification:- List and the different types of ferrous metals - pig iron - cast iron -
1.3 wrought iron – steel
Materials applicable to metal working: Different metals used in metal working – Ferrous
metals - Non ferrous metals
2.0 Properties of materials:
Classify the properties of material: physical properties of material - chemical properties
of material –mechanical properties of material.
Enumerate the physical properties: specific gravity - specific heat - conductivity -
2.1
magnetic properties - electrical properties. Enumerate the chemical properties:
resistance against acid – resistance against alkalies - resistance against oxidations.
Enumerate the mechanical properties: strength - elasticity - stiffness - toughness -
resilience - ductility and malleability - hardness - hardenability - fatigue – creep
3.0 Ferrous metals
3.1 Meaning - Different types: Pig iron - Cast iron -Wrought iron - steel.
4.0 Cast iron
Process of manufacturing cast iron-Classification:grey cast iron-white cast iron-malleable
4.1
cast iron – chilled cast iron- alloy cast iron. Properties and use of different cast iron
5.0 Steel
Composition of steel: Iron-carbon-other elements. Influence of following constituents:
carbon – silicon - manganese - sulphur -phosphorous. Classification of steel according to:
5.1
carbon contents - purpose - method of manufacture. Plain carbon steel - Composition
and application: low carbon steel - medium carbon steel - high carbon steel - tool steel
6.0 Alloying elements in Steel
Alloying elements - classification of alloy steel: chemical composition- purpose -types of
steel-alloy structural steel -alloy tool steel - alloy steel with special physical properties.
Effects of different alloying elements: chromium - nickel-manganese-vanadium -
molybdenum -silicon - tungsten -sulphur- copper - cobalt. Composition properties and
6.1 uses of alloy steel: nickel steel-chromium steel - nickel chrome steel- molybdenum steel-
chromium molybdenum steel - nickel chrome- molybdenum steel - manganese steel -
silicon steel. Special alloy steel - composition properties and uses: heat resisting steel -
magnet steel - shock resisting steel - stainless steel - high speed steel. I.S.I.Specification:
plain carbon steel - alloy steel – tool steel
7.0 Different steels and uses
Different types of steels used for: Press tool- jigs and fixtures - moulds - hand tools as
7.1
per AISI Specification.
8.0 Non Ferrous metals and alloys
Need-Different non-ferrous metals- Uses. Aluminium: Uses - Aluminium alloy -Cast
aluminium -Application. Copper: Uses - Copper Zinc alloy- Copper Tin alloy-Copper
Aluminium alloy – Copper Nickel alloy-Copper Nickel Zinc alloy applications.
9.0 Testing of Material
9.1 Mechanical Testing: Explain - Need - Types: Routine test - Exploratory tests
Destructive test – Non-destructive test - Scale model test - Fall scale test - Tests by
9.2
inspection. Destructive test: Explain -Types: Tensile test- Compression test - Hardness
test (Brinell, Rockwell, and Vickers) - Impact test - Fatigue test - Creep test.
Non-destructive Test: Explain - Types: Visual Examination-Radiographic tests-Ultra sonic
9.3
testing- Liquid penetration test - Magnetic particle test.
10.0 Organic material
Introduction to organic material: Application – Different materials used in engineering:
10.1
Natural materials -synthetics
10.2 Polymers: Monomers and polymers- Types: Naturally occurring - Synthetic polymers
Mechanism of Polymerization: Describe - Types: Additional polymerization –
10.3
Condensation.
Additives to Polymers: Uses - Advantage- Types: Plasticizer - Fillers - Catalysts - Initiators
10.4
- Dyes - Pigments
Classification of Polymer structure: Linear and frame work structure - Branch and chain
10.5
structure - Cross link chain structure - Crystalline structure.
10.6 Strengthening of Polymers - Methods - Crystallization - Cross-linking - Chain stiffening.
11.0 Ceramics
Introduction to Ceramic material: Explain - Materials: Abrasives - White ware – Electrical
11.1
porcelain - Glass - Bricks - Tiles - Cement & concrete - Refractories –Insulators
Properties of ceramics: Mechanical properties; Compressive strength - Tensile strength
11.2 – Torsional strength - Impact strength - Modules of elasticity. Electrical property:
Insulation property - Die electric property - Conducting property.
11.3 Thermal Property: Thermal capacity –Thermal conductivity - thermal shock resistant
11.4 Application of Ceramics in industry.
12.0 Semiconductors
Properties of Semiconductor material: Electronic property - list different semiconductor
12.1
material
Properties of super conducting materials: Thermal magnetic property - list different
12.2
super conductivity material.
13.0 Manufacturing processes
Casting: Process of casting - Advantages and disadvantages of casting - Explain types:
13.1
Sand casting - Investment casting - Centrifugal casting -Die casting
Mechanical working of metals: Hot working – cold working - merits and demerits-Types
13.2 of hot working: Rolling - Forging - Piercing-Drawing- Spinning- Extrusion- Types of cold
work: Cold rolling – Cold drawing - Bending - Squeezing - Peening - Spinning
Powder metallurgy: Process - Manufacturing of powder: Character of powder - Safety in
13.3 handling - Size of powder - Bleeding of powder - Compacting –Pre-sintering- sintering -
secondary operation. Product produced - advantages - disadvantages -limitations.
1.0 SCOPE OF MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY 
“Material science” or “Science of Materials” as is sometimes called needs a clear idea of what it means to one
who is just beginning to learn to know the subject. The term material science is a combination of two popular
words used in engineering- Material and Science. The meaning of these words when integrated together
therefore gives an insight to the subject.

1.1 Historical Perspective: Role of Engineering Material: -

The material science refers to that branch of applied science concerned with investigating the relationship
between the structure of materials and their properties, and it concerns with the interdisciplinary study of
materials for entirely practical purposes.

A wide range of materials is available today and proper selection has to be made to suit the requirements. The
selection of a material for a particular application involves consideration of factors like service requirements
(strength, the manner in which load is applied- steady, fluctuating, sudden, wear, corrosion resistance,
electrical properties, etc), manufacturing requirements (ease of machining, finish desired, fabrication
techniques to be adopted, casting, molding etc), method of forming- hot or cold, method of joining various
assemblies, need of heat treatment to achieve or restore properties, cost of raw material. Usually two or three
possible solutions in selection of a material will arise, and the final decision should be based on the preference
and experience of the engineer and the user. Flow diagram is given below.

ENGINEERING MATERIALS
_______________________________________________

METALS NON –METALS

___________________________

Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals Plastic

a) Thermoplastic
Copper b) Thermo set plastic
Brass Paper
Aluminium Rubber
Lead Wood
Magnesium, Tin etc. Glass
Fuels, Ceramics etc
_________________________________________________________________________

Pig Iron Cast Iron Wrought Iron Steel

________________________________________ __________

Grey White Malleable Ductile Plain Carbon Alloy

Cast Iron Cast Iron Cast Iron Cast Iron steel steel
CLASSES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

After defining the limits of materials that come within the scope of material science, may be classified in the
three broad groups according to their mode of occurrence.

1. Metals and alloys

2. Ceramics and
3. Organic Polymers

A metal is an elemental substance whilst an alloy is formed when two or more relatively pure metals are
melted together to form a new metal, having properties quite different from those of the two metals used in
its manufacture.

Ceramics are materials consisting of phases. A phase is a physically separable and chemically homogeneous
constituent of a material. These are themselves compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements. All
metallic compounds, rocks, minerals, glass, glass-fiber, abrasive and all fired clay are ceramics.

Organic materials are those materials derived directly from carbon. They usually consists of carbon chemically
combined with hydrogen, oxygen or other non-metallic substances, and their structures are, in many instances
fairly complex. Termed polymers because they are formed by polymerization reaction in which relatively
simple molecules are chemically combined in to massive long chain molecules or three-dimensional
structures.

Some important grouping of materials

Common examples of engineering
Group of materials
Use
Steels, aluminium, copper, brass, bronze, super
1. Metals and alloys alloys, etc.

2. Ceramics MgO, Cds, ZnO, SiC, silica, concrete, etc.

3. Organic Polymers Plastics, Fibers, Natural and synthetic rubbers,

leather etc.

Engineering requirements of Materials

Some of the most important properties of materials are:

Mechanical: Strength, stiffness, ductility, elasticity, plasticity, toughness, brittleness, hardness, and
malleability.

Electrical: Conductivity, receptivity and dielectric strength.

Magnetic: Permeability, coercive force etc.

Thermal: Specific heat, thermal expansion, conductivity etc.

Chemical: Corrosion resistance, acidity, alkalinity, composition etc

Physical: Density, porosity, structures

1.2 Classification of Engineering Material

Different types of ferrous metals

The Latin word of iron is ferrum. So metals, which contain iron, are all classified as ferrous metals. The ferrous
metals used in Engineering are classified under the following groups.

1. Pig Iron
2. Cast Iron
3. Wrought Iron
4. Carbon steel
5. Alloy steel

1.3 Materials applicable to Metal Working:

Different metals used in metalworking.

Ferrous metals: -

Ferrous metals and alloys are widely used because of the developments of a technology that has produced
thousands of different alloys and grades that provide a wide range of properties not found in any other family
of materials.

Ferrous metals can be classified as

1) Pig Iron
2) Wrought iron

3) Cast Iron

a. Grey Cast Iron

b. White Cast Iron
c. Malleable Cast Iron
d. Chilled Cast Iron
e. Alloy Cast Iron
f. Mechanite Cast Iron

4) Steels

a. Plain carbon steel - [Low carbon steel, Medium carbon steel, High carbon steel ]

b. Alloy steel - [ Low alloy steel, High alloy steel ]

Pig Iron: - It is raw material for all iron and steel products. Pig iron is of great importance in the foundry and in
steel making process. All iron and steel products are derived originally from pig iron. This is the raw material
obtained from the chemical reduction of iron ore in a Blast furnace.
Wrought Iron: - It is the mechanical mixture of very pure iron and a silicate slag. It is used in building
construction, industrial purposes, etc. It is highly refined iron with a small amount of slag, forged out into
fibers. The slag characteristic of wrought iron is useful in black smithing operations and gives the material its
peculiar fibrous fracture. Also the presence of slag produces a structure, which diminishes the effect of fatigue
caused by shock and vibration.

Cast Iron

Cast Iron is pig iron remelted and refined in a cupola or other form of remelting furnace and poured into
suitable moulds of required shape. The varieties of cast iron in common use is

1. Grey Cast Iron

2. White Cast Iron
3. Malleable Cast Iron
4. Ductile Cast Iron
5. Chilled Cast Iron
6. Alloy Cast Iron
7. Mechanite Cast Iron

Grey Cast Iron: - It is an alloy of carbon silicon with iron. It is used for machine tool structures, manhole
covers, ingot moulds, etc.

White cast iron: - White cast iron has almost all its carbon chemically combined with iron as iron carbide
(Fe3C). It is used for producing malleable iron.

Malleable cast iron: - It is obtained from white cast iron through controlled heat conversion process. This is
used for making gear case, automobile crankshaft etc.

Ductile Cast Iron: - it is also called as spheroidal graphite cast iron. It consists of graphite in the form of round
particles.

Steel

Steel is fundamentally an alloy of Iron and carbon, with the carbon content varying up to 1.5%. The carbon is
distributed throughout the mass of the metal not as elemental or free carbon but as compound (chemical
combination) with iron.

Plain Carbon Steels: - This is an alloy of iron and carbon and it is malleable in nature.

Alloy steels: - This steel contains one or more alloying elements other than carbon.

Non-ferrous metals: -
These are all metals that are not iron based. The common non-ferrous metals are copper, aluminium, lead,
magnesium, nickel, tin, and zinc and their alloys.

Copper and its alloys: -

Copper has excellent resistance to corrosion, non-magnetic properties etc. Their alloys can be used for casting
intricate shapes.

Aluminium and its alloys: -

This has lightweight and its alloys are used for producing drums, pipes, heat exchangers etc.
Magnesium and its alloys: -
Magnesium is not sufficiently strong, so it is not use in its purest form. Its alloys are used for producing
material handling equipments, foundry equipment etc.

Tin: -
It is soft and it is used in cold work such as extrusion, rolling etc.

Zinc: -
It has resistance to corrosion and high thermal conductivity. It is used for shells for dry batteries etc.

Nickel: -
It is used in incandescent lamp industry, and in chemical industries for producing evaporator’s etc.
2.0 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Introduction

Property of a material (or material property) is a factor that influences qualitatively or quantitatively the
response of given a material to imposed stimuli and constraints. e.g.: - forces, temperature, etc.
Some properties are dependent on actual crystal structure and are called structure sensitive
properties. In these crystal defects will affect their property. e.g.:- strength, ductility, di-electric
strength etc… Structure sensitive material properties are independent on crystal structure. E.g.:-
stiffness, density, and electrical conductivity.

Important material properties are:-

1. Physical properties
2. Thermal properties
3. Magnetic properties
4. Electrical properties
5. Mechanical and Technological properties
6. Chemical properties
7. Optical properties

2.1 Physical Properties

These are employed to describe a material under conditions in which external forces are not
concerned. This include

Dimension: - Implies its size and shape

Appearance: - This includes lustre, color and finish of a material. Lustre is the ability of a material to
reflect light when finely polished. Colour of a material depends upon the wavelength of the light that it
can absorb.

Density: - It is the mass of unit volume of material and its unit is Kg/m 3. i.e. Density= Mass / Volume

Specific gravity: - It is the ratio of the density of the material to the density of a substance taken as a
standard. As it the ratio of same parameters, it has no dimension. Solids and liquids are referred to
water as standard (at maximum density of 4degree Celsius, standard atmospheric pressure). If we
use weight of body instead of mass the density is called weight density.

Melting Point: - It is that temperature at which the solid material changes into the molten state. At
this state solid and liquid are in equilibrium.

Porosity: - A material is said to be porous if it has the pores within it. Pores can absorb the lubricant
as in a sintered self-lubricating bearing.

Structure: - It implies geometric relationship of material components.

2.2 Thermal Properties

This means the response of a material to the application of heat, e.g.:- Heat capacity, specific heat,
thermal expansion etc.
Heat capacity: - It indicates the materials ability to absorb heat from external surroundings. Its unit is
J/K. in other words it is the amount of heat absorbed by the given mass of substance in raising its
temperature by unit degree.

Specific heat: - Quantity of heat that must be added to a unit mass of the solid to raise its
temperature by one degree. Its unit is J/ (Kg.K). It increases with temperature.

Thermal expansion: - The increase in volume of material as temperature increases is called thermal
expansion.

Thermal conductivity: - This determines the rate at which heat can flow through a material under
the influence of a given temperature gradient. It is measured by thermal conductivity.

2.3 Magnetic Properties

Some of the magnetic properties are,

Permeability: - This measures the relative ease with which magnetism may be developed in a
material. It is the ratio of the magnetic induction to the magnetic field.

Coercive force: - It is the opposing magnetic force, which is necessary to remove previous
magnetization or residual magnetization.

Hysteresis: - It may be defined as the lag in the changes in the magnetization behind the variation of
magnetic field.

Super conductivity: - It is a phenemnon referring to the state at which the abrupt drop in electrical
resistance of certain materials at temperature below a certain critical temperature.

2.4 Electrical Properties

Resistivity: -It is that electrical property of a material owing to which it resists the flow of electricity
through it. Its unit is Ohmmeter.

Conductivity: - It is due to this property the electrical current flows easily through the material. It is
reciprocal of the resistivity. Its unit is Mho/meter.

Temperature coefficient of resistance: - It is employed to specify the variation of resistivity with

temperature.

Dielectric strength: -This means the insulating capacity of a material against high voltages.

Thermo electricity: - This forms the basis for the thermocouple operation. If two dissimilar metals
are joined and this junction is then heated, a small voltage in milli-volt range is produced and this is
known as thermo electric effect.

2.5 Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of materials define the behavior of materials under the action of external
forces, called loads. They are the measure of the strength and lasting characteristics of a material in
service, and are of great importance in the design of tools, machines and structures.

Mechanical properties are structure sensitive in the sense that they depend up on the crystal
structure and its bonding forces, and especially upon the nature and behavior of the imperfections,
which exists within the crystal itself or at the grain boundaries.
The most important and useful mechanical properties are briefly explained below to ensure that the
readers will be able to choose thee proper material for a given design quickly and wisely.

Strength: - The strength of a material is its capacity to withstand destruction under the action of
external forces or loads. The stronger the material the greater the load it can withstand. The stronger
the material the greater the load it can withstand. It therefore determines the ability of a material to
withstand stress without failure. The maximum stress that any material will withstand before
destruction is called its ultimate strength.

Elasticity: - Elasticity is that property of a material by virtue of which deformation caused by applied
loads disappears upon the removal of the load. In other words elasticity of a material is its power of
coming back to its original position after deformation when the stress or load is removed. Elasticity is
a tensile property of a material.

Stiffness: -The resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection is called stiffness or

rigidity. A material which suffers slight deformation under load has a high degree of stiffness or
rigidity. For instance suspended beams of steel and aluminium may be strong enough to carry the
required load but the aluminium beam will “sag” or deflect further. In other words, the steel beam is
stiffer or more rigid than aluminium beam.

Plasticity: - The plasticity of a material is its ability to undergo some degree of permanent
deformation without rupture or failure. Plastic deformation will take place only after the elastic range
has been exceeded. Plasticity is important for forming, shaping, extruding, and many other hot or cold
working processes. Materials such as clay, lead, etc… are plastic at room temperature and steel is
plastic when at bright heat. In general, plasticity increases with increasing temperature.

Ductility: - Ductility is that property of a material, which enables it to draw out into thin wire. Mild steel
is a ductile material. The percentage elongation and the reduction in area in tension are often used as
empirical measure of ductility.

Malleability:- Malleability of a material is its ability to be flattened into thin sheets without cracking by
hot or cold working. Aluminium, copper, tin, lead, steel, etc… are malleable metals.

Resilience: -Resilience is the capacity of the material to absorb energy elastically. On removal of the
load, the energy stored is given off exactly as in spring when the load is removed. The maximum
energy, which can be stored in a body up to elastic limit, is called proof resilience, and the proof
resilience per unit volume is called modulus of resilience. This property reveals capacity of material to
bear shocks and vibrations. The resilience of a material is of great importance in the selection of
materials that is used for various types of springs.
Toughness: - Toughness is a measure of the amount of energy a material can absorb before actual
fracture or failure takes place. For example, if a load is suddenly applied to a piece of mild steel and
then to a piece of a glass, the mild steel will absorb much more energy before failure occurs. Thus
mild steel is said to be much tougher than a glass.

The toughness of a material is its ability to withstand both plastic and elastic deformations. It is,
therefore, a highly desirable quality for structural and machine parts, which have to withstand shock
and vibration. Manganese steel, wrought iron, mild steel, etc are tough materials.

Hardness: - Hardness is a fundamental property, which is closely related to strength. Hardness is

usually defined in terms of the ability of a material to resist to scratching, abrasion, cutting,
indentation, or penetration.

Hardenability: - Hardenablity indicates the degree of hardness that can be imparted to metal,
particularly steel, by the process of hardening. It determines the depth and distribution of hardness
induced by quenching. A metal that is capable of being hardened throughout its structure is said to
have high hardenability.

Brittleness: - Brittleness of a material is the property of breaking without much distortion. There are
many materials, which break or fail before much deformation takes place. Such materials are brittle,
e.g. glass, cast iron. Therefore a non-ductile material is said to be brittle material.

Creep: - The slow and progressive deformation of a material with the time at constant stress is called
creep. Creep can take place and leads to fracture at static stresses much smaller than those, which
will break the specimen when loaded suddenly. For example creep occurs in steel at higher
temperatures. This is always considered while designing I C engines, boilers, turbines, etc.

Fatigue: - It has been recognized that a metal part subjected to repetitive or fluctuating stress will fail
at a stress at a much lower than that are required to cause fracture on a single application of load.
The term “fatigue” applied to materials refers to premature failure under the action of repeated
stresses. A component subjected to that type of stresses develops characteristics behavior,
fundamentally different from the behavior of metal part subjected to steady loads. The behavior is
called fatigue and is marked by

1) Loss of strength
2) Loss of ductility
3) Increased uncertainly in both strength and service life.

Actually fatigue causes over 85% of the operating failures of the machine elements. Even in ductile
materials, the failure of materials by fatigue will be sudden i.e. brittle like fracture. It is important in
design of crankshafts, axles, aircraft wings, etc. It is found that for most materials there is a limiting
stress below which a load may be repeatedly applied an indefinitely large number of times without
causing failure. This limiting stress is called endurance or fatigue limit. So endurance limit is therefore
used as a principle criterion of the resistance to fatigue of materials. The presence of stress raises
such as notches at the surface lower the endurance limit.
The events that lead to fatigue i.e. mechanism include crank nucleation, crack growth, and fracture.
Fatigue is a structure sensitive property. Surface condition, temperature, range of stress, frequency of
stress cycle, environment and metallurgical factors can be considered as variables affecting fatigue
life.
2.6 Technological Properties

The technological properties of a material are those properties, which completely define its behavior
in shaping, forming and fabrication operations during manufacturing operations. The main five
technological properties are discussed below.

Malleability: - It is the property of the material by virtue of which it can be deformed in to thin sheets
by rolling or hammering without rupture. It depends on the crystal structure of the material.
e.g. Gold, silver, aluminium, copper etc…

Machinability: - This property indicates the ease with which it can be cut or removed by cutting tools
in various operations such as turning, drilling, boring, etc. E.g. copper aluminium alloy, grey cast iron
etc.

Weldability: - This property indicates the ease with which two similar or dissimilar metals are joined
by fusion with or without the application of pressure as well as filler material.

Formability: - The term formability or workability may be defined as the property of the metal, which
indicates the ease with which it can be formed into different shapes and sizes. e.g. Low carbon steel.

Castability: - It may be defined as the property of the metal, which indicates the ease with which it is
formed into different shapes and sizes form its liquid state.

The factors affecting the mechanical properties are grain size, temperature, heat treatment, and
atmospheric exposure.

2.7 Chemical properties

This describes the combining tendencies, corrosion characteristics, reactivity, solubility etc…of
substances. e.g. corrosion resistance, chemical composition, acidity or alkalinity.

2.8 Optical properties

Refractive Index: - It is the ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum, to the velocity of light within the
material.

Absorptivity: - The energy incident on any material gets partially transmitted, reflected or absorbed.
The decimal fraction absorbed is known as the absorptivity.

Resistivity: - It is the decimal fraction reflected.

 3.0 FERROUS METAL
Introduction

There is scarcely a single aspect in our daily lives where in iron does not play an important part. Our
food, our means of transport, the buildings, our firesides and its comforts, iron is necessary for them
all. The magnitude property of iron alone, by making possible the electrical age in which we live has
conferred incalculable benefits on humanity. It is backbone of modern industry and hence
indispensable. Iron is fourth common element and second most abundant metal in earth‟s crust. The
symbol for iron is “Fe”. Its atomic number is 26 and atomic mass is 55.84. It melts at 1539C. Ferrous
is the name, which derived from the Latin word “Ferrum” meaning iron. So all the metals, which
contain iron are classified under the name ferrous metals.

The principal ferrous materials used in engineering fields are classified as:

1. Pig iron 2. Cast iron 3. Wrought iron 4. Steel

Pig iron: - It is product of a blast furnace and is made by the reduction of iron ore.

Cast iron: -The pig iron is melted and cast into moulds of the desired shape in order to obtain cast
iron. It contains so much of the carbon that as cast; it is less malleable at any temperature.

Wrought iron: - It is obtained from pig iron by burning out carbon, silicon, manganese, phosphorous
and sulphur impurities. Wrought iron is a pure form of pig iron. In the process of purification a minute
quantity of slag is incorporated to give fibrous structure to wrought iron.

Steel: -It is form of iron and carbon with carbon content varying up to 1.5%. It is malleable in some
range.

Pig iron: - All iron and steel products are derived originally from pig iron. This is the raw material
obtained from the chemical reduction of iron ore in a blast furnace. The reduction of iron to pig iron is
known as “Smelting”. The main raw materials required for pig iron are, Iron ore, coking coal and flux.

The coke is used in the blast furnace should be a very high class hard. Cokes obtained from good
quality coking coals contain low phosphorus and sulphur. Flux is the mineral substance that is
charged into the blast furnace to lower the melting point of the ore and to promote the removal of ash,
sulphur and residues of the burnt fuel.

Manufacturing of Pig Iron

The blast furnace is a vertical shaft furnace designed for continuous operation.
Thus smelting room of the blast furnace consists of a throat, stack, body, bosh and hearth. The raw
materials (alternate layers of ore, coke and flux) known as charge is introduced into the throat by
means of double bell and hopper arrangement. Hot blast is introduced into the throat by means of
double bell and hopper arrangement. Hot blast is forced into a furnace through a number of nozzles
called tuyers. The tuyers are cooled by water circulation between the pipe walls. The temperature of
the furnace just above the level of the tuyers (melting zone) being 1000C to 1700C all substances
inside the furnace start melting in the heat. The limestone that serves as a flux combines with the ore
to form a molten slag, which floats on top of the molten iron. The slag is tapped off from the furnace
through the slag hole. The molten iron is tapped off from 6 to 12 hours intervals, through the tapping
hole, blast being turned off mean while.

The chief ores and their approximate yield of metal:

 Percentage of
Ores Appearance Composition metals
Steel-grey or
Magnetite Fe3O4 72-62
black
Crystalline or
Red hematite granular, earthy or Fe2O3 70-60
rock red
Brown, dense,
Brown hematite 2Fe3O4 3H2O 60-42
earthy
Shy grey,
Siderite or spathic FeCO3 48-35
crystalline
4.0 CAST IRON
Introduction

Cast iron is pig iron re-melted and there by refined in a cupola is other form of re-melting furnace,
and poured into suitable moulds of required shapes. A cupola dose not produces steel. Instead re-
melting scraps along with pig iron in a furnace called CUPOLA pours iron casting. As the metal is
melted in contact with fuel, some elements are picked up while others are lost. This affects the final
analysis of the metal and necessitates close regulation of the cupola.

4.1 Manufacture of Cast Iron

Cast iron is manufactured from Cupola furnace. A Cupola may be described as a smaller version of
the Blast furnace. It is a vertical shaft type furnace consisting of a cylindrical steel shell lined with
refractory material and equipped with a wind box and tuyeres for admission of air. A charging door is
provided at the top for the introduction of melting stock and fuel. Near the bottom are holes and
spouts for removal of molten metal and slag.
The charge of Cupola is made of solid pig iron,coke,lime stone, and iron & steel scrap. The iron and
steel scrap are very important since they help in reducing the cost of iron and adjusting the carbon
content of the whole mass of iron. Coke provides the heat necessary to melt the charge. Flux is a
substance which lowers the melting point and improves the fluidity of the slag. Lime stone acts as a
flux and separates the slag from the pig iron and ash from the coke to form a liquid slag.
The following are the important zones of Cupola.

1. Preheat zone 2. Reduction zone 3. Oxidation zone 4. Metal/slag zone

Preheat zone: It lies over the melting zone, serves as heat exchanger wherein waste heat is
recovered by direct heat exchange between upward flowing gases and downward flowing charges
and fuel.
Reduction zone: It is above the combustion zone. In this zone the principal reaction is the
combination of carbon dioxide with the fuel to form carbon monoxide. Most of the water vapour
present in the blast air also reacts in this zone to form CO & H2. It is a protective zone to prevent
oxidation of the metal charge above and while dropping through it, the down coming molten metal
and the slag are superheated. Thus the metal drops down more rapidly through the combustion zone.
Oxidation Or Combustion zone: In this zone the principal reaction is the combustion of oxygen with
the fuel to form CO2.

Operation of Cupola:

The bottom doors are closed and a sand bed is formed on it. A tap hole is formed at this level in line
with tapping spout. Coke, iron, flux are placed in alternate layers and the coke bed is lighted up by
starting the air blow. (The iron to coke ratio is 10:1). This air rising upwards through the stack
furnishes oxygen for combustion of coke. After blowing a few minutes the coke becomes hot enough
to cause melting of the metal charge. As the metal melts in the zone above the tuyeres, it trickles
down through the coke and accumulates in the well, the cupola is tapped. Liquid slag will continue to
flow until the iron level reaches the slag hole, at which time the cupola must be tapped.
 Fig 9.1
4.2 COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON

Cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon. Most cast irons contain carbon 2-4%, silicon 0.5 – 3%,
manganese 0.2 – 1%, phosphorus 0.05 – 0.8%, sulphur 0.04 – 0.15%.
Carbon in cast iron is found in two forms: in the free state as graphite and in the combined form as
cementite. Cementite is very hard and brittle and has little strength.

4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CAST IRON

The various types of cast iron are

1.Wrought iron 4.Nodular cast iron 7.Alloy cast iron

2. Grey cast iron 5.White cast iron
3.Malleable cast iron 6.Meehanite cast iron
4.3.1 WROUGHT IRON:
It is a ferrous material aggregated from solidifying mass of pasty particles of highly refined metallic
iron with which a minutely and uniformly distributed quantity of slag is incorporated without
subsequent fusion.

Composition: Carbon 0.02 to 0.03%, Phosphorus 0.05 to 0.25%, Silicon 0.02 to 0.10%, Slag 0.05
to1.5%, Sulphur 0.008 to 0.02%, Manganese 0.02% balance is iron.

Properties:
1. Wrought iron is never cast. All shaping is accomplished by pressing, hammering, forging, etc.
2. It is noted for its high ductility and the ease with which it can be forged and welded.

Uses:
1. Building construction underground services lines
2. Public works Bridge, railings, blast plates.
3. Industrial Condenser tubes, unfired heat exchangers.
4. Railroad and marine Diesel exhaust and brake piping
5. Others Coal handling equipments.

4.3.2 GREY CAST IRON

Melting together low quantity foundry pig, scrapped casting and coke in a cupola,
which is similar to a small blast furnace produces it. The salvaged cast scrap is used to control the
alloying elements in the finished cast iron. When this cast iron is fractured it gives a grey appearance
therefore it is called grey cast iron. It has most of the carbon in graphite form.

Properties:

1. It has high compressive strength but low tensile strength.

2. It has self –damping property does not vibrate or ring.
3. It has self lubricate property and also good anti-friction property.
4. It has high fluidity and ability to make sound castings.
5. It prevents chatters when used for machine frames.
6. It has good wear resistance.

Uses:
1. Machine tool structures (bed, frame)
2. Frames for electric motors.
3. Piston rings, engine cylinders blocks, cylinder blocks, brake drums, clutch plates
4. Rolling mill and general machinery parts.
5. Households appliances.
6. Underground pipes for water.
7. Pumps, car wheels, transmission cases.
8. Surface plates, vice body, jack body.

4.3.3 MALLEABLE CAST IRON

Malleable iron is cast alloy consisting principally of iron and carbon, which is rendered tough
and ductile by a control heat conversion process. It solidifies in the as cast condition in a graphite free
structure, that is the total carbon contain is present in its dissolved and combined form as cementite.
The properties of material are obtained by heat treatment. Since it can be easily caused to spread
and flatten under pressure or hammering, it is known as malleable.
 Properties:

1. It posses high yield strength, high Young‟s modulus, high impact strength, good ductility and
mallaebility.
2. It possesses good wear resistance and vibration damping capacity.
3. It possesses good corrosion resistance, good machinability and castability.

Uses:

1. In automotive Industries.
2. In railroads.
3. For gear case.
4. Universal joint yoke.
5. Agriculture implements.
6. In construction and electrical equipments.

4.3.4 NODULAR CAST IRON

In this type the graphite flakes appear as rounded particles or nodules or spheroids. It
is also called as spheroidal graphite cast iron (SG Iron) or ductile cast iron. These spheroidising
elements when added to melt eliminate sulphur and oxygen (from the melt), which changes
solidification characteristics and possible account for the nodulisation.
Properties:

 It posses very good machinability Soft annealed grades of this type can be turned at very high
speeds and feeds.
 It has damping capacity intermediate between cast iron and steel.
 It possesses excellent castability.
 It possesses high strength, ductility, modulus of elasticity and good fatigue strength.

Uses:

1. Used in IC engines, for making crankshafts, rocker arms, clutches, gears.

2. Power transmission equipments.
3. Valve and fitting, pipes, pumps and compressors.
4. Earth moving machinery for wheels, gears, rope drums.
5. For castings requiring corrosion and wear resistance.
.

4.3.5 WHITE CAST IRON:

The broken surface of these types of iron shows a bright white fracture. It has no
graphite and therefore white in colors. Hence the name white iron. The whole carbon content is in the
form of cementite or lamellar pearlite.

Properties:

1. It has excellent abrasive resistance and it is extremely hard.

2. Under normal circumstances it is brittle and not machinable.
3. It retains hardness up to 550C.
4. It has low ductility and low impact strenght.
.
Uses:

1. For manufacturing those components which require a hard and abrasion resistance materials.
2. For the production of malleable iron castings.
 3. For parts of crushers, grinders, shot blasting nozzles, blades, and parts of pumps. Car wheels,
metal working rolls, grinding rolls, pulverizes, clay mixing and brick making equipments,
ploughs, rail wheels, brake shoes, dies, Muller wheels etc.

4.3.6 MEEHANITE CAST IRON

It is essentially a grey iron containing free graphite, which is added graphically in a

controlled manner in a ladle. It is a proprietary name for a patented series of high duty cast irons
included with calcium silicate as it acts as graphitiser.

Properties:

1. Meehanite castings are replacing other irons and more expensive products like steel castings,
malleable iron and non-ferrous alloys.
2. It has its vibration damping capacity between cast iron and steel, combined with good
strength.
3. Meehanite castings can be machined with HSS or Carbide tools.

4.3.7 ALLOY CAST IRONS:

To overcome some inherent difficulties in ordinary cast iron and to give qualities more suitable
for special purpose, while retaining the important castings advantages of its metals, a large number of
alloy cast iron have been developed. When alloying elements are added to cast iron, certain
characteristics are obtained more uniform structure, better hardness, wear resistance, strength and
machinability. Also the other properties such as thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, magnetic
and electric properties can be adjusted. Alloy cast irons those to which alloying additions are
intentionally made to impart particular property. E.g. for alloy cast iron are

1. Nickel Cast iron

2. Nickel hard white cast iron.

Nickel cast iron: - Nickel acts as graphitizer and improves machinability. Nickel with silicon adjusted,
acts as densner giving a fine grain size. Properties will be more uniform. Progressive increase in
nickel content changes the microstructure from pearlite to martensite and to austenite. By addition of
nickel 1.5 to 2% and molybdenum 0.3-0.6% the matrix of cast iron can have a acicular or needle like
structure instead of pearlite. This produces a heavy-duty cast iron characterized by heavy sections
and good wear resistance. Typical applications are die blocks for pressing or forging and rolling mill
rolls.
5.0 STEEL
Introduction
Steel is a fundamentally an alloy of iron and carbon, with carbon content up to 1.5%. The carbon is
distributed through out the mass of the metal as a compound with iron. If the carbon % increases
above 1.5%, a stage soon arrives when no more carbon can be contain in the combined state and
any excess must be present as free-carbon. It is at this stage that the metal merges into the group
termed cast iron.

5.1 CLASSIFICATION OF STEELS

Steels may be classified according to

(a) Carbon content

 Low carbon steel (0.008% to 0.3% Carbon)
 Medium carbon steel (0.31% to 0.6% Carbon)
 High carbon steel (0.61% to 2% Carbon)

(b) Purpose and use

 Tool Steels
 Structural steels
 Boiler steels
 Electric steels

(c) Method of manufacture

 Open hearth steel
 Bessemer steel
 LD steel

(d) Amount of De oxidation

 Rimmed steel
 Killed steel
 Semi-killed steel

(e) Amount of Alloy content

 Low alloy steel (Alloying elements <5%)
 High alloy steel (Alloying elements >5%)

5.2 PLAIN CARBON STEELS-PROPERTIES AND USES

1. Low Carbon Steel

Properties: - They are soft, ductile, malleable, tough, machinable, weldable but non hardenable, they
are good for cold working and fabrication purpose.
Uses:-
Dead mild steel used in making steel wires, sheets, rivets,
(C 0.05 to 0.15%) Screws, pipes, nails, and chain.
Mild steel used for making camshafts, sheets and strips, for
(C 0.15 to 0.20%) Fan blades, forging, etc.

Mild steel used for making crankshafts, Connecting rods,

(C 0.20 to 0.30%) railway axles, fishplates, small forging etc.

5.3 MEDIUM CARBON STEEL

Properties: - These steels have intermediate properties to those of low carbon steels and high carbon
steels. They are medium hard, not so ductile and malleable, medium tough, slightly difficult to
machine, weld and hardened. They are difficult to cold work and hence hot work. They are also called
as “machinery steels “.

Steels with used for making gear shafts, shift and brake
C 0.30 to 0.70% levers, wires and rods, small and medium
forging.

Steel with used for making parts, which are to be subjected

(C 0.45 to 0.55%) to Shock and heavy reversal of stresses such as
railway coach axles, crank pins on heavy
machines, spline shafts, axles etc.

Steel with used for drop forging dies, die block, clutch disks,
(C 0.45 to 0.70%) self taking screws, valve springs, thrust washers
etc.

5.4 HIGH CARBON STEEL

Properties: - They are hard, wear resistant, brittle, difficult to machine and weld but can be hardened.
Hardenability is high. They cannot be cold worked and hence hot worked; they are also called as
“Tool Steels”.

Steel with C 0.70 to 0.80% used in cold chisels, wrenches shear blades, hack
saws, pneumatic drill bit.

Steel with C 0.80 to 0.90% used in machine chisels, leaf springs, punch and
dies etc.

Steel with C 0.90 to 0.10% used in keys, shear blades, pins, speed disk, and
dies etc.

Steel with C 1. 02 to 1.10% used railways springs, mandrels, machine tools,

taps etc.

Steel with C 1.10 to 1.20% used in twist drills, knifes, thread metal dies, taps
etc.

Steel with 1.20 to 1.30% Used in files, reamers, metal cutting tools etc.

Steel with 1.30 to 1.50% used in wire drawing dies, metal cutting saws etc.
6.0 ALLOY STEEL
Steel is considered to be alloy steel when the maximum range given for the alloying
elements exceeds one are more of the following limits.

Mn 1.65% Si 0.60% Cu 0.60%

Given below is the composition of typical alloy steel.

C 0.2 - 0.4% Mn 0.5 -1.0%

Si 0.3 - 0.6% Ni 0.4 - 0.7%
Cr 0.4 - 0.6% Mo 0.15 - 0.3%

Advantages and Disadvantages of Alloy Steel

Advantages
1. Greater hardenability.
2. Less distortion and cracking.
3. Greater ductility at high strength.
4. Greater stress relief for a given hardness.
5. Higher elastic ratio and endurance strength.
6. More strength, hardness and toughness at low and high temperatures.
7. Better resistance to wear and abrasion due to the presence of alloy carbides.
8. More uniform properties throughout the cross-section.
9. High resistance to tempering.
10. More resistance to corrosion and oxidation resistance.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Cost.
2. Special handling.
3. Temper brittleness in certain grades.

Some of the prominent Alloy Steels

1. Silicon steel 7. Chrome – Vanadium Steel

2. Silicon Mn steel 8. Molybdenum Steel
3. Nickel Steel 9. Chrome Molybdenum Steel
4. Chrome Nickel Steel 10. Chrome Steel
5. Tungsten Steel 11. Manganese Steel
6. Vanadium 12 Cobalt Steel.

6.1 ELEMENTS IN STEEL

Steel may contain some of the following elements and effects of each are given below.
6.2 EFFECTS OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS

1. NICKEL: -
- Toughens steel by refining grains
- Strengthens ferrite
- Improves tensile strength and hardness
- It is an austenite stabilizer
- It increases and oxidation resistance
- It increases impact resistance
- It reduces coefficient of thermal expansion

2. CHROMIUM: -
- Increases resistance to corrosion and oxidation
- Stabilizes carbides and forms hard chromium carbides
- Resists abrasion and wear
- It increases hardenability of steel
- It improves service life

3. MANGANESE: -
- Acts as a de-oxidizer and de-sulphuriser
- Increases hardenability
- It increases strength, toughness, hardness and machinability.

4. MOLYBDENUM: -
- Raises grain coarsening temperature of austenite
- Deepens hardening
- Reduces temper brittleness in nickel chromium steel

5. VANADIUM: -
- Raises softening temperature of hardened steel
- Increases hardenability
- Promotes fine grain
- Increases hardness and vanadium carbides promote secondary hardening.
- Improves wear resistance.
- Improves fatigue and creep resistance.
- t is a strong de-oxidiser.

6. TUNGSTEN: -
- Reduces grain growth
- Rises the limiting creep stress at temperatures
- Promotes hardness and strength at elevated temperature

7. COBALT: -
- Contributes to red hardness by hardening
- Tends to cause de-carbonization
- It increases resistance to tempering

8. SILICON: -
- Alloying element for electrical and magnetic sheet
- Strengthens low alloy steel
- It acts as graphitizer.
9. ALUMINIUM: -
- It is a strong de-oxidizer and grain refiner

10. SULPHUR: -
- It increases brittleness and produces hot shortness.

11. PHOSPHORUS: -
- Increases strength and hardness
- It is solid solution strengthener
- Excess addition makes steel brittle and cold shortness.

6.3 COMPOSITION, PROPERTIES & USES OF ALLOY STEEL

1. NICKEL STEEL
Composition: Amount of nickel varies from 2% - 45%
Properties:
- Very high tensile strength
- Stainless and non-magnetic
- Reduces coefficient of thermal expansion to 0.0000002
- It is known as invar and super invar. It posses extension equal to that of glass
Uses:
- Boiler plates, rivets, cams and bolts, etc,
- High-pressure boilerplates, war ships, connecting rods, etc.
- Engine valves, turbine blades, electric resistance wires, etc.
- For measuring instruments, survey tapes, clock pendulum, etc.

2. NICKEL CHROME STEEL

Composition:
(a) Mild nickel chrome steel C-0.2-0.3% Ni – 3.75%
- Having High strength
- Used for Axle crank shafts

(b) Medium nickel chromium steel C–0.2-0.35% Ni-3-3.75%

- Stronger than mild nickel chromium
- Used for Cranks, connecting rods, etc. for parts subjected to high stress and shocks.

(c) High Tensile nickel chromium steel Cr-0.3%

- Very hard, tough, high tensile strength
- Used for Parts for aircraft and shafts.

3. MOLYBDENUM STEELS

(a) Chromium molybdenum steel (Mo-0.15-0.6%)

- Relatively cheep, good deep hardening characteristics, ductility, and weld ability.
(b) Nickel Molybdenum steel (Cr-1% Mo-0.15-0.25%)
- High strength ductility, deep hardening, improved machinability.
Uses:
- Transmission gears, roller bearings, chain pins, etc.

4. CHROMIUM STEEL

Composition: Cr-8-15%
Properties:
Permanent magnetism
Uses:
Electrical equipments, springs, ball and roller bearings.

5. MANGANESE STEEL
Composition: Mn –1-1.5% up to 2%,

Properties:
Strong and tough reduce formation of sulphide and deoxidization of molten metal. hard and brittle,
very hard, tough, non-magnetic and high tensile strength.

Uses:-
Manganese steel castings are used for special purpose such as the parts of stone crushing grinding
and dredging plant, forging of component can also be done

6. SILICON STEEL
Composition: 3.5% silicon
Properties:
- Improved electrical properties, low magnetic hysterises.

Uses:
-Chemical industries IC engines etc.

7.SILICON MANGANESE STEEL

Composition: Si-2%, Mn-0.7%

Properties:
-High resilience, strength and toughness.

Uses: -
-Used for leaf spring, coil spring, chemical industry and I C engine parts.

6.4 SPECIAL ALLOY STEEL

1. MAGNET STEEL

Composition 15-40% cobalt, 0.4-1% carbon1.5-9% chromium, 10%tungsten

Properties:
Possess improved magnetic properties
Uses:
Permanent magnets for loud speakers and other electrical machines and instruments.

2. HEAT RESISTING STEEL:

Composition 23-30% chromium, less then 0.35% carbon

Properties
Suitable for working at very high temperatures.
Resistance to acid corrosion.
Uses:
Furnace parts, annealing boxes and flame nozzles

3. SHOCK LOADING STEEL:

Composition:-0. 5% carbon, 2.25% tungsten, 1.5% chromium, 0.25% vanadium

Properties
It resists high shock loads and impact loads

Uses:
Axles, leaf and coil springs, wheel drums, etc,

4. STAINLESS STEEL:

a) Martensitic stainless steel

Composition 16-20% Cr, 0.1-0.3% C, 1-3% Ni

High strength, excellent toughness, resistance to oxidation, high corrosion and abrasion resistance.

Uses: -
Dairy and chemical Industries
All types of surgical dental instruments
Utensils

b) Ferritic stainless steel

Composition:-14-27%Cr
Properties:-
Magnetic, good resistance to corrosion, very soft, and low impact values.

Uses: -
Nuclear power plant parts.

c) Austenitic stainless steel:

Composition: - 15-20% Cr, 7-10% Ni (18/8) 18% Cr & 8% is widely used.

Properties:
High red hardness, good corrosion resistance, better resistant to high temperature, high ductility

Uses:
Used in consumer products, architectural constructions, chemical equipments, etc,

5. HIGH SPEED STEEL:

(a) Tungsten HSS (18-4-1)

Composition: 18% W, 4% Cr. 1% V, 0.75%C

Properties:-
High red hardness, excellent toughness and cutting ability.
Uses:-
Used for cutting tools used on lathe, shaper, planer and drills, taps, dies etc,

(b) Molybdenum HSS (6-6-4-2 HSS)

Composition: 6% Mo, 4%Cr, 6%W, 2%V
Properties: -
It possesses same properties as that of tungsten HSS but it is cheaper.

Uses: - Used for cutting tools

(c) Cobalt HSS

Composition: 10% Co, 18%W, 4%Cr, 2%V

Properties:-
High hardness, increased cutting ability at elevated temperature, more resistant to crack in
quenching, subjected to decarborization if held for too long at the heating temperature.
Uses: Suitable for cutting tools, which are used, in high production, in increased speed and more
depth of cuts.

(d) Vanadium HSS

Composition: more than 1% V, 0.7% C
Properties:-
It has excellent abrasive resistance and good cutting efficiency.

Uses:-
Used for cutting tools.

6.5 TOOL STEELS

Steel containing alloying elements that enable it to be heat treated to obtain desirable characteristics
such as strength, hardness and wear resistance are referred as tool steel.
The term tool steel refers to a group of high quality carefully manufactured steels that are
characterized by high hardness and resistance to abrasion. Certain groups of steels also have a high
resistance to softening at high temperatures.
A vacuum process produces tool steels for critical applications. Rigorous inspection procedures are
employed throughout the manufacture of tool steel. Entire bars may be subjected to magnetic
particle and ultrasonic inspection for surface and internal defects.
The high price of alloying elements and precise production requirements and quality control are the
reason for the high cost of tool steels. When it is considered that the tool steels are made into a
complicated tool or die which requires hundreds of man-hours in its manufacture and will produce
thousands or even millions it is well worth the extra cost.

The importance is given to different steels used for tool because of feasible properties of such steels:

 Slight change of form during hardening.

 Little risk of cracking during hardening
 Good toughness
 Very good machinability
 Good wear resistance.
 A definite cooling rate during hardening
 A definite hardening temp
 Resistance to decarburization.
 Resistance to softening on heating, i.e., red hardness

The term tool steel is used in present day industry, refers to a group of high quality, carefully
manufactured steels that are characterized by high hardness and resistance to abrasion.
6.6 CLASSIFICATION OF TOOL STEELS
Classification as per American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) divides tool steels into the following main
groups for majority of application.
- Cold work tool steels
- Hot work tool steels and
- High-speed tool steel.
Cold work tool steel
Typical uses are engraving tools, files, and razors, shaping tools, woodworking tools heading
tools, etc.

Hot Work Tool steel

The term hot work tool steels are intended for all tooling applications except cutting tools where
temperature attained by the tool, die and mould is above 200C. Typical uses are for hot extrusion;
hot stamping dies, die-casting dies, forging dies, etc.

High-speed tool steel

The term High Speed Tool Steel is defined as a special variety of tool steel, which by virtue of its
composition retains its cutting hardness at low red heat. Typical uses are drills, slitting saws and other
high speed and heavy cut tools, etc.

6.7 CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION OF PRINCIPAL TYPES OF TOOL STEELS

1. Cold Work Tool Steels

It is seen that each group of tool steel processes a distinguishing property or properties, which
identify and establish its superiority over other groups and no group has all the requisites viz, best in
wear resistance, best in toughness. The increase in wear resistance and decrease in toughness is
due to the increase of carbon and alloying elements.
Similarly it is seen that the shock resistance tool steel due to its medium carbon and alloying
content is the best in toughness but less wear resistant. Wear resistance-toughness combination is
the primary criterion for satisfactory tool operation.

S.NO. GROUP AISI CODE

1. Water hardening tool steel (High Carbon Steel) W
2. Shock resisting Tool Steel S
3. Oil Hardening Cold work Tool steel O
4. Air hardening Cold work Tool Steel A
5. High Carbon High Chromium Cold work Tool Steel D

Present trends in the cold work tool steels

High carbon water hardening tool steels are used for tools, which are simple in shape
for short runs and where there are no sharp changes in section etc. The present trend is towards
greater use of High Carbon High Chromium for complicated and interacted tooling and for long runs.
This trend is principally to obtain longer tool life to avoid distortion or cracking during heat treatments
and also the dimensional changes resulting from hardening are exceptionally small. AISI has
therefore assigned symbol Dindicating dimensional stability. During tools fabrication if the changes
in the size control and position of the tooling are to be kept to the obsolete minimum particularly when
the precision operations like jig boring, die sinking etc. are involved, then high carbon high chromium
becomes the obvious choice.
The special purpose tool steels coming under cold work tool steels are discussed like,
Low alloy special purpose tool steel (L) are similar to group W. Greater wear resistance and
hardenability is there due to the addition of Chromium and other elements. L6 has additional
toughness and hardenability due to the presence of Nickel.
Carbon Tungsten tool steels (F) is similar to group W and have high wear resistance due to high
carbon and tungsten content.
Used for Wire drawing dies, forming tools, burnishing tools etc. where high wear, low temperature
and low shock applications.
Low Carbon mould steels (P) are alloy carburising steels produced to tool steel quality
Used for Moulds for injection or compression molding of plastics.

WATER HARDENING TOOL STEELS

The water hardening or carbon steels are one of the oldest types of tool steels. They depend primarily
upon carbon content of their treatable properties with addition of chromium or vanadium. Chromium is
added to increase harden ability and wear resistance. Vanadium is added to refine grain for added
toughness. Carbon content varies from 0.6 to 1.4%. . They will harden with hard case and tough core.
They posses low resistance to heat softening. They are easy to machine compared to other steels
and require relative simple heat-treating methods. They are suitable for light or medium cold impact
operations such as coining, cold heading, punching, knurling, embossing and for wood and metal
hand cutting tools.
The steel should not be used when the tool has drastic changes, sharp corners or holes near
the edge of the tool. Tools of this nature have a tendency to crack during heat treatment because of
quenching stresses caused by uneven cooling stress concentration points. They should not be used
where distortion during heat treatment will present a problem; the steels have a tendency to wrap
during quenching.

THEY SHOULD NOT BE USED WHEN WORKING TEMPERETURE WILL BE EN COUNTERED, AS

THE TOOL WILL SOFTEN.

When the tool is relatively complicated and there is a possibility to crack during Heat Treatment
water-hardening steel should not be used. Oil or air hardening steel should be used.

SHOCK RESISTING STEELS

These steels are used for shock operations at normal temperatures and where maximum abrasion
resistance is not required. They have less carbon and have higher toughness. The hardness will be
below 60HRC.They are oil and water hardening steels.
The chief alloying elements are silicon, chromium, and tungsten and molybdenum. These alloys
increase Hardenability and provide heat and wear resistance. The tungsten types have higher heat
resistance.
Pneumatic chisels are heavy duty; shear blades and similar tools are manufactured from the steel

OIL HARDENING TOOL STEELS:

They are safer to harden and have less dimensional change during heat treatment. They have good
machinability, good resistance to de-carburisation and have a high carbon content to provide good
wear resistance. The depth of hardening is greater than that of water hardening steels and as a
result they are usually less tough. They do not have high red hardness and therefore must be used
for tools that will operate near room temperature. Blanking, hardening, trimming, and cooling tools
thread rolling dies, knurling tools, gauges etc., are manufactured.

AIR HARDENING TOOL STEEL:

This possesses better properties than oil hardening steels. Manganese, chromium, molybdenum
and vanadium are the chief alloying elements. These alloying elements promote air-hardening
characteristics, which result in excellent dimensional stability. The high carbon content provides
good wear resistance. The high manganese grades may be hardened at lower temperatures thus
reducing scaling and further reducing dimensional change .The machinability is lower than water and
oil hardened grade steel. This steel has poor machinability. The air hardening grades are used to
manufacture intricate dies, punches, and thread rolling dies, long slender broaches and other
applications where resistance to distortion and abrasion are important.

HIGH CORBON HIGH CHROMIUM COLD WORK STEELS

They combine the high wear resistance with deep hardening properties. They have low dimensional
change during hardening and have a medium resistance to heat softening. They are susceptible to
edge brittleness which makes them unsuitable for edge cutting tools.
Intricate dies and punches, master gauges and other applications where dimensional stability and
long wearing properties are important are manufactured from this steel.

HOT WORK TOOL STEELS:

Hot work tool steels (AISI code H) form a special group of steels intended mainly for industrial
applications used in high temperature metal forming operations. H steels are intended to cover all
applications except cutting tools, where the operating temperature is above 200 C.
The desirable properties for this type of tool steels are red hardness; hot wear resistance and
toughness at elevated temperature besides having a good thermal conductivity. The three main hard
working activities are forging, hot extrusion and die- casting.
These steels have been alloyed to withstand high working temperatures for such application as die
casting dies etc, hot forging dies, plastic molds, hot extrusion dies etc., the main alloying elements
are chromium, molybdenum and tungsten. The hot work steels are divided into three groups
depending upon their alloying elements.

CHROMIUM HOT WORK TOOL STEELS:

They contain 5to7% chromium and smaller amounts of vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum. In
addition to good red hardening properties, they are extremely deep hardening and good dimensional
stability during hardening.

TUNGSTEN HOT WORK STEELS:

They contain 9to18%tungsten and 2to12%chromium. These alloys are good resistance to high
temperature softening. They are however more brittle at working hardness.

MOLYBDENUM HOT WORK STEELS:

These contain 5to 9.5% molybdenum, 4% chromium, 1.5to6.5% tungsten and smaller amounts of
vanadium.

SPECIAL PURPOSE TOOL STEELS:

LOW ALLOY SPECIAL PURPOSE TOOL STEELS:

These steels are similar to the water hardening steels. Chromium and other elements are added for
grater wear resistance and hardenability. They are used where high wear resistance and toughness
are required.

CARBON TUNGSTEN TOOL STEELS:

These water hardening Steels have high wear resistance because of the high carbon and tungsten
content. They are used where high wear resistance and low shock applications.
LOW CORBON MOULD STEELS:
They are carbonizing steels produced to tool steel quality. They have a low hardness in the annealed
state and are generally carbureted for greater wear resistance after being machined their major
application is moulds for injection or compression molding of plastics.

HIGH SPEED STEEL

High-speed steel (HSS) is highly alloyed tool steel. These steels owe their name to the fact that they
were originally developed for high-speed metal cutting. HSS have a high degree of red hardness and
high abrasion resistance along with a comparable degree of shock resistance. Their primary use is as
a material for cutting tools, although they have other applications, such as extrusion dies and blanking
punches and dies. Their major alloying elements are Tungsten, Molybdenum, Chromium and
Vanadium and in special grades cobalt is added to give superiority in red hardness and abrasion
resistance. Also HSS is more difficult to machine and grind HSS can be divided into two groups:

(1) Tungsten HSS (Group T) and

(2) Molybdenum HSS (Group M).

Even though the characteristics of both are almost same, cost is different. Group M is about 30%
less than group T in cost. The general purpose grades of HSS are T1, M1, and M2 & M10. When
the highest possible red hardness is required in a cutting tool material, Cobalt high speed steel
such as M6 may be used. But this is higher in cost, difficult to machine, heat treat and grind.

INFLUENCE OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS ON THE PROPERTIES OF HSS-

The desired high hardness, hot strength, red hardness, toughness and wear resistance of the tools
depends mainly on the presence of alloying elements present in the HSS.

Tungsten and Molybdenum-

They form carbides (M6) in HSS. These carbides increase the wear resistance and red hardness of
the tools.
Cobalt
This will increase the hot hardness. Which can permit higher cutting speeds. Cobalt does not
form carbides. Cobalt will increase the thermal conductivity and the coercive force while the red
hardness remains unchanged. The durability of cobalt (content) HSS is 2 to 3 times more due to
higher secondary hardness, wear resistance and thermal conductivity. Also the melting point of HSS
is raised by the presence of Cobalt.
Chromium
4% chromium is used in HSS to promote the depth of hardenability.

Vanadium
Due to Vanadium wear resistance increases. But when the Vanadium content is at higher level
the grindability will be poor.

SELECTION OF HSS

It is clear that no group has all the requisites. The increase in wear resistance and decrease in
toughness of high carbon high Vanadium super HSS is due to the increase in carbon and Vanadium
content. This is due to the formation for Vanadium carbide.
The following list can be used for selecting HSS for different applications.
 Boring tool and broaches: - T1, T15, and M2.
 Drills of all kind: -T1
 Hand Taps – T1

Some applications of typical HSS are given below:-

 T1----- Hot work drawing, shearing, piercing, press tools for M.S, twist drills and reamers etc.
M1----- Twist drills, thread cutting tools, reamers and cutters.
Cast Iron
Cast iron is sometimes used as the main body of jigs and fixture. By casting metal may be
placed to better advantage and as results the weight of the fixture or jig may be reduced. The
stability and compressive strength of grey cast iron, as well as its ease of casting make it suitable
for this purpose. Cast iron is also used in construction of large forming and drawing dies and as a
material for die set shoes.
Mild Steel
M.S. or low carbon steels are used as component parts of jigs and fixtures where wear
resistance and maximum strength are not necessary. Standard structural shapes are used in the
construction of frame works for large jigs and fixtures.
Non-metallic tooling materials include Masonite, densified wood, plastics, ceramics, diamonds
etc.

SPECIFICATION OF STEELS

Steels are specified on the basis of certain criteria like, the method of manufacturing, chemical
composition, heat treatment, mechanical properties etc.

Every country has a different way of specifications. Majorities are based on chemical composition.

INDIAN STANDARD DESIGNATION SYSTEM (ISI 1961)

Indian standard code for designation of steel was adopted by ISI in 1961 and it was revises in to two
parts in 1974. Part 1 covers the designation of steel based on Letter symbols and part 2 covers the
designation of steel based on Numerals.

Code designation on the basis of Mechanical properties is based on tensile strength or yield strength.
Symbol Fe is used to designate minimum tensile strength. Symbol FeE is used to designate minimum
yield strength in N/mm2, symbol St is used when tensile strength is in Kg/ mm 2 and StE is used for
Yield strength in Kg/mm2. It is followed by special characteristics covering method of de-oxidation,
steel quality, degree of purity, surface condition, weld ability and heat treatment.

Designation of steel on the basis of chemical composition consists of a numerical figure indicating
100 times the average percentage of carbon content. Letter C is used for plain carbon steels and
Letter T are used for tool steel and these are followed by a figure indicating ten times the average
percentage of manganese.

Symbols S, Se, Te, Pb, are P are used to indicate free cutting steels followed by a figure indicating
100 times the percent content of the respective element.

Alloy steel are designated in the symbolic form on the basis of their alloy content by first specifying
the average content of carbon in 100 ths of a percent followed by the chemical symbols of the
significant element in the descending order of percentage content, the nominal or average percent of
each alloying element is indicated by an index No just after its chemical symbol. If it is tool steel, letter
T should be prefixed before carbon content.

If the average alloy content is up to 1%, the index No is expressed up to two decimal places
underlined by a bar except for B, N. etc. where they will be indicated by an alloy symbol only.
For e.g. chromium content is between 0.5% and 0.8%, it is represented as Cr 65.

If alloy content is between 1 % and 10% the index no is rounded to the nearest whole no. If it is
necessary, the alloy contents may be rounded of one place of decimal, the decimal digit being
underlined by a bar e.g. If the chromium content varies between 1 .20% and 1.60%, it may be
represented either as Cr 1 or Cr 1 4.
If the alloy content is more than 10%, the index no is rounded to the nearest whole no e.g. if
chromium content is between 12% and 18%, it is represented as Cr 15.

If two or more significant alloying elements have the same alloy index, their chemical symbols may
be grouped together followed by their alloy index, e.g. if a steel contains nickel between 0.9% and
1.3% and chromium between 1.2% and 1.6% both may be represented as NiCr 1.
Some typical e.g. are shown below.

1. Fe 410 K Killed steel with minimum T.S of 410 N/mm2

2. St 42 Steel with minimum T.S of 42 Kg/mm2

3. Fe E 270 Steel with minimum Y S of 270 N/mm2

4. C 20 Steel with average carbon of 0.2%.

5. 25 C5 Steel with average carbon of 0.25% and

Mangesese of 0.5%

6. 80 T 11 Tool steel with average carbon of 0.8% and

1.1% mangesese.

7. 15 Ni 1 3 Cr 1 Mo 12 Steel with carbon 1.5%, Nickel 1.3%, Cr 1%,

Mo 0.12%.

8. 35 Mn 1 S 18 Steel with carbon 0.35%, Mn 1%, sulphur

0.18%.

9. T 75 W 18 Cr 4 V 1 Tool steel with carbon 0.75%, Tungsten 18%,

Chromium 4%, Vanadium 1%.

10. T 105 Cr 1 Mn 60 Tool steel with carbon 1.05%, chromium 1%

and manganese 0.6%.
7.0 DIFFERENT STEEL
Steel used for various Tool Elements are as follows: -

a) Press Tool Material

1. Top and Bottom Plate Mild Steel, Cast Iron

2. Shank Mild Steel
3. Punch Holder Mild Steel
4. Stripper plate Mild Steel, D1 steel (Special Case)
5. Punch and Die D2 (HCHCr)
6. Thrust or Back Plate D1 (HCHCr)
7. Stoppers D1 (HCHCr)
8. Guide pillar and bush E230
9. Strip guides D1 (HCHCr)

b) Moulds

1. Top and Bottom Plate Mild Steel

2. Register Ring Mild Steel
3. Heel Block Mild Steel
4. Core and Cavity H12 (Hot Work Steel), P20
5. Ejector pins H12
6. Push back pin D1
7. Finger cam D1
8. Wear plate D1

c) Jigs and fixtures

1. Bushes E230, Case hardened

2. Jig feet D1
3. Setting block Hardened steel
4. Locators En31

d) Die casting dies/Forging Dies

1. Dies H11/H13

e) Hand Tools

1. Pliers/spanners/Hammers Medium Carbon steel

/Screw driver/cold chisel.
2. Files, hacksaw blade/scrapers High carbon steel
8.0 NON- FERROUS METALS AND
ALLOYS
INTRODUCTION

Non-ferrous metals and alloys are used for special purpose in engineering field. Non ferrous metals
and alloys are not iron based (Ferrous means iron)

The common nonferrous materials are the following metallic elements and their alloys:-

Aluminum, Copper, Nickel, Zinc, Tin, Lead, Magnesium, Cobalt etc.

Purpose or Need for non-metal and alloys

1) They are used where resistance to corrosion is essential

2) They also possess special electrical and magnetic properties
3) They also possess low density can have some attractive colour
4) They have good fusibility, ease of casting and formability
5) They are soft, which facilitates for cold working.

8.1 ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Aluminum is a silvery white metal and is possesses the following characteristics or properties

1) It is a light metal (having a density of 2.7)

2) It is a very good conductor of electricity
3) It has a higher resistance of corrosion.
4) It is a good conductor of heat
5) It is very ductile
6) It is a non-magnetic
7) Melting point of pure aluminum is 600C.
8) It is good reflector of light and other radiant energy.

Although pure aluminum is not particularly strong, it forms high strength alloys in conjunction with
other metals, such as (copper, chromium, nickel, silicon, zinc etc)

1) They are malleable and ductile

2) They exhibit toughness and become stronger at temperatures below the ordinary atmospheric
range.
3) Some of the aluminums alloys are more than four times as strong as same the weight of mild
steel.
4) Aluminum and its alloys can be
a) Cast (b) welded (c) Rolled (d) forged (e) extruded.

Uses of Aluminum and its Alloys

Aluminum and its alloys are frequently used for
1) Transportation industry: - Structures are made.
2) In food industry: - Food preparation equipments (pans etc) refrigeration, storage containers.
3) In architectural fields: - Window frames, roofing, fasteners, grills etc
4) As heavy-duty structure: - convey or supports bridges etc.
5) In process industries parts made up of aluminum an its alloys are used to handle organic
chemicals petrochemicals and drugs
6) Cryogenic applications
7) Overhead conductors and heat exchange parts.
8) Used in metallurgical industry, as it is a powerful deoxidiser.
9) Generally used as container for plastics, rubber, rayon‟s, synthetic resins, etc.

Types of Aluminum Alloys

Aluminum alloys can be classified as

1) Wrought Alloys
2) Cast Alloys
3) Heat treatable Alloys
4) Non heat treatable alloys

Aluminum alloys - casting Applications

a) Piston and cylinder heads

b) Air and water-cooled, cylinder blocks, valve bodies etc.
c) Sand casting and gravity die casting suitable for architectural ornamental and marine
applications
d) Sprit levels, molding flask etc.
e) Vacuum cleaners, cast utensils steam pipes
Important aluminium alloys

1. Aluminium –Silicon and Al-Si-Cu alloys

Composition- LM6-12%Si and LM2- 10%Si, 2% Cu
Uses: -
Used for automobile castings, Water cooled manifolds, motor housings, pump parts.

2. Aluminium-Magnesium Alloys (Magnelium)

Composition:- LM5-5% Mg, 0.5%Mn and LM10-10% Mg.
Uses:-
Used for aircraft and automobile components, dairy equipments, architectural work.

3. Aluminium Copper alloys

Composition:-LM 11-4.5% Cu- Similar to Duralumin.

Uses:-
For Aircraft castings.

4. Y-alloy
Composition:- LM14-4%Cu, 2% Ni, 1.5% Mg
Uses:-
For pistons and Cylinder Heads of Diesel and Heavy duty petrol engines.

8.2 COPPER

Copper is red in colour and has a crystalline structure and it possesses the following properties

1) Excellent resistance to corrosion

2) High thermal and electrical conductivity
3) Non magnetic properties
4) It is ductile and malleable
5) Very good mach inability
6) Resistance to fatigue, abrasion and corrosion
7) It can be soldered, brazed or welded
 8) It can be easily polished, plated and possesses a pleasing appearance
9) Ease of forming alloys with other elements like zinc, tin, aluminum, lead, silicon, nickel etc.
10) Melting point of copper is 1080C.

Uses of copper

Copper is used for the following

(1) Electrical parts, Condensers, heat exchangers, household utensils, bus bars etc.
(2) Automobile radiators, pressure vessels.
(3) For bolts, studs, welding tips,

8.3 TYPES OF COPPER ALLOYS.

8.3.1 Copper zinc alloy (Brass)

Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc it has high resistance to corrosion and is easily machinable.
It also acts as good bearing material. Zinc in the brass increase ductility along with strength. Brass
possesses greater strength than copper. However it has a lower thermal and electrical conductivity.
The properties of brass varies with the percentage of zinc varies from 5 - 45%.

Types of Brasses
Brasses are classified based on

1) Structure- alpha brasses, alpha –beta brasses

2) Colour- red brass and yellow brass.

Alpha brass contains zinc less than 30% and alpha-beta brass contain zinc between 30-44%.

Alpha Brass-They are soft, ductile, malleable and have good corrosion resistance. These are suitable
for cold working.

Types of Alpha-Brass
1) Cap Copper-contains zinc between 2-5%. It is very ductile. Used for caps of detonators.
2) Gilding Metal- contains zinc 5-15%. Used for bullet envelopes, containers, condenser
tubes, coins, emblems, jewellery.
3) Cartridge brass (70-30 Brass) contains zinc 30%. Used for cartridge cases, radiator fins,
lamp fixtures, rivets, springs.
4) Admiralty Brass-contains zinc 30% and Tin 1%. Used for condensor tubes and heat
exchangers.

Alpha-Beta Brass

They contain zinc between 30-40%, they are hard, strong, compared to alpha brasses, and they are
hot worked.

Types of Alpha-Beta Brasses

1. Muntz Metal (60-40 Brass)- contain zinc 40%. Used for utensils, shafts, nuts, bolts, pump
parts, condensor tubes.
2. Naval Brass (Also called Tobin Brass)- Contain zinc 39% and Tin 1%, used for marine
hardware, propeller shafts, piston rods, nuts and bolts, welding rods.
3. Leaded Brass-contain zinc 39% and lead 1-3%. Used for parts requiring high machinability.
4. High Tensile Brass-contain zinc 39%, Fe 2%, Mn 1%, used for marine engine pumps, ships,
propellers, gears, and valve bodies.
5. Brazing Brass- contains Zinc 50% and is very brittle. Used for brazing purpose.
8.3.2 Copper Tin alloy (Bronze)

Bronze is basically an alloy of copper and tin. It possesses superior mechanical property and
corrosion resistance than brass. It is comparatively hard and it resists surface wear. It can be
shaped in to various forms. The tin content varies from 10 -15%.

8.4 TYPES OF BRONZE AND USES:

1. Aluminium Bronze-contain aluminium 4 to 11%, Fe, Ni, Mn, Si are added in small amount.

Properties:
a. Good Strength, ductility and toughness.
b. Good bearing properties.
c. Good Corrosion resistance.
d. Good fatigue resistance
e. Good lustre

Uses:
For jewelry, heat exchangers, chemical plants, pimp castings, valve fittings, cylinder heads, gears,
dies, bearings, spark plug bodies and electrical parts,

2. Tin Bronzes-contain tin 8-25%, zinc 1-2%

Properties:
a) Good ductility and malleability
b) Good corrosion resistance.

Uses:
For making coins, pumps, gears, bearings, bells, statues, pipe fittings, ornamental fixtures, gun
barrels.

3. Beryllium Bronzes-contain beryllium 2%

Properties:
a) Good corrosion and fatigue resistance.
b) Good bearing properties.
c) High resilience.

Uses:
Used for springs, diaphragms, bellows, gears, bearings, and electrical contacts.

4. Silicon Bronze-contain silicon 1-5%

Properties:
a) High resistance to corrosion.
b) High tensile strength
c) High toughness.

Uses:
For high strength bolts, rivets, springs, propeller shafts, bells.
8.5 Nickel and its Alloys

Nickel is a hard lusterless white metal and it posses the following properties.

1) It possesses good corrosion and oxidation resistance.

2) It has high tensile strength and can be easily formed hot and cold.
3) It can be fabricated using processes similar for mild steel
4) It can take up high polish.
5) It is Ferro-magnetic of ordinary and low temperature but becomes paramagnetic at elevated
temperature.
6) Melting point of nickel is1453 oC

NOTE: - Ferro magnetic: - Strong attraction by the magnetic field

Para magnetic: - Week attraction by the magnetic field.

Uses and application of nickel

1) Nickel is used for in electroplating

2) In electronic and low current electrical application
3) For corrosion protection of iron and steel part and zinc based die-casting used in the
automotive field.
4) Incandescent lamp and radio industries
5) In permanent magnet
6) In the chemical industry for the construction of evaporators tanks, heating coils and tubular
condensers.

8.5.1 Types of Nickel alloys

A) Nickel-copper alloys

The major nickel base alloy with copper in Monel

Properties of Monel

1) It has a brighter appearance than nickel

2) It is stronger than mild steel
3) It has excellent resistance to atmospheric and sea water-corrosion
4) Generally it is more resistant than nickel to acid, less resistance to alkalis and equally
resistant to salt.

Uses and application of Monel

Monel is used in architectural and marine application where appearance and corrosion resistance
is important and in specialized equipment used by the food pharmaceutical, paper, oil and chemical
industries.

B) Nickel- Copper- Zinc alloys (nickel silver )

Nickel copper zinc alloys the known as nickel silver, do not contain silver and in actually they are
brasses with sufficient nickel added to give a silvery white color improved corrosion resistance and
high strength.

These alloys are used as low cost substitutes with silver in tableware and jewellary usually with
silver or gold electroplate on the surface. Nickel silvers are also construction material for many
musical, drafting and scientific instruments and also used for marine and architectural parts.
9.0 TESTING OF MATERIALS
Purpose or Need for testing material

 To access numerically the fundamentals mechanical properties such as ductility, malleability,

toughness, hardness, strength etc.
 To determine the suitability of material for a particular application.
 To determine the surface or subsurface defects in raw material or processed parts
 To determine data i.e. the force, deformation or stress values to draw graphs of specification
upon which the engineer can base his design

9.1 Types (classification) of testing material

1) Destructive Test

After being destructively tested the component or specimen either breaks or remains no longer
useful for feature use. The e.g. of destructive test are tensile test, impact test, fatigue test, bend test,
torsion test etc.

2) Non destructive test

A component does not break in non-destructive testing and even after being tested. As it can
be used for the purpose for which it was made. Examples for non-destructive test are
radiography, ultra sonic inspection etc.

3) Process inspection (process test)

The name of process inspection or process test may come from the type of manufacture
where it is performed such as foundry, welding assembly etc. There is first piece inspection or
final inspection or sampling and check inspection. The location often associates the name of
inspection as in receiving or incoming inspection, store or stock inspection.

9.2 DESTRUCTIVE TEST

9.2.1 Tensile Test

It is one of the most widely used mechanical tests. It is performed on a universal testing machine
(UTM). A tensile test helps in determining tensile properties such as tensile strength; yield point,
percentage elongation, percentage reduction in area and modulus of elasticity

It should be carried out preferably on full size standard test pieces. Fig (9.1a) shows a specimen
for tensile strength. The essential features of a round test specimen are diameter Do, parallel length
PL, gauge length Lo and fillet radius „r‟. The typical dimension are Do=12mm, L O=50 for short piece
10 X Do for long piece. Parallel length P L=55mm and radius r = 3mm

Before commencing the test two gauge marks are made on the specimen longitudinally usually
50mm-200mm apart according to the size of the test piece. Gripping the ends EE of the specimen in
the tensile testing machine carries out tensile test and applying and increasing pull on to the
specimen till it fracture (fig 14.1b)

During the test the tensile loads as well as the elongation of previously marked gauge length in the
specimen is measured with the help of load dial of the machine and extensometer respectively.
These reading help in plotting stress-strain curve.

After fracture the two pieces of broken specimen are placed as if fixed together and distance L f
between the two gauge marks and diameter Df of the place of fracture are measured.

Fig 9.1a,b,c

The various Tensile Properties are calculated as follows

1) The proportional limit stress = Load of proportional limit

Original area

2) Elastic stress = Load at Elastic limit

Original area

3) Yield stress = Load at yield point

Original Area (π/4(Do) 2)
4) The ultimate tensile strength = Ultimate load(Pmax)
Original area

5) Percentage Elongation = Fracture length-Gauge length

Gauge length

= (Lf – Lo) x 100

Lo

6) Percentage reduction in area = (original area - fracture area) x 100

original area

7) Young‟s modulus of elasticity = Stress any point with in the elasticity

Strain at that point

Or E = P Lo
Ao Δl

Where P = Load at any point up to the elastic limit

Lo = the gauge length
Ao = the original area
ΔL = the elongation or change in Lo at any load P, while the specimen is
Within the elastic zone

Stress- Strain curve

Fig 9.2a
Stress = Load
Cross section Area

Strain = Elongation (change in length)

Original length
 The stress-strain diagram for the mild steel shown in fig (9.2a). Plot a graph using stress on
y-axis and strain on x-axis using appropriate scale. This is called the stress-strain diagram of
material.

The parameters used to describe the stress-strain curve of material are

(1) Elastic limit and proportional limit - Elasticity Parameter

(2) Yield strength and ultimate strength – Ductility Parameter
(3) Percentage elongation and reduction in cross sectional area-
Ductility parameter

Proportional limit

In fig 9.2a line OA is a fairly long straight line, it indicates that the ratio of stress to strain in constant
[Hooks law - stress remains proportional to strain] within the elastic limit.

Elastic Limit

In the graph AB is a small curve, it indicates that the ratio of stress to the strain is not constant but
slightly changes. In the portion, the metal continuous to behave perfectly elastic. The stress of point
B is known as elastic limit.

Yield strength

In the graph BC is another very small curve it indicates that, the strain increases more quickly than
the stress. The point C is called yield point. If the load on the specimen is removed then elongation
from B to C will not disappear, but will remain permanent set. The stress at point C is called yield
strength.

The line CD is also a very small curve [almost horizontal]. It indicated that the strain increases
without any appreciable increase in stress. This happens has there is a sudden elongation of the
specimen due to creep

Tensile strength and Ultimate Strength

In the graph DE is an upward curve. It indicates that the specimen regains some strength and
higher values of stress are required for higher strain. The graph rises up to the maximum limit
indicated by point E. The stress corresponding to the point E is known as “ultimate tensile strength”.

Breaking Stress

In the graph EF is downward curve. It indicates that a neck is formed; it decreases the cross-
sectional area of the specimen. Now it requires fewer loads to continue extension till fracture to the
point F the stress at this point F is known as breaking stress.

Universal Testing Machine (UTM)

The machine consists essentially of two parts i.e.

1. The unit of applying a load to the specimen

2. The measuring device for the measurement of load on the specimen
3. To measure the amount of elongation in the test piece caused by the load a device called
extensometer can be used. This may be electrical, mechanical and optical device.
Compression Test

It is also conducted on a universal testing machine. In compression stress the piece of material is
subjected to end loading, which produces crushing action. The specimen is usually the plain right
cylinder. Brittle material such as cast iron, concrete, ceramic, bricks etc are commonly tested in
compression test.

In order to avoid the bending of specimen the height to diameter ratio of 10 is suggested as a
practical upper limit. The end of specimen to which the load is applied should be flat and
perpendicular to the axis of the specimen.

The compression test specimen says of diameter 25mm and 25mm long cylinder is loaded
between the fixed and movable cross head. The oil pump delivers the oil under pressure to the
cylinder and the ram begins to move up. When the specimen offers the resistance to upward motion
of ram. The load at which the specimen fails is used to calculate the compressive stress.

9.2.2 HARDNESS TEST

Hardness may be defined as resistance of metal to deformation usually by indentation. The term may
also refer to stiffness or temper or to resistance to scratching, abrasion or cutting.

Indention hardness may be measure by various hardness tests

(1) Brinell Test

(2) Rockwell Test
(3) VickerTest

Brinell Test

Fig 9.3
The fig shows the Brinell hardness testing machine. It consists of pressing a hardened steel ball into
a test specimen. According to ASTM specification a 10mm diameter ball is used for the purpose.
Lower loads are applied for measuring hardness of soft material and vice verse
Procedure for hardness testing

- Specimen is placed on the anvil the hand wheel is rotated, so that the specimen
along with the anvil moves up and contact with the ball.
- The desired load is applied mechanically or hydraulically and ball presses into the
specimen.
- The diameter of the indention made in the specimen by press ball is measured by the
use of a micrometer microscope having a transparent engraved scale in the field of
view
- The indention diameter is measured at two places at right angle to each other and
the average of the two reading is taken.
- The Brinell hardness number [BHN] which is the pressure per unit surface area of the
indention is kg/m2 is calculated as follows

BHN = W
(Π D/ 2) (D - √ D2-d2)

Where D is diameter of steel ball in mm

W is the load on the indentor in Kg
d is the average measured diameter of indention in mm

Brinell hardness testing is the best for measuring hardness of Grey iron casting and consisting of soft
flake graphite iron and hard iron carbide.

Rock Well hardness Testing

Rockwell hardness test is based on the indentation of a hard tip brale or indenter into test piece
under the action of two consecutively applied loads, Minor [initial] and major [final]. In order to
eliminate zero error and possible surface effect due to roughness or scale, the initial or minor load is
first applied and produces and initial indentation.

A conical shaped diamond called Brale with 120 o apex angle and 0.2 mm radius is used as the
indentor or penetrator in the Rockwell test for hard materials. For soft material a hardened steel ball
1.2mm in diameter is generally used.

Rock well testing is faster as compared to Brinell testing because diameter of indentation need
not be measured. The Rockwell machines give arbitrary direct reading

Procedure for measuring Rock well Hardness

- Test piece is placed upon the machine the machine dial is showing any reading. (Fig 9.4a)
- Hand wheel is turned thereby rising the test piece up against the steel ball indenter till the
needle on the dial reads zero. This applies minor load. (Fig 9.4b)
- Major load is applied by pressing the handle of the ram provided on the right hand side of the
machine for a definite period. . (Fig 9.4c)
- Handle is turned to the other direction, thereby withdrawing major load but leaving minor load
applied. . (Fig 9.4d)
- Hand wheel is rotated and test piece is lowered. At this stage the hardness of the test piece
material can be directly read from the dial scale. (Fig 9.4e)
There are two scales on a rock well testing machines i.e. B-scale and C-scale. B scale uses a steel
ball indenter where a diamond cone penetrate is employed for measuring hardness on C-scale. B
scale is for testing materials of medium hardness such as medium carbon steel in the annealed
condition. C scale is commonly used for the testing the hardness of alloys of cast iron. The minor
load for all cases is 10 kg where as the major load for scale C & B are 150 kg and 100 kg respectively
(including minor load).
Fig. 9.4 a,b,c,d,e

Vickers Test

The test is similar to that of the Brinell in that the hardness no: is derived from the relationship
between the applied load and the surface area of the indention. The test insists in forcing the square
base diamond pyramid (with an angle 136 o between the opposite faces) into the ground or even
polished surface to be tested. The applied load is 5,10,30,50,100 or 120 kg. The impression
produced by the test is of the form shown in the figure

The load is selected according to the thickness and hardness of the specimen. The Vickers or
diamond pyramid hardness (DPH) is determined by load per unit area of the impression and is found
from the formula

DPH = 1.8544P
d2

„P‟ is the load applied to the pyramid in kg and d is the diagonal of the impression in mm. Vickers
hardness test is used for very hard material and parts of small cross section

According to the Loading the Tests are classified as

1) Static load- When load is increased slowly and gradually and the material is loaded by
tension, compression etc.

2) Dynamic loading-When the load increases rapidly as in an impact test.

3) Repeated or Fatigue [both static and dynamic]-When the load repeatedly varies in the case of
test either in value or both in value and in direction.

9.2.3 Impact Test:-

An impact test determines the behavior of material when subjected to high rates of loading. In an
impact test a specimen machined or surface ground and usually notched, is struck and broken by a
single blow in a specially design testing machine fig (9.5a). The quantity measured is the energy
absorbed in breaking the specimen by a single blow
 The ideal impact test would be one in which, all the energy of the blow is transmitted the test
specimen. And impact test gives an indication of the relative toughness of the material.

Fig 9.5

Two specimens are used on an impact testing machine namely (1) IZOD and (2) CHARPY [fig
(9.5b&c]

The CHARPY specimen is placed in the vice so that it is just a simple beam supported at the
ends. The Izod specimen is placed in the vice vertically which has V notch kept facing the hammer.

Procedure of the impact testing

Fig 9.6
Refer fig 9.6 a, b & c

- The swing pendulum weight is raised to standard height depending up on the type of
specimen to be tested
- With reference to the vice holding the specimen, the higher the pendulum, the more potential
energy it has got
- As the pendulum is released its PE is converted to KE. Until it strikes the specimen
- The charpy specimen is hit behind the „U‟ notch, but izod test specimen is kept facing the
pendulum will be hit above the v-notch
- A portion of the energy possessed by the pendulum is used to rupture the specimen and the
pendulum rises on the other side of the machine to a height lower than its initial height on the
opposite side of the impact-testing machine.
- The energy consumed in breaking the specimen is the weight of the pendulum times the
difference into heights of pendulum on either side of the machine.
- This energy in meter-kilogram is the notched impact strength and can be read from the dial of
the impact-testing machine

Standard Charpy & Izod test specimen

The following Fig gives the dimension of standard Charpy and Izod test specimen.

Fig 9.7
9.2.4 FATIGUE TESTING

A rotating beam fatigue-testing machine

The fatigue test is dynamic type of test, which determines the relative behavior of material when
subjected to repeated or fluctuating loads. It determines the resistance of a metal to repeated or
alternate loads.

Suitable bases for design involving static load is the yield strength of the material. But if it is a
fatigue loading, in which load is repeatedly applied and removed, the design criterion is the
endurance strength.
 The endurance strength is the stress (S) that will cause the metal to fail, after the large no [N] of
application of that stress.

Fig (9.9a) show fatigue testing machine, a machine consist of

- An electric motor capable of running at 10000 RPM

- A large bearing whose purpose is to release the motor of the large bending movement, which is
applied, to the specimen.
- Collet to hold the specimen
- A rotating lever arm subjected to downward force in order to place the specimen in a state of
bending
The upper surface of the specimen remains in tension while it lowers surface experiences
compression (fig). While the specimen is rotating, any given position on the surface of the specimen
alternates between the state of maximum tensile stress and a state of maximum compressive stress.

The maximum value of the [tensile or compressive] stress is usually lower than the yield strength of
the material. The test is continued i.e. the cycles of stress are applied until the specimen fails or until
the limiting number of cycles has been reached.

A no. of specimen of the same material are fatigue tested under different stress level and results
are plotted on a semi logarithmic scale with the stress(S) on the y-axis and number of cycles [N] to
cause failure of the specimen on x-axis

Fig 9.8

The result it is an S-N [fatigue] curve. S-N curve gives an idea of endurance limit or fatigue limit.

Fig (9.9b) shows two different type of S-N curve of one showing a definite leveling of the curve,
which indicates that the material has a definite fatigue limit. Commonly ferrous metals shows
distingue fatigue limit while non-ferrous metals do not.
 Fig 9.9

9.2.5 CREEP TESTING

The slow and progressive deformation of a material with time at a constant stress is called creep.
The creep testing determines the continuing change in the deformation of a material at elevated
temperature when the stress is below the yield point. The creep test results are useful in design of
machine parts [e.g. furnace parts, turbine blades etc], which are exposed, to elevated temperature.

Test procedure

A creep test is simply a tensile test run at constant load and temp. A creep test is required to
measure and record stress, strain, temp and time. Then total creep or percentage elongation is
plotted against time for the entire duration of the test and the result is a creep curve. Fig (14.10)
shows and typical creep curve for a long time and high temperature creep test, it shows four stages of
elongation.

1) Instantaneous elongation following the application of load

2) Primary creep
3) Secondary creep
4) Tertiary creep
 .
Fig 9.10

Creep- Testing Equipment or machine

Fig 9.11

Fig shows a system for testing creep.

- The specimen is spot welded with one platinum wire and one platinum tube. The wire slides
inside the tube, reference marks on both are observed through the single telescope at the
middle. Elongation can be measured on a scale inside the telescope.
- The specimen is subjected to constant loading or a constant stress through a system of dead
 weight and levers etc.
- A tubular electrically heated furnace is made to be fit around the specimen may have the
thermo couple of each end for temp measurement purpose

9.3 Non-destructive Test

A non-destructive test is an examination of a component in any manner and which will not impair
its future use. Also non-destructive test do not provide direct measurements of mechanical property.
Yet they are extremely useful in relieving defects in component as it could impair their performance
when put to service. Non-destructive tests make component more reliable, safe and economical.

9.3.1 Visual Inspection

Defects which are easily located by visual inspection are surface roughness, shrinkage etc.
Visual inspection is carried out with the naked eye or using a magnifying glass.

Visual inspection is simplest, fastest and most commonly employed. But it needs greater skill on
the part of the inspection to locate and identifying, different manufacturing defects.

9.3.2 Radiography Testing

This type of inspection is widely used for deep defect in welded products, forging and casting

Principle

X-rays of gamma rays can penetrate through solid material; during transmission through the material
some of the ray is absorbed. Absorption increase with density. If a photographic film is placed on the
other side of material, the defect can be found out.

Fig 9.12

X rays

X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube, where a cathode filament provides electron, which
proceeds towards the target (anode), strike and are suddenly, stopped. A part of their kinetic energy
is converted to energy of radiation or X-rays.

The specimen is placed in between these X-rays and photographic film. The defects like
blowholes, crack, and porosity etc possess lesser density than sound material of the casting they
transmit the x-rays better than the sound metal does. Therefore the film appears to be darker where
defects are in line of the X-rays beam. Fig 9.12(a), (b) and (c) show the radiograph of sound casting
and casting containing blow holes and porosity respectively

Fig 9.13

Gamma Radiography

Gamma rays are produced by the dis-integration of radioactive material such as radium, Co-60
etc. This is similar to x-ray technique. Gamma ray penetrates more effectively into the metal, since
gamma rays have shorter wavelength than x-rays. So it has greater penetrating power and produce
sharper images. The specimen is placed of definitive distance from the source with a photographic
film behind the object.

Comparison between X-rays and gamma rays radiography

Unlike x-rays, gamma rays from it source are emitted in all direction. Therefore the no of separate
specimen can be tested at a time using gamma radiation

 No electricity is needed for gamma testing

 X-ray method is much more rapid than gamma ray method because it requires only a few
sec/min instead of hours.
 Gamma ray equipment is being small possesses better portability and convenience of use [off
radium] for second feed inspection.
 Gamma rays give radiation hazards

Limitation of Radiography testing

It can indicate the shape of a defect at right angle to the direction of testing but single exposure
cannot indicate the depth at which it lies
Fig 9.14

9.3.3 Ultrasonic Inspection

It is employed to detect and locate defects such as internal cracks, porosity and large non-metallic
inclusion. Ultrasonic vibration can be used to locate defect in ferrous and non-ferrous metallic object
as well in plastic and ceramics. Ultrasonic inspection for floor detection make use of acoustic wave
with frequencies in the range between 20 kHz and 20 MHz, which can be transmitted through solid
[even liquid, and air as well] and get reflected by the sub-surface defect. Ultrasonic wave form a
bases for a detection, location and size estimation of defect.

Fig 9.15
Principle of operation

 Ultra sonic wave are usually generated by the piezoelectric effect, which convert electric
energy to mechanical energy. A quartz crystal is used for the purpose
 When a high frequency alternating electric current [of about one million cycles/second] is
impressed across the faces of the quartz crystal, the crystal will expand during the first half of
the cycle and contract when the electric field is reversed. In this manner, the mechanical
vibrations (sound waves) are produced in a crystal.
 Ultrasonic inspection employs separate probes (or search units), one for transmitting the wave
and other to receive them. After passage through the casting (fig A), alternatively since the
ultrasonic wave are transmitted as a series of intermittent pulses the same crystal may be
 employed both as the transmitter and the receiver (fig B)
 Before transmitting ultrasonic waves, an oil film is provided between the probe and the casting
surface, this ensures proper contact between them and better transmission of wave from the
probe into the surface of the object to be tested
 For operation, ultrasonic wave is introduced into the metal and time interval between the
transmission of the outgoing and reception of the incoming signals are measured with a
cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
 The time base of CRO is so adjusted that the full width of the trace represents the section
being examined.

 To start with as the wave is sent from the transmitter probe it strikes the upper surface of
casting and makes a sharp [peak] of pip [echo] at the left hand side of the CRO screen. If the
casting is sound this wave will strike the bottom surface of the casting get reflected and
indicated by a PIP towards the right hand end of the CRO screen.

In case a defect exist in between top and bottom casting surfaces most of the beam striking this
defect will get reflected from the defect reach the receiver prop and indicate a PIP (echo) on CRO
screen before PIP given by the wave striking the far end of the casting and returning.

The distance of the defect from the surface where transmitted probe applied, can be determined with
the help of a time distance scale in the form of square wave constantly shown on the oscilloscope.
The distance scale may be change as per convenience indicate 1 cm or 25 cm etc

.
Fig 9.16

9.3.4 Liquid Penetrant Test (LPT)

It detects flaws that are open to the surface. e.g. crack, lack of bond, porosity, cold shuts etc., it
can be effectively used not only in the case of ferrous metal but it is especially useful for non-ferrous
product and on non metallic such as ceramic, plastic and glass.
The principle of LPT is that the liquid used to enter small opening such as crack or porosities by
capillary action. The rate and extent of this action are depended upon such properties as surface
tension, cohesion, adhesion and viscosity. They are also influenced by factors such as the condition
of the surface of material and intensity of discontinuity.

For liquid to penetrate effectively the surface of the material must be thoroughly cleaned of all
material that would obstruct the entrance of the liquid into the defect. After cleaning, the liquid
penetrate is applied evenly over the surface and allow to remain long enough to permit penetration
into possible discontinuities.

The liquid is then completely removed from the surface of component and either the wet or a dry
developer is applied. The liquid that has penetrated the defect will then bleed out on to the surface
and the developer will help delineate them.

This will show the location and general nature and magnitude of any defect present. To hasten
this action, the part may be struck sharply to produce vibration to force the liquid out of the defect.

Liquid Penetrant Test Result

Fig 9.17

Fluorescent penetrant inspection [Zyglo process]

This method is sensitive to small surface discontinuity such has crack shrinking and porosity open
to the surface which tend to retain penetrant in spite of the Vince. Smooth or machine job surface
provide more satisfactory condition for test.

Operational Step

 Clean the surface of the object to be inspected for cracks etc.

 Apply fluorescent penetrant on the surface by either dipping, spraying or brushing. Allow a
penetration time of one hour. The fluorescent penetrant is drawn into crackle by capillary
action
 Wash the surface with water spray to remove penetrant form surface but not form crack
 Apply the developer. Developer acts like a blotter should draw a penetration indication.
 The surface is viewed under black light [having the wavelength 3650 A o units [1Ao=10-8 cm]
which is between the visible and ultraviolet in the spectrum. Blacklight causes penetrant to
glow in dark.
9.3.5 Magnetic Inspection OR Magnetic Particle Test

Magnetic test is used for detecting surface defects of ferrous magnetic materials and alloys. The
component under test is magnetized applied DC directly to the test piece through a coil, surrounding
the specimen. The magnetic powder like iron is applying to the surface dry or wet in a suspension of
water light oil.

If the surface of the component behaves in the same way as the gap between the south-north poles
of two magnets the lines of force flow across the crack and destruction can be found out at the crack
region.

The magnetic method is very rapid identification of defect and is very easy. The defects which are
perpendicular to the line of force are efficiently detected. But the flaws (defect) that lie along the lines
of force may not detect. The test is suitable only for magnetic material.

Magnetic flux field in magnetized bars having Surface and subsurface discontinuities
10 ORGANIC MATERIALS

Introduction:
Organic materials are those materials that are derived directly from carbon. They consist
of carbon chemically combined with hydrogen, oxygen or any other non-metallic substances, their
structures, in most cases, fairly complex since the carbon shares the valance electrons very readily.
The covalent or Homo-polar bond is the most usual type of bond in Organic materials. The
compounds, which essentially contain carbon atoms along with other non-metallic atoms such as
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, chloride, etc in each molecule, are known as “organic compounds”.
Important organic compounds are saturated organic compounds, unsaturated organic compounds
and aromatic organic compounds.

10.1 DIFFERENT ORGANIC MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING:

Natural Organic materials: They include wood, cotton, natural rubber, coal, petroleum, and food
products etc.

Synthetic Organic materials: They include synthetic rubber, plastics, and lubricants. soap oils,
synthetic fibers, etc.

10.2 POLYMERS

A polymer is a large molecule built up by the repetition of small, simple chemical units. In
some cases the repetition is linear, as a chain built up from its links. In other cases the chains are
branched or inter connected to form three-dimensional networks. The repeat unit (small molecules) of
the polymer is usually equivalent or nearly equivalent to the monomer, or the starting material from
which the polymer is formed. For example, the repeat unit of polyethylene (-CH2-CH2-) is
ethylene i.e. CH2 = CH2. Polymers are generally non-crystalline solids at ordinary temperature, but
pass through a viscous stage in course of their formation when shaping is readily carried out.
Polymers are not only made from carbon, but also from inorganic chemicals such as silicates and
silicon‟s.

Some terms regarding organic polymers are:-

Degree of polymerization:

It is the number of repetitive units present in one molecule of a polymer.

Molecular weight of a polymer
Degree of polymerization= ---------------------------------------------
Molecular weight of single monomer

Linear polymer:
It is a polymer, which is obtained by simply adding the monomers together to form long chains.

Co-polymer:
It is a polymer, which is obtained by adding different types of monomers.
Cross-linked polymer:
It is a polymer, which is obtained by connecting long chains through a covalent bond.

Thermo plastics:
These are linear polymers whose plasticity increases with rise in temperature.
Thermoset plastics:
These are the polymers whose plasticity does not change with rise in temperature.

These are two types of polymers.

Natural polymers: This includes protein, cellulose, resins, starch, shellac and lignin. They are
commonly found in leather, fur, wool, cotton, silk, rubber, rope, wood and many others.

Synthetic polymers: This includes ploy-ethylene, ploy-styrene, nylon, teriline, dacron, etc. They are
commonly found in plastics, fibers, and elastomers. The properties of synthetic polymers are superior
to those found in natural polymers.

10.3 Mechanism of polymerization:

Polymerization is nothing but the process of forming a polymer. In this process, the monomers
are linked together to form a polymer. The need to start with the process of polymerization lies on the
necessity of breaking the double bonds (C=C) of monomers. This requires considerable energy and
is equal to 612kJ/mole. However 348kJ/mole are released every time a single C-C is formed. The
linking of monomers will continue till the end of availability of molecules in the immediate ends of
chains.

Monomers should also have two or more reaction sides at which junction may be made to form a
chain of monomers. The example above shown has two reaction sides and is called as Bi-functional
monomer. Other molecules with three or four reactions sides are called A Tri and Tetra functional
monomer respectively. Still higher functionality, while theoretically possible does not generally occur
in practice because of space limitations.

10.4 Types of polymerization:

There are two types of polymerization, which results in the formation of a certain type of
polymeric structure.

Addition polymerization
Condensation polymerization
Addition polymerization:
It is a polymerization process, where the polymer has the same composition as
monomer or monomers from which it is formed. It is also called chain polymerization. It takes place in
unsaturated organic compounds. These compounds are relatively unstable as compared to saturated
organic compound. It has been observed that under suitable conditions, such as high pressure,
temperature, &presence of catalysts, the unsaturated organic compound reacts in a manner to form
long chains. In this process, their double covalent bond is broken &single bonds are formed in its
place.
Addition polymerization process

Temperature, Pressure, catalyst

Monomer + Monomer------------------------------------------------------------  Polymers

Co- polymerization is another kind of addition polymerization in which two or more chemically
different monomers are polymerized to form long chains molecules. For example:

10.5 Three steps in polymerization

(1) Initiation: When free radicals (having odd number of electrons) are generated in the presence
of a vinyl monomer, the radicals add to the double bond with regeneration of another radical.
The regeneration of radicals is characteristics of chain reaction.
 (2) Propagation: The chain radical formed in the initiation step is capable of adding successive
monomer to propagate the chain. Propagation would continue until the supply of monomer
was exhausted.

(3) Termination: It takes place in two ways namely combination or coupling or disproporstionation,
in which hydrogen transfer result in the formation of two molecules with one saturated and one
un saturated end group.

Condensation polymerization:

In this case the polymer formed does not have the same composition as the monomer or
monomers from which it is formed. The polymerization is accompanied by the elimination of small
molecule like H2O, HCl, etc. Depending on the type of monomer, the kind of polymer formed maybe
linear branched or cross-linked polymer. It takes place in unsaturated organic compounds and
requires suitable conditions, such as high pressure, temperature, and presence of catalyst in the
same way as that of addition polymerization.

Condensation polymerization process

Example:

Temperature, Pressure, catalyst

Monomer + Monomer------------------------------------------------------- Polymer + Byproduct

NH2- (CH2) 6-NH2+HOOC- (CH2)-COOH (NH2)(CH2) 6NHCO(CH2) 4COOH + H2O

(HEXA METHYLENE DIA AMIME) + ADIPIC ACID NYLON

Condensation polymerization is a stepwise regular process where there is steady increase in

molecular weight. The monomer disappears in the early stage of the reaction and polymer is formed.
The catalyst used in the condensation process is a true catalyst remaining unchanged. A
condensation product may be either a thermo set or thermoplastic. Polyesters, Amino plastics,
polyamides etc are some of the condensation products.

10.6 ADDITIVES TO POLYMERS:

Most polymers are seldom used as pure organic resins, but they are modified and
compounded with various additives to modify the mechanical, chemical and physical properties for
particular uses. The various additives used for this purpose are (1) Plasticizers, (2) Fillers (3)
Catalysts, (4) Initiators, (5) Pigments. One or more of these additives are added in different portions
to obtain the desired properties of the polymers.

1. Plasticizers:
They are added to improve the flow and hence improves prossesability and to reduce
the brittleness of the product. Plasticizers are compounds of low molecular weight and are oily in
nature. These act as internal lubricants and prevent crystallization by keeping the chains separated
from one another.
The effect of plasticizers on the thermo plastic materials is to give them a more flexible
or rubber like nature. The pure polyvinyl chloride is hard substance at room temperature, but when it
is plasticized with tricresyl phosphate; it becomes flexible.
 Sl # Type of plasticers Uses
Accounting for over half of the total
01 Phthalate esters
volume of plasticizers used.
02 Phosphate esters Flame proofing.
Adiphates, azelates, oleates Used in vinyl resins for improving low
03
sebacates temperature flexibility
04 Fatty acid esters, hydrocarbons. Secondary plasticizers

2. Filler materials:

These are most often added polymers to improve tensile and compressive strength, abrasion
resistance, toughness, dimensional and thermal stability and other properties. Filler materials include
finely powdered saw dust, silica flour and sand, glass, talc, lime stone, etc. These inexpensive filler
materials replace some volume of the expensive polymer, hence cost is reduced.

In resent years the use of the fillers has increased markedly with emphasis on calcium
carbonate, which dominates, the market. The custom compounding companies now offer‟s filler
concentrates much like colour concentrates, to provide an easy way for small processes to
incorporate fillers into their product.

3. Catalyst:

These are added to expedite and complete the polymerization reaction. The catalysts are also
called as accelerators and hardners.

Following table gives some examples of catalysts and their uses in polymerization:

S.No. Catalyst Polymer to be produced

1. Boron tri-fluride, Friedel crafts Isobutylene.
2. BF‟s and its complexes (Lewis acids) Epoxy resins.
3 Tertiary amines or stannous soaps Polyurethane elastomers.
4 Peroxide Diallylpathalate and diallisophthalate
Ploy propylene.
5 ZiIegler-Natta or Ziegler catalyst

4. Initiator:

These are added to initiate to the reaction among the monomers and to stabilize the reaction of
the molecular chain. The hydrogen per oxide(H 2O2 )is a common initiator. Initiator relatively unstable
material which will decompose and form a free radical. Further the free radical promotes the chain
reaction in polymerization process.
In many instants, the species that initiates the ionic polymerization is produced by ionization
of the added initiator. For example H+ from BF 3H2O or C5H11 from potassium amyl.

5. Dyes and Pigments:

These are to impart the desired color to the finished polymers. Organic pigment such as
Phthalocyanies lead to transparent color. Inorganic pigments impart opacity to the plastics. Common
color (dyes) are titanium dioxide and barium sulphate (white), thylocynan blue and green, ultramarine
blue, chrome green, quinocridone reds and magentas, molybdate oranges, cadmium reds and
yellows, iron oxide and chrome yellow, carbon blacks, flake aluminium for silver metallic and lead
carbonate mica for pearlesence.

10.7 Classification of polymer structure:

According to the shape of the macromolecules, polymer structure may be broadly

classified as
- Linear and frame work structure.
- Branched-chain structure.
- Cross linked chain structure.
- Crystalline structure.

Linear and frame work structure:

Linear polymer structure consists of long chains in which individual long chain molecules
are quite separate from one another. Only van-der wall‟s bond hold adjacent chains together, this
makes it possible to dissolve or melt them by mating and produces slip between molecules. Linear
polymers commonly have a tangled structure which gets some of their mechanical strength from the
inter wining of molecules. A bifunctional monomer such as ethylene produces a linear polymer. Tri
functional and tetra functional monomers form network or frame work polymers in which individual
molecular chains are difficult to distinguish. These framework structure polymers have distinctive
mechanical and thermal properties.
Some of the common polymers that from with linear structures are polyethylene polyvinyl
chloride, polystyrenes, polymethyl meyhacrylete, nylon, and the fluoro carbons. Phenol formaldehyde
is one of the polymers, which is having framework structure.

Branched chain structure:

Polymers may be synthesized in which side branch chains are connected to the main ones. The
branches considered to be part of the main chains molecule result from side reactions that occur
among the synthesis of the polymer. The number branches and the ratio of the length of main chain
to that of the side chain may vary.
In this synthesis, branches of different monomers species can be add (grafted) on to the
linear chain of macromolecule. Such branched polymers are referred to as “graft co-polymer”. The
importance lies to branching is extensive; the polymer will become stronger and less plastic due to
the simple interlocking actions of the branched chains with each other. The controlling of branching
with in polymers is of great industrial importance.
Cross-linked chain structure:

In cross-linked polymers, adjacent linear chains are joined one to another at various
positions by covalent bonds. The process of cross-linking is either during synthesis or by a
nonreversible chemical reaction that is usually carried out at an elevated temperature. Often
additive atoms or molecules that are covalently bonded to the chains accomplish this cross-linking.
Cross-linking may be deliberately to increase strength and reduce plasticity or it may occur
naturally. Many of the rubber elastic materials are cross-linked. In rubber cross-linking is called
vulcanization.

Crystalline structure:

The crystallinity of polymers is largely determined by the geometry of the polymer

chains. The crystallinity totally depends upon the linear polymer chains. As the packing becomes
more apart, due to irregularities, then the structure become amorphous. It has been observed that
polythene and ploy-tetro-fluro-ethylene (Teflon) having the regions of about 10 nanometers
possesses three-dimensional structure. In co-polymers, units of two or more monomers do not
necessarily occur in a regular sequence, hence they are more likely to be non-crystalline.
The behavior of partially crystalline polymers is intermediate between those for
crystalline and amorphous polymers. When flexibility is in a material is required, the crystallinity is
undesirable when a polymer comprising linear chain is elongated, and there is an initial and almost
linear elastic region. The elongation becomes constant at higher values of loads. The polymers,
which pass this type of behaviour, are known as “elastomers”. The above results are shown in load-
extensive curve. During extension of polymer, the molecular chain gets oriented in the direction of
its elongation. This alignment gives them a crystalline structure.

Polymer
S.No Example Typical applications
characteristics
Poly ethylene Pipes, thin films, food containers,
buckets, etc.
.
Fibers, rope, films, household‟s
Poly propylene
wares, hot water tubing etc.
Some crystallinity,
1
flexible chains
Pipes toys, electrical conductors,
Poly vinyl chloride
seating, etc,
Low strength Mechanical
Nylon components, fabrics, stockings
etc
 Terylene
Crystalline domains (Dalron) Both used for fibers for clothing
2
well developed Cellulose acetate and for thin films etc.

Moderate cross Neoprene

Oil resistant synthetic rubber,
3 linking with
high resilience synthetic rubber.
crystalline domains Polyisoprene
Radio and TV cabinets, telephone
Phenol
cases, ash trays etc
Cross- linked Formaldehyde
4
amorphous structure.
Toys, buttons, light switches,
Urea formaldehyde
waterproof glues for plywood, etc.

10.8 STRENTHENING OF POLYMERS:

Strengthening mechanisms are employed to the polymers to make them more rigid, more resistant to
temperature, more resistant to corrosive chemicals.
Strengthening methods:
-Crystallization
-Cross-linking
-Chain-stiffening

CRYSTALLIZATION:
Crystallization in polymers gives a regular arrangement of molecules in their structure. The molecules
are arranged in a regular manner by using the van-der waal‟s force. Crystallization is more easily
achieved in small molecules than in the larger molecules. The crystallization depends up on
orientation of chain. It is not temperature dependent, &can be reversed with decomposition of the
polymer. Crystalline polymer is usually stronger and more than that of the amorphous polymer.
Crystallinity is an important factor to determine the stiffness and yield point for most crystalline
plastics. As crystallinity decreases, both the stiffness and the yield stress decreases. As a result of
the latter change, the chance of brittle failure is reduced.

Cross- linking
In cross-linking the adjacent linear molecular chains are joined at a various positions by covalent
bonds. Cross-linking depends upon the chemical reaction, rather than on the chain orientation. It is
strongly accelerated by the temperature, and is not reversible due to cross-linking. The movements
between the chains are greatly restricted and mechanical properties are changed towards the
advantages.
Chain- stiffening:
Chain stiffening of polymers can be produced by a number of methods. “Hang” is one of the
methods where the atom on the chain is restricted from bending, but they can twist on its bonds.
Some monomers have ring shafed groups and thus have inherit rigidity.
The kinds of stiffness (modulus- slope of the tensile stress- strain curve) of polymer materials
is as shown in the table below.

Description of Ultimate
Stiffness Yield stress Elongation
polymers strength
Low Low Moderate
Soft, weak Low
Low Low High
Soft, tough Moderate
High None Low
Hard, brittle Moderate
High High Moderate
Hard, strong High
High High High
Hard, tough High
11 CERAMICS ___________________________
INTRODUCTION:

Ceramics is from the Greek word KERAMOS, which means burnt stuff. Ceramics
are those containing phases that are compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements. Earlier the
term ceramics was applied to products made from natural earth that had been exposed to high
temperatures .Now a days the ceramics have even been used as lubricants (Molybdenum disulphide)
and fuels (Uranium oxide for nuclear reactors and Boron hydride for solid propellant rockets). Most of
the ceramic materials are silicates, aluminates, oxides, carbides, borides, nitrides and hydrides.

11.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF CERAMIC MATERIAL

Ceramic materials are stable at relatively high temperatures. They are

generally hard ,brittle materials that can withstand compressive load even at high temperatures. They
are chemically inert and susceptible to thermal shocks.

11.2 STRUCTURE OF CERAMIC MATERIALS:

Most ceramics materials phases like metals have crystal structures. Ceramic
crystals are formed by either a pure ionic bond (as in sodium chloride), a pure covalent bond (as in
silicon carbide), or by bonds that process the ionic as well as covalent characteristics as in SiO2 and
MgO.
The chemical bonds in ceramics are generally ionic bonds, which make ceramic
materials relatively highly, stable. They are more resistant to chemical reaction and also posses high
hardness, high melting point and low electrical conductivity at room temperatures.
The crystal structure of ceramic materials is invariably more complex as compared
to those of metals. Since atoms of different sizes and electronic configurations are assembled
together.

11.3 CLASSIFICATION OF CAERAMIC MATERIALS

They are classified into two different ways.

1. Functional classification indicating particular industries and industrial applications. The table
below shows groups and examples for function classification.

GROUPS EXAMPLES

1. Abrasive Alumina, Carborundum

2. Pure oxide ceramics MgO, Al2O3, Si O2.
3. Fired clay products Bricks, tiles, porcelain etc.
4. In-organic glasses Window glass, lead glass
5. Cementing material Portland cement, lime etc
6. Minerals Quartz, Calcite etc.
7. Rocks Granite, sandstone, etc.
8. Refractors Silica bricks, magnesite etc

2. Structural classification indicating the structural criteria. The table below shows the group and
examples for structural classification.
 GROUP EXAMPLES
1. Crastilline ceramics Single phase like MgO or multiphase from
the MgO to Al2O3 binary system.

2. Non crystalline ceramics Natural and synthetic in-organic glasses

(Eg.Window glass)

3. Glass bonded ceramics Fired-clay products-crystalline phases are

held in glassy matrix.

4. Cements Crystalline or crystalline and non-crystalline

phases.

11.3.1 ABRASIVES

These are the ceramic materials, which are having uniform hardness to
a greater extent. They may be natural (e.g. diamond, garnet, flint etc.) or synthetic (e.g. silicon
carbide, aluminium oxide). The types and uses (applications) of abrasives are as shown in the table.

TYPES USES /APPLICATIONS

1. Diamond Bricks and concrete saws, wiredrawing dies,

drills for drilling hard rocks, grinding wheel
dressing etc.
2. Garnet and flint Sand paper.
3. Emery Polishing metals.
4. Rottenstone and pumice Wood finishing.
5. Wall nut shells Cleaning aircraft engine parts.
6. Sandstone Sharpening –woodworking tools.
7. Quartz Fine grinding of glass.
8. Tripoli Fine grinding of brass, aluminium & precious metals

9. Silicon carbide Grinding wheels, heating element in electrically

Heated industrial furnaces, polishing wax and pastes.
10. Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) For polishing cast iron, high luster finishing of
Stainless steel, floor sand machines.
11. Carbides of W and BO Boron carbide is used in polishing pastes.
(Modern abrasives)

11.3.2 WHITE WARE

White ware is a product of clay. White ware becomes white after the high temperature
firing. White ware includes porcelain,potters ,table ware ,china, sanitary ware etc.
Porcelain is glazed or unglazed vitreous ceramic white ware which is used for technical
purposes. Typical porcelain products are electrical, chemical mechanical,structural and thermal ware.

Pottery is a generic name for all fire clay ware. They are soft, non-vitreous and capable of
absorbing more than 3% moisture.

China is glazed or unglazed or vitreous (hard and non-absorbent) white ware, which is used
for non- technical purposes. The products are of dinnerware and works of arts.
11.3.3 GLASS

Glass is an inorganic product of fusion of one or more oxides of silicon

boron, calcium, magnesium, sodium, etc. cooled to a rigid material without crystallization.

Table below shows the types, properties and uses of glasses.

S.no. Types Properties Uses

Moderate corrosion
resistance,
Windows, bottles
1. Soda –lime glass withstands high
temperature
(upto 860F)
Thermal property,
corrosion resistance,
co-efficient of
Neon-sign tubing, electric light bulb
expansion depends
2. Lead glasses stems.
on the lead
percentage, possess
high electrical
resistivity.
Possess resistance Glass- to-metal sealing purposes,
3. Borosilicate glass
to thermal shock. telescopes, mirrors, electric tubes.
Possess resistance
Power tubes, travelling wave tubes,
to corrosion to
4. Aluminosilicate glass thermometers, stovetop cookware,
thermal shocks, good
combustion tubes.
corrosion resistance.
Highly transparent,
withstands high Laboratory optical systems, delay
5. Fused silica glasses
temperatures lines in radar installation.
(upto 1650F)
Posses high
hardness, impact Refrigerators, Microwave Ovens,
6. Recrystal glasses
strength, thermal cooking dishes,
stability.
7. Foam glasses Light weight
Non –flamable,
conduct neither heat
nor electric current,
poor conductors of
8. Fibre glasses Automobile and aircraft parts.
sound and
chemically inactive.
Possess high tensile
stress.

11.3.4 BRICKS AND TILES

Bricks and tiles are structural clay products, which are made either by the mud or soft mud
process. The plasticity depends on the amount of water used, as salt glazing is a commonly used
technique in the manufacture of structural clay products.
The different types of bricks are building brick, facing brick and paving bricks. The different types
of tiles are hollow tiles, roofing tiles and drain tile.
CEMENTS AND CONCRETES

11.3.5 CEMENTS

Cement is material for bonding solids together. They may be organic (Rubber
cement) or inorganic (Portland cement). As it is inert towards water is absolutely irreplaceable all
parts and submarine structure, for construction of dams, for the erection of buildings in dam places
etc. Portland cement is cementing material, which is used in to day‟s life. This is currently produced
by a partial fusion of a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials such as clay and limestone.
And oxides of silicon, aluminium, iron and often magnesium. A small amount of gypsum is added to
the cement powder to prevent the cement from taking a “flash set” when mixed with water.

11.3.6 CONCRETE

In combination with water, cements weld together aggregates of crushed stones,

gravels and sand in to a coherent and solid mass called concrete. This is less expensive and stronger
than Portland cement. Structures made of concrete bases on iron beams and rods are called
reinforced concrete structure.
Water is added to concrete to produce hydrates and to lubricate the aggregates to
make more workable. If the optimum water – cement ratio will not be followed, then there will be a
formation of porosity which weakens the concrete strength. Asphalt paints or salts of fatty acids are
used to minimize or avoid the porosity of concrete even when it is made by optimum water –cement
ratio. Concrete is widely used to built vaults, arches, bridges, cisterns tanks, etc.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CEMENTS

Natural cements, artificial cements, quick setting cements, rapid hardening cements,
sulphate resisting cements, low heat cement, high alumina cement, coloured cement, blast furnace
slag cement, hydrographic cement, etc.

11.3.7 REFRACTORIES

Refractors are ceramic materials that can withstand usually high heat as well as abrasion
and the corrosive effects of acids and the alkaline. They can withstand high temperatures (550-
2150c) without being fused. They also posses low thermal co-efficient of expansion, chemically inert,
withstands high pressure and insulating for heat and electric current.
Refractors are grouped into 3 categories. And they are as shown below.

S.NO. CATEGORY PROPERTY USES

Used for arched
Acid refractors: Withstands high
roofs of steel and
1. E.g. Silica, Alumina, Aluminium temperatures (1700-
glass making
silica, Silicate. 1900c)
furnaces.
 Withstands high
Used in steel
temperatures
Basic refractors: making open-hearth
2. (2800c) and also
E.g. Magnesia furnaces.
resistance to attack
slag.
Neutral refractors:
Withstands high Used in construction
E.g.: chromite, graphite
3. temp of furnaces.
(2180c-3000c)

11.3.8 INSULATORS

Electric insulators are generally ceramic materials and they prevent the flow of electric
current throw it. They contain only covalent, ionic and or molecular bonds .An insulator or Dielectric
has a specific resistance in the range of 10 8to1020 -cm. They have wide forbidden energy gap
between conduction band and valence band. The bonds in insulated materials can breakdown under
high electrical voltages and conducts, but usually they break down is a surface phenomenon. They
are glazed to make them non-absorbent. Examples of insulating materials are: -
(a) Ceramic insulators: - Asbestos, calcium silicate, rock wool, haydite, vermiculite, fiberglass,
perlite, etc.
(b) Plastic insulators: - Porcelain and Mylar.

11.4 PROPERTIES OF CERAMIC MATERIALS

11.4.1 Mechanical properties

(a) Hardness and resistance to wear

Certain ceramics like carborandum and nitrite have great hardness and resistances to
wear which are very useful for grinding wheels and cutting tools. Certain ceramic materials having
hardness and resistance to wear are being used for tape recorder (pick-up and play back) heads.

(b) Tensile strength

Theoretically ceramics possess high tensile strength but in practice it is quite low. This
is because, of stress concentration due to porosity. Ceramics generally fail due to this low tensile
strength.

(c) Compressive strength

As compared to tensile strength ceramics possess high compressive strength. For
example compressive strength of alumina ranges from 19500 to 3500 kg/cm . Bricks, cements and
glass are always used in compression rather than in tension.

(d) Transverse strength

Transverse strength is difficult to ascertain in ceramic materials. Therefore these
materials are not used where transverse strength is an important criterion. Transverse strength of
alumina is 3500kg/cm2.

(e) Fracture strength:

Ceramic materials do face impact loading under certain conditions. Impact value of
stoneware is 1.1-1.3N-m and for vitrified ware 0.7-1.2N-m.
(f) Torsion strength:
It is seldom considered as a critical property of ceramics since tensile and cantilever
requirements will show the torsional strength of the material.

(g) Shear strength: -

High shear strength and low fracture are general characters of ceramic material with
the exception of a few materials such as clay. Thus they commonly fail non-ductility i.e. in a brittle
manner or fracture.

(h) Modulus of elasticity:

The value of modulus of elasticity for ceramic material ranges from 7x 10 10 to 40x1010
N/m2.

(i) Plastic deformation:

The ceramic material does not permit plastic deformation since they have greater
resistance to slip (Resistance to slip is more than that in metals).

11.4.2 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

Electrical properties of ceramics depend on the composition, texture, density, size,

temperature and time.

(a) Electrical insulation: -

Ceramic materials are used in electric circuit both as electrical insulators and as its
functional parts. Porcelain, Steatite, forsterite, and alumina are often used as electrical insulators.

(b) Di-electric property: -

The Di-electric is an other name for insulator because material separating two charged
bodies is known as Di-electric. Ceramic material has good Di-electric capacity and that is why they
are used as cores in transformers, and Di-electric medium in condensers. Glass, porcelain, alumina,
quartz, mica good Di-electric materials.

(c) Electrical conductivity: -

Ceramics are practically non-conductors at lower temperature, particularly in cold
conduction since they do not possess movement of free electron at this temperature. But some
ceramics such as Iron oxide, Nickel, Cobalt oxide and Barium titanate conduct electricity quite well at
room temperature which constitute a very special class of semi-conductors (N.T.C&P.T.C resistors).

11.4.3 THERMAL PROPERTIES:

Ceramics possess favorable thermal properties at high temperature and under oxidizing
condition.

(a) Thermal capacity:

The specific heat of fire clay bricks is 0.25 at 1000C and 0.297 at 1400C. Carbon
bricks have specific heat of about 0.812 at 200C and 0.412 at 1000 C.

(b) Thermal conductivity:

Since there are no enough free electrons, the heat is conducted by Phonon
conductivity and the interaction of the lattice vibration while at high temperature conduction takes
place by the transfer of radiant energy. Thermal conductivity decreases with impurity and porosity.
(c) Thermal shock:
Ceramics have better thermal shock resistance property. Lithium compounds are
used in ceramics to reduce the thermal expansion and to provide excellent thermal shock
resistance. Common ceramic materials graded in order of decreasing thermal shock resistance
are hot pressed silicon nitride, fused silica, cordierite, zircon, silicon carbide, berylliea, alumina,
porcelain and stearite.

11.5 Applications of Ceramic Materials

 The application of ceramic materials in the aerospace industries includes the use of
alumina ceramics for missile and rocket nose cones. Silicon carbide or molybdenum di-
silicide for rocket nozzles etc.
 Enriched uranium-di-oxide is used as the fuel element in nuclear power generation plant.
 Laser materials (part of ceramics) are used for machining, welding, cutting etc.
 Piezo electric materials such as barium titanite and leas zirconate-titanate are used in
photograph, cartridges and ultra sonic devices.
12 SEMICONDUCTORS
Introduction
All materials can be classified into three groups, conductors, insulators, and
semiconductors. In conductors the conduction and valance band are over laps and the electron will
not find any obstruction to flow from one level to another level to cause conduction. In insulators the
energy gap is more and ionic and covalent bonds tightly hold the atoms together. The probability of
breaking this bond is very small. Hence there no free electron to conduct. Generally the materials
having more than three electron volts of energy gap are known as Insulators. Roughly the conduction
possibility in insulator is 1012 times less than in case of good conductors. There is a group of
materials in which the energy gap (2-3eV) between the filled and unfilled zones is sufficiently small so
that the electrons may be exited by thermal energy to move from the filled zone to empty zone. At
absolute zero temperature the semiconductor will act as an insulator.

12.1Semiconductor materials:
A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie between those
of insulators and good conductors. E.g. Germanium and Silicon.

Valence band:
The electrons occupying the outer most orbit or shell of an atom are called
valence electrons. The band occupied by this electron is called valance band.

Conduction band:
The electrons, which have left the valance band, are called as conduction
electrons. The band occupied by this electron is called conduction band.

Energy band:
The energy in an energy level of an isolated atom is called energy band. In
terms of energy band, at room temp the semiconductor are classified as
 Partially filled conduction band.
 Partially filled valance band.
 A very narrow energy gap (1 ev) between conduction and valance band.

At absolute zero temperature there are no electrons in the conduction band of semiconductors
and their valance band is completely filled. It means that at absolute zero temperature the
semiconductor acts as an insulator. As the temp increases the semiconductor looses its insulating
property and consequently gains conductivity. Semiconductors have negative temp coefficient of
resistance.
Typical resistivities are of the following order.

Conductors =10-8ohm-m.
Semiconductors =103ohm-m
Insulators = 1012ohm-m.

12.2 BONDING IN SEMICONDUCTORS

It has been observed that the semiconductors like Ge and Si have a crystalline
structure. Both these materials are tetravalent i.e. they have 4 valance electrons. In order to acquire a
stable electronic configuration, each atom shares its 4 electrons with 4 neighboring atoms and forms
a covalent bond. The cross section of a Ge crystal lattice is shown in fig. The circles represent the
atom cores. These cores consist of nuclei and the inner 28 electrons. The pair of line represents a
covalent bond and a dot represents the valance electrons.

12.3 Properties of semiconductor:

Electronic property: The study of electrical and magnetic properties of the materials is called the
electronic property.

Electrical conductivity: Electrical conductivity “” the reciprocal of resistivity of the material. This term
describes the movement of electrical charges from one point to another point.
Current density
Electrical conductivity=--------------------------------------------------
Applied electric field intensity

i.e. σ =j /e =neμ
Where n= number of electrons
e= Charge of electrons
μ= Mobility (drift velocity acquired by the electron on
application of unit electric field).

12.4 CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTORS:

Conductivity of metals depends upon the presence of free electron in a crystal

due to the metallic bond. In case of semiconductor the conductivity is due to charge carriers, which
depends on many factors by purity of the semiconductor, temperature etc. The semiconductors can
be classified as intrinsic and extrinsic (impurity or doped). The doped semiconductor can be further
sub divided into two categories as electron or N-type and hole or P- type semiconductor.

12.4.1 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:

These are extremely pure. At temp close to absolute zero, the atoms of the
crystal are covalent bonded and application of field does not cause any directional motion of the
electrons. As the temp increases some of the electrons attain kinetic energy greater than the binding
energy for the covalent bond. These electrons rupture and escape into the interstices of the lattice
and become free. These electrons move freely giving rise to conduction.

Each electron, which moves into the interstitial space, becomes a conduction electron. Each electron,
which moves out of the bond, leaves a vacancy or hole. An electron from the neighboring bond, thus
creating the hole there occupies this vacancy. In this way a hole moves in the direction opposite to
that of electron. Since each hole is an electron deficiency, it ascribes a „+‟ charge. Thus in an intrinsic
semiconductor the number of holes is equal to the number of electrons and the conduction is due to
movement of both.

12.4.2 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:

These are also called as impurity or doped semiconductors. Conduction due to
the electrons or holes of impurity atoms added to the semiconductor is known as extrinsic
semiconductor. Impurity atoms have great influence on the electric conductivity of semiconductor
materials.

There are two types of impurities which when added to the Germanium and
silicon as a conductor matrix produces excess of electrons or holes. These are n type and p type
semiconductors.

N-type crystals:

The four valance electrons of Ge and Si (belongs to iv group in periodic table) contribute to four
co-valent bonds with the four nearest neighbors. When a pentavelant impurity such as an atom is
added to tetravalent (Ge) matrix, only four of the five electrons of arsenic (As) participate in the co-
valent bond formation with the four neighbors. The fifth electron does not participate in co-valent bond
formation. Its bondage to the nucleus is also weak and because of high di-electric constant of Ge and
energy of the bonding is some 250 times less.
At slightly elevated temperature the fifth electron gets detached. The semiconductor acquires the
conductivity due to the free electrons. Since these electrons were not participating in the bond
formation the positive ions do not behave as holes. These ions will not contribute for conduction and
they will simply fix to the lattice (since the electron conductivity is the dominant factor for the
conduction in a crystal with the pentavalent impurity. Such crystal is called N type crystal. Hence
we can define the N-type semiconductor is one in which the electron conductivity is dominant factor
for conduction in crystal with the pentavalent impurity (donor). For energy band diagram refer fig.

At elevated temperature the intrinsic electrons and holes of the matrix also
contributes the conduction. The charge carriers whose concentration dominates the conduction
process are called majority carriers and the charge carries of the opposite sign are called minority
carriers.

P-type crystals:
This type of semiconductor is formed by adding a trivalent impurity like gallium,
indium (having three valence electron). When indium is added to Ge, the indium atom lacks one
electron to form four co-valent bonds with four Ge neighbor.
 The resultant vacancy in the four bonds represents a hole. The trivalent
impurities make available positive carrier or holes that can accept electron. These impurities are
called acceptors. In the P-type semiconductor the predominant conduction is due to holes. As the
temp increases an electron from the neighboring Ge-Ge co-valent bond goes and fills this vacancy.
Thus making a negative indium ion bonded to the system with a hole in the Ge matrix. For energy
band diagram refer fig.

12.5 FACTORS AFFECTING THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

Temperature:
Structure disorders increases with increase of temp causing scattering of electrons.
This results in low conductivity. Except at room temp, the resistively varies linearly with temp and the
relationship is given as below

t=20 [1+α (t-20)]

Where t - is the resistivity at t0 c

20 - is resistivity at 20C
 - is temp coefficient of resistivity per degree centigrade.

Impurities:
They cause drastic changes in resistivity. Local field around the solute atom is different
from that present in the remaining portion of a material. This local fields cause scattering of electrons
and hence reduces conductivity. The dependence of the resistivity on single impurity is given by
“Nordium rule” t=Ax (1-x) where x is concentration. A is constant which depends on the base metal
and the impurity.

Plastic deformation:
Imperfection in crystals like vacancies, dislocation, grain boundary, etc, give raise to
scattering of electrons. Both resistivity and strain hardness depends on the number of dislocations
present. That is way the resistivity (s) is high in cold work metal and annealing can reduce this,
which removes imperfections.

Total resistivity ==t +x+s=t+0

(0=x+s)
o=residual resistivity

Magnetic proprieties:
Some materials are magnetic in nature while others are not. Magnetic materials are
involved in partially all-electrical apparatus starting form electromagnets, transformers, etc. It is
essential to understand the differences between the various types of magnetic materials in terms of
the magnetic properties of atoms and interaction between them.

Magnetism:
It is due to the motion of charges. The magnetic properties of the substances depend upon
the presence of dipole moments. A charged particle having an angular momentum contributes to the
dipole moment. There are three contributions to the angular momentum of an atom.

1. Orbital angular momentum of an electron.

2. Electrons spin angular momentum.
3. Nucleus spin angular momentum
 The total magnetic dipole moment of an atom is sum of the dipole moment due to each of the
above forms of angular momentum.
The orbital angular momentum gives rise to induced dipole moment, which has a direction opposite to
the applied magnetic field. Major observable magnetic behavior of an atom is due to the electrons
spin. Orbital angular momentum of an electron and electron spin angular momentum gives rise to
para magnetism and the nucleus spin angular momentum gives rise to diamagnetism. Atoms with
filled electrons shells has zero spin.

Magnetization (M):
It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume. The magnetic susceptibility per
unit volume is defined as
X=μ0M/B
Where μ0= Permeability of free space, B= macroscopic magnetic intensity, X= dimensionless.
Diamagnetic substances have negative susceptibility and Para magnetic have positive susceptibility.

LIST OF DIFFERENT SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

FORBIDEN
SL. CHEMICALS ENERGY
ELEMENTS APPLICATION
NO SYMBOLS GAP
IN ev
1 Indium antimonide InSb 0.18 Infrared detectors
2 Lead telluride Pb Te 0.33 -do-
3 Lead sulphide PbS 0.37 -do-
4 Germanium Ge 0.72 P-N junction devices
5 Silicon Si 1.1 -do-
6 Gallium arsenide GaAs 1.34 Tunnel diodes
7 Cadmium telluride CdTe 1.45 Photocells
8 Cadmium sulphide CdS 2.45 -do-

12.6 SUPER CONDUCTING MATERIALS:

Certain metals and large number of inter metallic compounds exhibits
zero resistivity and undetectable magnetic permeability when they are cooled below a critical
transition temp which nearer to absolute
zero temp. This property refers to as super conductivity and electrical materials are then known as
super conductor.
Thermal magnetic properties:
The characteristics temp at which a substance becomes super
conductive depends on the strength of the magnetic field, whether the field is applied externally or is
the result of current and the position of the super conductor in the periodic table. The critical values of
temp and the magnetic field (Ho) at (0K) for several super conductors are shown in the table below.
 Magnetic field (H0) in Transition
Sl. Super conductor
A/M at 0k temperature Tc
No. material
(multiply by 79.6) in zero field k
1 Al 106 1.2
2 Hg 413 4.2
3 Nb 2000 9.2
4 Sn 305 3.7
5 Ti 20 0.4
6 V 1310 5.0
7 Nb3Sn 5000 18.1
8 V3Si 17.1
9 NbN 16.0
10 MoC 8.0
11 CuS 1.6

It has been found at metals having low conductivity‟s at room temp and metals with 3.5 or 7 valance
electrons show super conductivity. These generalizations have lead to the formulation of many inter
metallic compounds. So far 24 of the metallic elements are known to be super conductors. Possible
application of super conductor may include frictionless electric motors, improved magnetic lenses for
electron microscopes and noiseless amplifiers.
13 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
13.0 Introduction

Art of Science producing fine metal powders and then making objects from individual or alloy metal
powders with or without inclusion of non metallic constituents.

13.1 Casting

Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold where it solidifies in the
shape of the mold cavity
• The term casting also applies to the part made in the process
• Steps in casting
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze

Advantages of Casting
• Can create complex part geometries
• Can create both external and internal shapes
• Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net shape
• Can produce very large parts
• Some casting methods are suited to mass production

Disadvantages of Casting
• Limitations on mechanical properties
• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for some processes; e.g., sand casting
• Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten metals
• Environmental problem

Parts Made by Casting

• Big parts: engine blocks and heads for automotive vehicles, wood burning stoves, machine
frames, railway wheels, pipes, church bells, big statues, and pump housings
• Small parts: dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, and frying pans
All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and nonferrous

The Mold in Casting

Contains cavity whose geometry determines part shape
• Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal
during solidification and cooling
• Molds are made of a variety of materials, including sand, plaster, ceramic, and metal
Figure 10.2 - Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the shape of the desired part;
and (b) closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more complex and requires a gating system
(passageway) leading into the cavity

TWO CATEGORIES OF CASTING PROCESS

1. Expendable mold processes – uses an expendable mold which must be destroyed to remove
casting
– Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus binders
2. Permanent mold processes – uses a permanent mold which can be used many times to
produce many castings
– Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory material

SAND CASTING

SAND CASTING MOLD TERMS

• Mold consists of two halves:
– Cope = upper half of mold
– Drag = bottom half
• Mold halves are contained in a box, called a flask
• The two halves separate at the parting line
FORMING THE MOLD CAVITY
• Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a pattern, which has the shape of the part
• When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity has desired shape of cast part
• The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of metal as it solidifies and cools
• Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder to maintain shape

CORES IN THE MOLD CAVITY

• The mold cavity provides the external surfaces of the cast part
• In addition, a casting may have internal surfaces, determined by a core, placed inside the
mold cavity to define the interior geometry of part
• In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand

GATING SYSTEM
Channel through which molten metal flows into cavity from outside of mold
• Consists of a downsprue, through which metal enters a runner leading to the main cavity
• At top of downsprue, a pouring cup is often used to minimize splash and turbulence as the
metal flows into downsprue

RISER
Reservoir in the mold which is a source of liquid metal to compensate for shrinkage during
solidification
• The riser must be designed to freeze after the main casting in order to satisfy its function

b) Investment Casting
• One-piece mold
– Dried in the air
– Heated to 90 – 175 C
– Held inverted for 12 hrs to melt out wax
– The mold is then heated to 650 – 1150 C for about 4 hrs depending on the metal to be
cast to drive off the water of crystallization
– After the metal has been poured the mold is broken up and the cast is removed
– A number of patterns can be joined to make one mold called a tree which increases
production rate
– Small parts
• The tree can be inserted on to a flask and filled with slurry investment
• The investment is then placed into a chamber and evacuated to remove air
bubbles
• Next it is placed in a vacuum drawing machine to produce fine detail
– Not a cheap process
– Produces fine details
– Good surface finish
– Few or no finishing operations
– Can produce intricate parts from parts weighing 1g – 35Kg
 Ex : Investment die casting examples

Schematic illustration of investment casting

1.) 2.)

1. WAX INJECTION: Wax replicas of the desired castings are produced by injection molding. These
replicas are called patterns.

2. ASSEMBLY: The patterns are attached to a central wax stick, called a sprue, to form a casting
cluster or assembly.

3. SHELL BUILDING: The shell is built by immersing the assembly in a liquid ceramic slurry and then
into a bed of extremely fine sand. Up to eight layers may be applied in this manner.

4. DEWAX: Once the ceramic is dry, the wax is melted out, creating a negative impression of the
assembly within the shell.

3.) 4.)
5. CONVENTIONAL CASTING: In the conventional process, the shell is filled with molten metal by
gravity pouring. As the metal cools, the parts and gates, sprue and pouring cup become one solid
casting.

6. KNOCKOUT: When the metal has cooled and solidified, the ceramic shell is broken off by vibration
or water blasting.

5.) 6.)

7. CUT OFF: The parts are cut away from the central sprue using a high speed friction saw.

8. FINISHED CASTINGS: After minor finishing operations, the metal castings--identical to the original
wax patterns--are ready for shipment to the customer.

7.) 8.)

c) Centrifugal Casting
• Utilizes the inertial forces caused by rotation to distribute the molten metal in to the mold
cavities
• First used in the 1800‟;s
• Three types of centrifugal casting
– True centrifugal casting
– Semi centrifugal casting
– Centrifuging
Schematic illustration of the centrifugal casting process. Pipes, cylinder liners, and similarly shaped
parts can be cast with this process.

Semi centrifugal Casting Process

(a) Schematic illustration of the semi centrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can be cast by
this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at the
periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal force.

d) Die Casting
• Further example of permanent-mold casting
• Molten metal is forced into the die cavity at pressures ranging from .7MPa – 700MPa
• Parts made from here range from:
– Hand tools
– Toys
– Appliance components
• There are two basic types of die casting machines
– Hot-chamber - involves the use of a piston to push molten metal in to the die cavity
– Cold-chamber – molten metal is poured in to the injection chamber & the shot chamber
is not heated

HOT CHAMBER DIE-CASTING PROCESS

1. The die is closed and the piston rises, opening the port and allowing molten metal to fill the
cylinder.
2. The plunger moves down and seals the port pushing the molten metal through the gooseneck and
nozzle into the die cavity, where it is held under pressure until it solidifies
1.) 2.)

3. The die opens and the cores, if any, retract. The casting remains in only one die, the ejector side.
The plunger returns, allowing residual molten metal to flow back through the nozzle and gooseneck.

4. Ejector pins push the casting out of the ejector die. As the plunger uncovers the filling hole, molten
metal flows through the inlet to refill the gooseneck, as in step (1).

3.) 4.)

COLD-DIE CASTING PROCESS

1. The die is closed and the molten metal is ladled into the cold-chamber shot sleeve.
2. The plunger pushes the molten metal into the die cavity where it is held under pressure until
solidification

1.) 2.)
3. The die opens and the plunger advances, to ensure that the casting remains in the ejector die.
Cores, if any, retract.
4. Ejector pins push the casting out of the ejector die and the plunger returns to its original position.

3.) 4.)

13.2 MECHANICAL WORKING OF METALS

• Desirable material properties:
– Low yield strength and high ductility
• These properties are affected by temperature:
– Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work temperature is
raised
• Other factors:
– Strain rate and friction

BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

• Characterized by significant deformations and massive shape changes
• "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively low surface area-to-volume ratios
• Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets and rectangular bars

13.2.1 HOT AND COLD WORKING

Cold working is metal forming performed at room temperature.
Advantages: better accuracy, better surface finish, high strength and hardness of the part, no
heating is required.
Disadvantages: higher forces and power, limitations to the amount of forming, additional
annealing for some material is required, and some material are not capable of cold working.
Warm working is metal forming at temperatures above the room temperature but bellow the re-
crystallization one.
Advantages: lower forces and power, more complex part shapes, no annealing is required.
Disadvantages: some investment in furnaces is needed.
Hot working involves deformation of preheated material at temperatures above the re-crystallization
temperature.
Advantages: big amount of forming is possible, lower forces and powers are required, forming of
materials with low ductility, no work hardening and therefore, no additional annealing is required.
Disadvantages: lower accuracy and surface finish, higher production cost, and shorter tool life.

a) Rolling

Rolling: Compressive deformation process in which the thickness of a plate is reduced by squeezing
it through two rotating cylindrical rolls.
Important Applications: Steel Plants, Raw stock production (sheets, tubes, Rods, etc.), screw
manufacture etc.

b) Forging
The work-piece is compressed between two opposing dies so that the die shapes are imparted to the
work.
According to the degree to which the flow of the metal is constrained by the dies there are three types
of forging:
 Open-die forging
 Impression-die forging
 Flash less forging
FORGING GRAIN FLOW

c) Shearing operation

Several operations based on shearing performed

Punching – sheared slug discarded
Blanking – Slug is the part and the rest is scrap
d) Drawing
The diameter of a wire or bar is reduced by pulling it through a die opening (bar drawing) or a series
of die openings (wire drawing).The principle of this procedure consist of reducing the thickness of a
pointed, tapered wire by drawing it through a conical opening in a tool made of a hard material.The
wire will take shape of the hole. Drawing improves strength and hardness when these properties are
to be developed by cold work and not by subsequent heat treatment
This process is widely used for the production of thicker walled seamless tubes and cylinders
therefore; shafts, spindles, and small pistons and as the raw material for fasteners such as rivets,
bolts, screws.

e) Tube spinning
• Thickness of cylindrical parts are reduced by spinning them on a cylindrical mandrel
rollers
• Parts can be spun in either direction
• Large tensile elongation up to 2000 % are obtained within certain temperature ranges
and at low strain rates.
f) Extrusıon
A material is pushed or drawn through a die of the desired cross-section . Any solid or hollow cross-
section may be produced by extrusion, which can create essentially semi-finished parts. The metal
can forcing through a die in the same direction or opposite direction.

chamber die

extruded shape
hydraulic
stock
piston

chamber

Extruded Products

• The cross-sections that can be produced vary from solid round, rectangular, to L shapes, T
shapes.
• Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or semi-
continuous (producing many pieces). Extrusions can be done with the material hot or cold.
• Commonly extruded materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, and foodstuffs.
 • Direct extrusion: A metal billet is located into a container, and a ram compresses the material,
forcing it to flow through one or more openings in a die at the opposite end of the container.
• Indirect extrusion: The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the
container. One advantage of the indirect extrusion process is that there is no friction, during
the process, between the billet and thecontainerliner.

SHEET METALWORKING
• Forming and related operations performed on metal sheets, strips, and coils
• High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting metal, which distinguishes these from bulk
deformation
• Often called press working because presses perform these operations
– Parts are called stampings
 – Usual tooling: punch and die

a.) Bending b.) Drawing

SPINNING
• Shaping thin sheets by pressing them against a form with a blunt tool to force the material into
a desired form.
• Conventional spinning :
A circular blank if flat or performed sheet metal hold against a mandrel and rotated ,while a rigid metal
is held against a mandrel and rotated ,while a rigid tool deforms and shapes the material over the
mandrel.

SHEAR SPINNING

(a) Schematic illustration of the conventional spinning process (b) Types of parts conventionally
spun.All parts are antisymmetric

13.3 POWDER METALLURGY

• Commonly used metals in P/M
– Iron,Tin, Copper, Aluminum, and Nickel
• It is a completive process with forging and machining
• Parts can weigh as much as little as 2.5Kg or up to 50Kg
 Steps in Powder metallurgy
• Powder production
• Blending
• Compaction
• Sintering
• Finishing operations

Fig: (a) Examples of typical parts made by powder-metallurgy processes.

PARTICLE SIZE, DISTRIBUTION, AND SHAPE

• Particle size is measured by screening
• In addition to screen analysis one can use:
– Sedimentation – measuring the rate that particles settle in a fluid
– Microscopic analysis – using a scanning electron microscope
– Light scattering
– Optical – particles blocking a beam of light that is sensed by a photocell
– Suspending particles in a liquid & detecting particle size and distribution

Powder Particles
 a.) b.)
Fig: (a) Scanning electron-microscopy photograph of iron-powder particles made by atomization.
(b) Nickel-based super alloy powder particles made by the rotating electrode process.

METHODS OF POWDER PRODUCTION

Fig: Methods of metal-powder production by atomization; (a) melt atomization; (b) atomization with a
rotating consumable electrode

Fig: Methods of mechanical communication, to obtain fine particles: (a) roll crushing, (b) ball mill, &
(c) hammer milling

BLENDING POWDERS
• Blending powders is the second step in the P/M process
 • Powders made by different processes have different sizes and shapes and must be well
mixed
• Powders of different metals can be mixed together
Lubricants can be mixed with the powders to improve their flow characteristics.

Fig: Some common equipment geometries for mixing or blending powders. (a) cylindrical, (b) rotating
cube, (c) double cone, and (d) twin shell.

COMPACTION OF METAL POWDERS

• Blended powders are pressed together
• The powder must flow easily into the die
• Size distribution is an important fact
– They should not be all the same size
– Should be a mixture of large and small particles
• The higher the density the higher the strength

Fig: Compaction of metal powder to form a bushing. The pressed powder part is called green
compact. (b) Typical tool and die set for compacting a spur gear.

SINTERING
 • Sintering - Green compacts are heated in a furnace to a temperature below melting
point
• Improves the strength of the material
• Proper furnace control is important for optimum properties
• Particles start forming a bond by diffusion
• Vapor-phase transport – heated very close to melting temperature allows metal atoms
to release to the vapor phase

Fig: Schematic illustration of two mechanisms for sintering metal powders: (a) solid-state material
transport; (b) liquid-phase material transport. R= particle radius, r=neck radius, and p=neck profile
radius

SECONDARY & FINISHING OPERATIONS

• To improve the properties of sintered P/M products several additional operations may be
used:
– Coining and sizing – compaction operations
– Impact forging – cold or hot forging may be used
• Parts may be impregnated with a fluid to reduce the porosity
Fig: Examples of P/M parts showing poor designs and good ones. Note that sharp radii and re-entry
corners should be avoided and that threads and transverse holes have to be produced separately by
additional machining operations.

SECONDARY & FINISHING OPERATIONS

• Infiltration – metal infiltrates the pores of a sintered part to produce a stronger part and
produces a pore free part
• Other finishing operations
– Heat treating
– Machining
– Grinding
– Plating

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR P/M

Design principles to consider
 Shape of the compact must be simple and uniform
 Provision must be made for the ejection of the part
 Wide tolerances should be used whenever possible

Process Capabilities
• It is a technique for making parts from high melting point refractory metals
• High production rates
• Good dimensional control
• Wide range of compositions for obtaining special mechanical and physical properties
Limitations
• High cost
• Tooling cost for short production runs
 • Limitations on part size and shape
• Mechanical properties of the part
• Strength
• Ductility

ECONOMICS OF POWDER METALLURGY

• Competitive with casting and forging
• High initial cost
• Economical for quantities over 10,000 pieces
• Reduces or eliminates scraps