UNIT - 1

INTRODUCTION
Overview – History – Need-Classification -Additive
Manufacturing Technology in product development-Materials
for Additive Manufacturing Technology
 INTRODUCTION TO AM

ASTM - The process of joining materials to make objects

from 3D model data, usually layer upon layer, as opposed
to subtractive manufacturing methods.
TRADITIONAL vs ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
HISTORY OF ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
CLASSIFICATIONS OF AM PROCESSES
 ADVANTAGES OF AM

• Faster and more cost-effective than constructing a full-scale model.

• Eliminates the cost and time need to develop special molds and
tools.
• Minimizes waste; uses only the material needed to build the
prototype.
• Can make parts of miniscule size and/or that have complex
geometries.
• Provides a realistic three-dimensional design vs a computer screen
image.
• Permits the identification of any design flaws prior to any mass
production.
 ADVANTAGES OF AM

• Design changes can be done without the need to modify the

entire process
• Easier testing – properties of the material closely resemble the
final product
• Changes can be made immediately, eliminating the need to wait
for feedback
 LIMITATIONS OF AM

• Higher production costs (support structures, use of laser)

• Lower build rates
• Limited part size due to small built volume
• Contribution of abundant process related parameters
• Poor quality characteristics of fabricated parts:
 Lower surface quality
 Inferior mechanical strength due to multiple layer
interfaces
 Shrinkage due to the preoccupation of high temperature,
and
 Poor tribological properties
Fundamentals of AM
1. Input :
• Input refers to the electronic information required to
describe the physical object with 3D data.
• There are two possible starting points - a computer
model or a physical model.
• The computer model created by a CAD system can be
either a surface model or a solid model.
• On the other hand, 3D data from the physical model is
not at all straightforward. It requires data acquisition
through a method known as reverse engineering.
2. Method :
• The method employed by each vendor can be generally
classified into the following categories:
• photo-curing, cutting and glueing /joining, melting and
solidifying/fusing and joining/binding.
• Photo-curing can be further divided into categories of
single laser beam, double laser beams and masked lamp.
3. Material :
• The initial state of material can come in either solid,
liquid or powder state.
• In solid state, it can come in various forms such as
pellets, wire or laminates. The current range materials
include paper, nylon, wax, resins, metals and ceramics.
4. Application :
• Most of the RP parts are finished or touched up before
they are used for their intended applications.
• Applications can be grouped into (1) Design (2)
Engineering, Analysis, and Planning and (3) Tooling and
Manufacturing.
• A wide range of industries can benefit from RP and these
include, but are not limited to, aerospace, automotive,
biomedical, consumer, electrical and electronics
products.
1. 3D MODELING :
• Advanced 3D CAD modeling is a general prerequisite in
RP processes and, usually is the most time-consuming
part of the entire process chain.
• It is most important that such 3D geometric models can
be shared by the entire design team for many different
purposes, such as interference studies, stress analyses,
FEM analysis, detail design and drafting, planning for
manufacturing, including NC programming, etc.
• There are two common misconceptions amongst new
users of RP
 First, unlike NC programming, RP requires a closed
volume of the model, whether the basic elements are
surfaces or solids. This confusion arises because new
users are usually acquainted with the use of NC
programming where a single surface or even a line
element can be an NC element.
 Second, new users also usually assume what you see is
what you get.
2. DATA CONVERSION AND
TRANSMISSION :
• The solid or surface model to be built is next
converted into a format dubbed the STL file format.
• This format originates from 3D Systems which
pioneers the STereoLithography system.
• The STL file format approximates the surfaces of the
model using tiny triangles.
• Highly curved surfaces must employ many more
triangles, which mean that STL files for curved
parts can be very large.
• This conversion step is probably the simplest and
shortest of the entire process chain.
• However, for a highly complex model coupled with
an extremely low performance workstation or PC,
the conversion can take several hours.
3. CHECKING AND PREPARING :
• The computer term, garbage in garbage out, is also
applicable to RP. Many first time users are frustrated at
this step to discover that their STL files are faulty.
• However, more often than not, it is due to both the
errors of CAD models and the non-robustness of the
CAD-STL interface.
• Unfortunately, today’s CAD models — whose quality are
dependent on the CAD systems, human operators and
post processes are still afflicted with a wide spectrum of
problems, including the generation of unwanted shell-
punctures.
• At present, the CAD model errors are corrected by
human operators assisted by specialized software such
as MAGICS.
• Once the STL files are verified to be error-free, the RP
system’s computer analyzes the STL files that define the
model to be fabricated and slices the model into cross-
sections.
4. BUILDING :
• For most RP systems, this step is fully automated. Thus, it is
usual for operators to leave the machine on to build a part
overnight.
• The building process may take up to several hours to build
depending on the size and number of parts required.
• The number of identical parts that can be built is subject to
the overall build size constrained by the build volume of the
RP system.
5. POST PROCESSING :
• The final task in the process chain is the post processing task.
At this stage, generally some manual operations are
necessary. As a result, the danger of damaging a part is
particularly high.
• Therefore, the operator for this last process step has a high
responsibility for the successful process realization.
• The cleaning task refers to the removal of excess parts which
may have remained on the part. Thus, for SLA parts, this
refers to excess resin residing in entrapped portion such as a
blind hole of a part, as well as the removal of supports.
 AM in Product Development

(1) Experimentation and learning

(2) Testing and proofing
(3) Communication and interaction
(4) Synthesis and integration
(5) Scheduling and markers
 Experimentation and learning
To the product development team, prototypes can be used
to help the thinking, planning, experimenting and learning
processes whilst designing the product.
Questions and doubts regarding certain issues of the
design can be addressed by building and studying the prototype.
For example, in designing the appropriate elbow-support of an
office chair, several physical prototypes of such elbow supports can be
built to learn about the ―feel‖ of the elbow support when performing
typical tasks on the office chair.
 Testing and proofing
Prototypes can also be used for testing and
proofing of ideas and concepts relating to the
development of the product
For example, in the early design of folding reading
glasses for the elderly, concepts and ideas of folding
mechanism can be tested by building rough physical
prototypes to test and prove these ideas to see if they work
as intended.
 Communication and interaction
The prototype also serves the purpose of
communicating information and demonstrating ideas,
not just within the product development team, but also
to management and client.
A three-dimensional representation is often more
superior than that of a two-dimensional sketch of the
product.

For example, a physical prototype of a cellular

phone can be presented to carefully selected customers.
Customers can handle and experiment with the phone
and give feedback to the development team on the
features of and interactions with the phone, thus
providing valuable information for the team to improve
its design.
Synthesis and integration
A prototype can also be used to synthesize the
entire product concept by bringing the various
components and sub-assemblies together to ensure
that they will work together.
This will greatly help in the integration of the
product and surface any problems that are related to
putting the product together.

An example is a complete or comprehensive

functional prototype of personal digital assistant
(PDA). When putting the prototype together, all aspects
of the design, including manufacturing and assembly
issues will have to be addressed, thus enabling the
different functional members of the product
development team to understand the various problems
associated with putting the product together.
Scheduling and markers
Prototyping also serves to help in the scheduling
of the product development process and is usually
used as markers for the end or start of the various
phases of the development effort.
Each prototype usually marks a completion of a
particular development phase, and with proper
planning, the development schedule can be enforced.
It should be noted that in many companies,
prototypes do not necessary serve all these roles
concurrently, but they are certainly a necessity in any
product development project.
Materials for AM
 3D Printing materials

Plastic Metals
PLA (Polylactide) Stainless steel
ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Aluminium
Styrene)
Resin Titanium
Nylon Cobalt-chrome
PEI ( Polyether Imide) Nickel alloy
 3D
Material Strength Weakness
Printer

• Limited dimensional accuracy

• Low-cost
PLA, • Print layers are likely to be
• Fast turn around times FDM
ABS visible
• High stiffness
• More brittle

• Fine features • Support marks may be visible

• high detail on surface
Resin • Smooth surface • Brittle SLA/DLP
• injection mold-like prototype • not recommended for
• surface finish functional parts

• good chemical resistance

• Perfect for functional • Higher cost than FDM
Nylon SLS
applications. • Longer lead times
• excellent mechanical properties

• High performance applications

• Flame retardant
PEI • Limited dimensional accuracy FDM
• Food safe
• Good mechanical properties
 Materials Technology
Standard, tough, flexible, transparent, & castable resins SLA
Standard & castable resins DLP
Standard, tough, flexible, transparent, & castable resins CDLP
ABS, PLA, Nylon, PC, fiber-reinforced Nylon, exotic
FDM
filaments (wood-filled, metal-filled etc)
Rigid, transparent, multi-color, rubber-like, ABS-like.
Material jetting
Multi-material and multi-color printing available

Silica sand, PMMA particle material, gypsum, Stainless

Binder jetting
steel, ceramics, cobalt-chrome, tungsten-carbide

Titanium, stainless steel, aluminum, copper, tool steel LENS

Titanium, stainless steel, aluminum, copper nickel, 4340
EBM
steel
 Additive Manufacturing

AM Materials

Nylon, or Polyamide, is commonly used in powder form with the sintering process or in
filament form with the FDM process. It is a strong, flexible and durable plastic material that
has proved reliable for 3D printing. It is naturally white in colour but it can be coloured —
pre- or post printing. This material can also be combined (in powder format) with powdered
aluminium to produce another common 3D printing material for sintering Alumide.

ABS is another common plastic used for 3D printing, and is widely used on the entry-level
FDM 3D printers in filament form. It is a particularly strong plastic and comes in a wide
range of colours.
ABS can be bought in filament form from a number of non- propreitary sources, which is
another reason why it is so popular.

PLA is a bio-degradable plastic material that has gained traction with 3D printing for this
very reason. It can be utilized in resin format for DLP/SL processes as well as in filament
form for the FDM process. It is offered in a variety of colours, including transparent, which
has proven to be a useful option for some
some applications of 3D printing. However it isTh.not
EN-MME/ as durable oras flexible as ABS.
Sahner 27
 Additive Manufacturing

AM Materials

Ceramics
Ceramics are a relatively new group of materials that can be used for 3D printing with various levels of
success. The particular thing to note with these materials is that, post printing, the ceramic parts need to
undergo the same processes as any ceramic part made using traditional methods of production - namely
firing and glazing.

Paper
Standard A4 copier paper is a 3D printing material employed by the proprietary SDL process supplied
by Mcor Technologies. The company operates a notably different business model to other 3D printing
vendors, whereby the capital outlay for the machine is in the mid-range, but the emphasis is very much
on an easily obtainable, cost-effective material supply, that can be bought locally. 3D printed models
made with paper are safe, environmentally friendly, easily recyclable and require no post-processing.

Bio Materials
There is a huge amount of research being conducted into the potential of 3D printing bio materials for a
host of medical (and other) applications. Living tissue is being investigated at a number of leading
institutions with a view to developing applications that include printing human organs for transplant, as
well as external tissues for replacement body parts. Other research in this area is focused on developing
food stuffs - meat being the prime example.
EN-MME/ Th. Sahner 28
 Additive Manufacturing

AM Materials

Lay Wood is a specially developed 3D printing material for entry- level extrusion 3D printers. It comes
in filament form and is a wood/polymer composite (also referred to as WPC).

A growing number of metals and metal composites are used for industrial grade 3D printing. Two of the
most common are aluminium and cobalt derivatives.

One of the strongest and therefore most commonly used metals for 3D printing is Stainless Steel in
powder form for the sintering/ melting/EBM processes. It is naturally silver, but can be plated with other
materials to give a gold or bronze effect.
In the last couple of years Gold and Silver have been added to the range of metal materials that can be
3D printed directly, with obvious applications across the jewellery sector. These are both very strong
materials and are processed in powder form.
Titanium is one of the strongest possible metal materials and has been used for 3D printing industrial
applications for some time.

Supplied in powder form, it can be used for the sintering/melting/ EBM processes.

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 Additive Manufacturing

AM Materials

Bio Materials
There is a huge amount of research being conducted into the potential of 3D printing bio materials for a
host of medical (and other) applications. Living tissue is being investigated at a number of leading
institutions with a view to developing applications that include printing human organs for transplant, as
well as external tissues for replacement body parts.

Food
Experiments with extruders for 3D printing food substances has increased dramatically over the last
couple of years. Chocolate is the most common (and desirable). There are also printers that work with
sugar and some experiments with pasta and meat. Looking to the future, research is being undertaken, to
utilize 3D printing technology to produce finely balanced whole meals.

Other
And finally, one company that does have a unique (proprietary) material offering is Stratasys, with its
digital materials for the Objet Connex 3D printing platform. This offering means that standard Objet 3D
printing materials can be combined during the printing process — in various and specified
concentrations to form new materials with the required properties. Up to 140 different Digital Materials
can be realized from combining the existing primary materials in different ways.

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 UNIT- II: REVERSE ENGINEERING

Basic Concept –3D Scanning Digitization techniques – Model

Reconstruction – Data Processing for Additive Manufacturing
Technology – Part Orientation and support generation – Model
Slicing –Tool path Generation.
 Reverse Engineering
• Reverse engineering, also called back engineering, is the
process by which a man-made object is deconstructed to reveal
its designs, architecture, or to extract knowledge from the
object; similar to scientific research, the only difference being
that scientific research is about a natural phenomenon.
• Reverse engineering is applicable in the fields of mechanical
engineering, electronic engineering, software engineering,
chemical engineering.

Engineering a Product
Concept
product

Reverse Concept
Product
engineering
 Reverse Engineering
Reverse-engineering is used for many purposes:
 as a learning tool;
 as a way to make new, compatible products that are
cheaper than what's currently on the market;
 for making software interoperate more effectively or to
bridge data between different operating systems or
databases;
 and to uncover the undocumented features of commercial
products.
 Reasons for reverse engineering in
manufacturing

• Filling up the voids in design information

• Figuring out the reasons of product failure
• Improving manufacturing processes
• Fans healthy competition in the market
• Encourages innovation
• Engineering means to make a thing whereas reverse
engineering means to know how it is made and then
make it yourself.
• Example: China recently bought some fighter planes
from Russia just to know about the technology
implemented to make those planes.
• Now the question is why did China do this ?
• Answer is so that China can make the similar ones n
its own and that will be cost effective.
 RE Applications

• Example
–Software

–Mechanical Assembly

–Printed circuit board

–Chemicals

–CAD Model from physical parts

The need for Building CAD models from
physical parts
• Design exits as clay, wood or foam models.

• Original manufacturer of part does not exist or does

not produce the any more.

• Inadequate or no documentation of original design

• Copying/analyzing/ understanding other’s products

• Analyzing changes in a old part

• Inspection of a manufactured part

Steps Involved in Building CAD Models
from Physical Parts
• Digitizing or collecting data from physical part
• Manipulating the collected data to obtain a CAD
model
• Using the CAD model to obtain physical part
 Steps Involved Digitizing or Collecting
Data from Physical Parts

• Collecting point cloud data from physical part

– Contact Method (Example: Digitizing on CMM)

– Non-Contact Methods (Example: Laser Scanning

of part)
Steps Involved in Collecting point Cloud
Data using CMM

• Scan the part using a touch probe to get point

cloud data
• Curve/Surface fitting
• Add fillets, rounds etc.,
• Interrogate surface quality
Co-ordinates measuring machine
Reverse Engineering of a computer
mouse
 CONTACT BASED DIGITIZATION
TECHNIQUE
• Contact based methods of reverse engineering have been available for
nearly 40 years.
• The first method of reverse engineering to be introduced was the
coordinate measuring machine (CMM)
• A CMM gives physical representation of a three dimensional Cartesian
coordinate system
CMM – COORDINATE MEASURING MACHINE
• Coordinate metrology is concerned with the measurement of the actual shape
and dimensions of an object and comparing these with the desired shape and
dimensions.
• A Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) is an electromechanical system
designed to perform coordinate metrology.
CMM Controls

• In manual drive CMM, the human operator physically move the probe along the
machine’s axes to make contact with the part and record the measurements.
• The measurements are provided by a digital readout, which the operator can record either
manually or with paper print out.
• Any calculations on the data must be made by the operator.

• A CMM with manual drive and computer-assisted data processing provides some data
processing and computational capability for performing the calculations required to evaluate
a give part feature.
• The types of data processing and computations range from simple conversioons between
units to more complicated geometry calculations, such as determining the angle between
two planes.
• A motor-driven CMM with computer-assisted data processing uses electric motors to drive
the probe along the machine axes under operator control.
• A joystick or similar device is used as the means of controlling the motion.
• Motor-driven CMMs are generally equipped with data processing to accomplish
the geometric computations required in feature assessment.

• A CMM with direct computer control (DCC) operates like a CNC machine tool. It is
motorized and the movements of the coordinate axes are controlled by a dedicated computer
under program control.
• The computer also performs the various data processing and calculation functions.
• As with a CNC machine tool, the DCC CMM requires part programming.
Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)

Measuring machine consisting of a contact probe and a mechanism to position

the probe in three-dimensions relative to surfaces and features of a work part

 The probe is fastened to a structure that allows movement relative to the part

Part is fixture on worktable connected to structure

The location coordinates of the probe can be accurately recorded as it contacts

the part surface to obtain part geometry data
 Types of CMM

1. Cantilever Type
2. Bridge Type
3. Column Type
4. Gantry Type
5. Horizontal Arm Type
Cantilever
type • A vertical probe moves in the z-axis
• Carried by a cantilevered arm that moves in the y-axis

• This arm also moves laterally through the x-axis

• Advantage- a fixed table allows good accessibility to the
work piece

• Disadvantage- the bending caused by the cantilever design

• The cantilever design offers a long table with relatively
small measuring ranges in the other two axis.

• Suitable for measuring long, thin part

Moving bridge
type • Most widely used
• Has stationary table to support work piece to be
measured and a moving bridge

• Disadvantage- with this design, the phenomenon of

yawing (sometimes called walking) can occur- affect
the accuracy

• Advantage- reduce bending effect

Fixed bridge
type
• In the fixed bridge configuration, the bridge is
rigidly attached to the machine bed

• This design eliminates the phenomenon of

walking and provides high rigidity
Column
type • Often referred to as universal measuring
machine instead of CMM

• The column type CMM construction provides

exceptional rigidity and accuracy

• These machines are usually reserved for gauge

rooms rather than inspection
Horizontal arm type
• Unlike the previous machines, the basic horizontal
arm-type CMM

• Also referred to as layout machine

• Has a moving arm, and the probe is carried along the
y-axis

• Advantage- provides a large area, unobstructed work

area

• Ideal configuration for measurement of automobile

parts
Gantry type
• The support of work piece is independent of the x and y axes,
both are overhead, supported by four vertical columns rising
from the floor

• This setup allows you to walk along the work piece with the
probe, which is helpful for extremely large pieces
CMM Mechanical
Structure

(a) Cantilever (b) Moving bridge (c) Fixed bridge

(d) Horizontal Arm (e) Gantry (f) Column
 APPLICATIONS

1)Co-ordinate measuring machines find applications in automobile, machine tool, electronics,

space and many other large companies.

2) These machines are best suited for the test and inspection of test equipment, gauges and
tools.

3)For aircraft & space vehicles, hundred percent inspections is carried out by using CMM.

4)CMM can be used for determining dimensional accuracy of the components.

5)These are ideal for determination of shape and position, maximum metal condition,

linkage of results etc. which cannot do in conventional machines.

6)CMM can also be used for sorting tasks to achieve optimum pairing of components
within tolerance limits.
 ADVANTAGES
• The inspection rate is increased.
• Accuracy is more.
• Operators error can be minimized.
• Skill requirements of the operator is reduced.
• Reduced inspection fix Turing and maintenance cost.
• Reduction in calculating and recording time.
• Reduction in set up time.
• No need of separate go / no go gauges for each feature.
• Reduction of scrap and good part rejection.
• Reduction in off line analysis time.
 DISADVANTAGES
• The table and probe may not be in perfect alignment.
• The probe may have run out.
• The probe moving in Z-axis may have some
perpendicular errors.
• Probe while moving in X and Y direction may not be
square to each other.

• There may be errors in digital system.

 Noncontact Inspection
Techniques
Uses a sensor or probe located a certain distance away from the
object being measured or gaged
• Two categories:
 Optical – uses light to accomplish the inspection
 Non-optical - uses energy form other than light

• Advantages of non-contact inspection:

Avoids possible damage to surface of object
Inherently faster than contact inspection
Can often be accomplished in production without additional
part handling
Increased opportunity for 100% inspection
 Optical Inspection Method- Machine Vision
• It is the creation of image and the collection of data derived from the image and
subsequent processing and interpretation od data by a computer from useful application.
• It is also known as computer vision
• Machine vision exists in 2D & 3D format with 2D being most common in industrial
application.

• Machine vision has 3 functions:

 Image acquisition and digitization
 Image processing and analysis
 Interpretation
Optical Inspection Method- Machine Vision
– Image acquisition and digitization
 It is performed by deploying a video camera to capture the image and use digitizing system to
store image data for subsequent analysis.
 The camera is focused upon surface of item of interest and image consists of discrete pixel
elements is captured by viewing area.
 Each pixel value has value proportional to light intensity of portion of scene.
 The intensity value of each pixel is converted into digital value by analog to digital converter.
– Image processing and analysis
 A number of technique have been developed so that data produced during first phase
of machine vision may be processed.
 General techniques are called segmentation and feature extraction
– Interpretation
 Interpretation of the image is concerned with recognizing the object recognition,
and/or pattern recognition.
 Two commonly-used interpretation techniques are
Template matching:- a method whereby the features of the image are
compared against corresponding features of a model or template stored in the
computer memory
Feature weighting:- technique in which several features are combined into a
single measure by assigning a weight to each feature according to its relative
importance in identifying the object, and where the resultant score is compared
against an ideal object score stored in computer memory, to achieve proper
identification
Non Contact Inspection method
Additive Manufacturing
Technology
 3D SCANNING
• 3D scanners are tri-dimensional measurement devices used to
capture real-world objects or environments so that they can be
remodelled or analysed in the digital world.
• The latest generation of 3D scanners do not require contact with
the physical object being captured.

REAL OBJECT 3D MODEL

 Objects are usually Scanned in 3D for 2 Purpose

1. Extracting dimensions to reconstruct a CAD reference file for reverse

engineering or rapid prototyping.
2. Measuring the object itself for analysis and documentation. It is done
in application such as computer-aided inspection, digital archiving and
computer-aided engineering analysis.
 Two Categories of Scanners

• White light and structured light systems

• Scan arm and portable handheld scanners
 How 3D Scanning Works
• Scanning results are represented using free-form, unstructured three-dimensional data,
usually in the form of a point cloud or a triangle mesh. Certain types of scanners also
acquire color information for applications where this is important.
• Images/scans are brought into a common reference system, where data is merged into a
complete model. This process -- called alignment or registration -- can be performed during
the scan itself or as a post-processing step.
• Computer software can be used to clean up scan data, filling holes, correcting errors and
improving data quality. The resulting triangle mesh is typically exported as an STL FILE or
converted to NURBS surface for CAD modelling.
 Part Orientation

• The importance that part orientation plays in the final

quality of a 3D printed part.
• Part orientation impacts the part accuracy, manufacturing
time, strength and surface finish of your 3D printed parts.

Two identical cylinders printed at the same layer height in different orientations (left:
vertically, right: horizontally)
Part accuracy
• Consider a cylinder with a hole (10 mm outer diameter, 6
mm inner diameter, 30 mm length) that is printed
with FDM with its center axis vertical.
• The 3D printer would construct this part as a series of
concentric circles layered on top of one another. This would
produce a final cylinder with a relatively smooth outer
surface.
• If the same cylinder is reorientated with its centre axis
horizontally, the part will be built as a series of rectangles
(with slightly different width) layered on top of each other.
Also, the surface of the cylinder that touches the build
platform will be flat, because the material would as the
initial first layers were printed.
• By orientating the part in different directions, there is a
significant difference in the print quality, as can be seen in
the photo.
Build time

• Orientation can also have a significant impact on print time.

• Using as an example the cylinder of the previous section, the

horizontal orientation will take significantly less time to print
than the vertical, as the total number of layers is significantly
reduced: the horizontal cylinder will be printed with 100
total layers and the vertical with 300 layers. This can add up
to significant time differences for large parts.
Part strength
• Some 3D printing (notably FDM) build parts that have
inherently anisotropic properties, meaning they are much
stronger in the XY direction than the Z direction.
• For functional parts, it is important to consider the
application and the direction of the loads. For example, FDM
parts are much more likely to delaminate and fracture when
placed in tension in the Z direction compared to the XY
directions (up to 4-5 times difference tensile strength).
 Support Structure
• As 3D printed parts are built layer by layer, a previous layer
to build upon is required.
• Depending on the specific 3D printing technology and the
complexity of the 3D model, this can mean that a 3D print
requires support structures.
• When considering what technology to print a 3D model
with, it is important to consider support structures and how
they may affect the final result.
• Support structures will have an impact on surface finish as
they require post-processing work to remove, resulting in
blemishes or surface roughness
Supports in FDM
• Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) extrudes a melted
filament onto a build surface along a predetermined
path.
• As the material is extruded, it cools, forming a solid
surface providing the foundation for the next layer of
material to be built upon.
• This is repeated layer by layer until the object is
completed.
When is support needed in FDM?
• With FDM printing, each layer is printed as a set of heated
filament threads which adhere to the threads below and
around it.
• Each thread is printed slightly offset from its previous layer.
This allows a model to be built up to angles of 45°, allowing
prints to expand beyond its previous layer’s width.
• When a feature is printed with an overhang beyond 45°, it
can sag and requires support material beneath it to hold it
up.
The ABCs (or YHTs) of FDM support
• Consider the letters Y, H, and T, and a set of associated 3D models.
• The arms of a model of the letter Y can be printed easily. Even
though the arms the of Y are outstretched, because they extend
at 45 degrees or less, they do not require support.
• The letter H is a little more complicated but if the center bridge is
under 5mm, it can be printed without support or any sagging.
Over 5mm and support will be required. For this example, the
center bridge is over 5mm and support is needed.
• The letter T requires support for the arms of the letter. There is
nothing for the outer arms to be printed on and the material will
just fall down without support.
 Y, H, and T printed with FDM with support

The letter T fails when printed with FDM without any support structure
The downside of FDM support material
• One of the limitations of using support in FDM printing is that post-processing
is always required, resulting in marks or damage to the surface in contact with
the support.

• Another issue is that layers printed upon support will be less perfect as the
support will be slightly less stationary than the solid layers.

• Support can also be difficult to remove from small, intricate features without
breaking the model.

• Furthermore, support requires additional printing material and therefore

incurs additional costs.

• The support also needs removal, creating more work for the 3D printing
service provider which can also increase the total cost of the print job.
 SLA & DLP support structures
• Stereolithography (SLA) and Digital Light Processing (DLP) create
3D printed objects from a liquid (photopolymer) resin by using a
light source to solidify the liquid material.
• Depending on the exact printer type, this means that the model is
either pulled out of a vat containing liquid material as it is
solidified by a light source through a translucent window at the
bottom (bottom-up), or it is submerged into the liquid as the top
layer is treated by a light source from the top (top-down).
When is support needed in SLA & DLP?
• To make sure that the prints adhere to the print platform
and do not float around in the vat, SLA and DLP printers
require the use of supports in almost all cases.
• Support structures from these printers look like thin ribs,
with only small tips actually touching the model to save
material and printing time.
• The number of supports, their location, where they touch
the model and the structure is calculated by the software,
and is dependent on the shape, orientation and weight of
the part being printed.
• SLA and DLP are some of the most accurate technologies,
capable of printing even the smallest and most intricate
objects with accurate detail. With proper post-processing,
the usage of supports does not impact the quality of the
print.
 SLS support structures
• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) fuses powdered material in a
chamber using a laser.
• For SLS there’s no need for support structures since the powder
acts as support when the object is built up layer by layer. This
gives a lot of design freedom but also generally increases the cost
and time to print a part. SLS requires time for the build chamber
to cool down and cleaning the print requires a multi-step finishing
process, including removing unfused powder, typically with an air
gun.
summarizes whether support is required for
each of the 3D printing technologies:
Printing technology Support required
FDM Dependent on model geometry
SLA & DLP Always required
Material Jetting Always, but soluble
SLS Never
Binder Jetting Never
Metal printing Always
 UNIT 3: LIQUID AND SOLID BASED ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES

STEREOLITHOGRAPHY

Stereolithography - more commonly referred to as SLA 3D printing - is one of the most

popular and widespread techniques in the world of additive manufacturing. It works by using
a high-powered laser to harden liquid resin that is contained in a reservoir to create the desired
3D shape. In a nutshell, this process converts photosensitive liquid into 3D solid plastics in a
layer-by-layer fashion using a low-power laser and photopolymerization.

SLA is one of three primary technologies adopted in 3D printing, together with fused
deposition modeling (FDM) and selective laser sintering (SLS). It belongs to the resin 3D
printing category. A similar technique that is usually grouped with SLA is called digital light
processing (DLP). It represents a sort of evolution of the SLA process, using a projector screen
instead of a laser.

HISTORY:

The technology and the term were created in 1986 by Chuck Hull, founder of 3D
printing company 3D Systems. According to him, SLA is a method of creating 3D objects by
successively “printing” layers, by which he meant a photosensitive material.

In 1992, 3D Systems created the world’s first SLA apparatus, which made it possible
to fabricate complex parts, layer by layer, in a fraction of the time it would normally take. SLA
was the first entry into the rapid prototyping field during the 1980s and has continued to
advance itself into a widely used technology.

PROCESS:

Every standard SLA 3D printer is generally composed of four primary sections:

• A tank filled with the liquid photopolymer: The liquid resin is usually a clear and liquid
plastic.
• A perforated platform immersed in a tank: The platform is lowered into the tank and can
move up and down according to the printing process.
• A high-powered, ultraviolet laser.
• A computer interface, which manages both the platform and the laser movements
HOW IT IS WORKING?

As is the case for many additive manufacturing processes, the first step consists of
designing a 3D model through CAD software. The resulting CAD files are digitalized
representations of the desired object.

If they are not automatically generated as such, the CAD files must be converted into
STL files. Standard tessellation language (STL), or “standard triangle language”, is a file
format native to the stereolithographic software created by the Abert Consulting Group
specifically for 3D Systems back in 1987. STL files describe the surface geometry of the 3D
object, neglecting other common CAD model attributes, such as color and texture.
 The pre-printer step is to feed an STL file into a 3D slicer software, such as Cura. Such
platforms are responsible for generating G-code, the native language of 3D printers.

SLA 3D Printing

When the process starts, the laser “draws” the first layer of the print into the
photosensitive resin. Wherever the laser hits, the liquid solidifies. The laser is directed to the
appropriate coordinates by a computer-controlled mirror.

At this point, it’s worth mentioning that most desktop SLA printers work upside-down.
That is, the laser is pointed up to the build platform, which starts low and is incrementally
raised.

After the first layer, the platform is raised according to the layer thickness (typically
about 0.1 mm) and the additional resin is allowed to flow below the already-printed portion.
The laser then solidifies the next cross-section, and the process is repeated until the whole part
is complete. The resin that is not touched by the laser remains in the vat and can be reused.

Post-Processing

After finishing the material polymerization, the platform rises out of the tank and the
excess resin is drained. At the end of the process, the model is removed from the platform,
washed of excess resin, and then placed in a UV oven for final curing. Post-print curing enables
objects to reach the highest possible strength and become more stable.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:

ADVANTAGES:

• SLA is one of the most precise 3D printing techniques on the market.

• Prototypes can be created with extremely high quality, with finely detailed features (thin
walls, sharp corners, etc…) and complex geometrical shapes. Layer thicknesses can be
made as low as 25 μm, with minimum feature sizes between 50 and 250 μm.
• SLA provides the tightest dimensional tolerances of any rapid prototyping or additive
manufacturing technology: +/- 0.005″ (0.127 mm) for the first inch, and an additional
0.002″ for each additional inch.
• Print surfaces are smooth.
• Build volumes can be as high as 50 x 50 x 60 cm³ without sacrificing precision.
DISADVANTAGES:

• Printing tends to take a long time.

• Steep slopes and overhangs require support structures during the building process. Such
parts may potentially collapse during printing or curing phases.
• Resins are comparatively fragile and therefore not suitable for functional prototypes or
mechanical testing.
• SLA offers limited material and color choice, usually offering black, white, grey and clear
material. Resins are oftentimes proprietary and therefore cannot be easily exchanged
between printers from different brands.
• SLA printing costs are comparatively high (e.g. machine, materials, lab environment).

FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), or Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF), is an additive

manufacturing process that belongs to the material extrusion family. In FDM, an object is built
by selectively depositing melted material in a pre-determined path layer-by-layer. The
materials used are thermoplastic polymers and come in a filament form.

FDM is the most widely used 3D Printing technology: it represents the largest installed
base of 3D printers globally and is often the first technology people are exposed to. In this
article, the basic principles and the key aspects of the technology are presented.

A designer should keep in mind the capabilities and limitations of the technology when
fabricating a part with FDM, as this will help him achieve the best result.

How does FDM work?

Here is how the FDM fabrication process works:

I. A spool of thermoplastic filament is first loaded into the printer. Once the nozzle has
reached the desired temperature, the filament is fed to the extrusion head and in the
nozzle where it melts.
II. The extrusion head is attached to a 3-axis system that allows it to move in the X, Y and
Z directions. The melted material is extruded in thin strands and is deposited layer-by-
layer in predetermined locations, where it cools and solidifies. Sometimes the cooling
of the material is accelerated through the use of cooling fans attached on the extrusion
head.
III. To fill an area, multiple passes are required (similar to coloring a rectangle with a
marker). When a layer is finished, the build platform moves down (or in other machine
setups, the extrusion head moves up) and a new layer is deposited. This process is
repeated until the part is complete.
Characteristics of FDM

Printer Parameters

Most FDM systems allow the adjustment of several process parameters, including the
temperature of both the nozzle and the build platform, the build speed, the layer height and the
speed of the cooling fan. These are generally set by the operator, so they should be of little
concern to the designer.

What is important from a designer's perspective is build size and layer height:

The available build size of a desktop 3D printer is commonly 200 x 200 x 200 mm,
while for industrial machines this can be as big as 1000 x 1000 x 1000 mm. If a desktop
machine is preferred (for example for reducing the cost) a big model can be broken into smaller
parts and then assembled.

The typical layer height used in FDM varies between 50 and 400 microns and can be
determined upon placing an order. A smaller layer height produces smoother parts and captures
curved geometries more accurately, while a larger height produces parts faster and at a lower
cost. A layer height of 200 microns is most commonly used.

Warping

Warping is one of the most common defects in FDM. When the extruded material cools
during solidification, its dimensions decrease. As different sections of the print cool at different
rates, their dimensions also change at different speeds. Differential cooling causes the buildup
of internal stresses that pull the underlying layer upwards, causing it to warp, as seen in figure
3. From a technology standpoint, warping can be prevented by closer monitoring of the
temperature of the FDM system (e.g. of the build platform and the chamber) and by increasing
the adhesion between the part and the build platform.

The choices of the designer can also reduce the probability of warping:

• Large flat areas (think of a rectangular box) are more prone to warping and should be
avoided when possible.
• Thin protruding features (think of the prongs of a fork) are also prone to warping. In this
case, warping can be avoided by adding some sacrificial material at the edge of the thin
feature (for example 200 microns thick rectangle) to increase the area that touches the build
platform.
• Sharp corners are warping more often than rounded shapes, so adding fillets to your design
is a good practice.
• Different materials are more susceptible to warping: ABS is generally more sensitive to
warping compared to PLA or PETG, due to its higher glass transition temperature and
relatively high coefficient of thermal expansion.
Layer Adhesion

Good adhesion between the deposited layers is very important for an FDM part. When
the molten thermoplastic is extruded through the nozzle, it is pressed against the previous layer.
The high temperature and the pressure re-melts the surface of the previous layer and enables
the bonding of the new layer with the previously printed part.

The bond strength between the different layers is always lower than the base strength
of the material.

This means that FDM parts are inherently anisotropic: their strength in the Z-axis is
always smaller than their strength in the XY-plane. For this reason, it is important to keep part
orientation mind when designing parts for FDM.

For example, tensile test pieces printed horizontally in ABS at 50% infill were
compared to test pieces printed vertically and were found to have almost 4 times greater tensile
strength in the X,Y print direction compared to the Z direction (17.0 MPa compared to 4.4
Mpa) and elongated almost 10 times more before breaking (4.8% compared to 0.5%).

Moreover, since the molten material is pressed against the previous layer, its shape is
deformed to an oval. This means that FDM parts will always have a wavy surface, even for
low layer height, and that small features, such as small holes or threads may need to be post
processed after printing.

Support Structure

Support structure is essential for creating geometries with overhangs in FDM. The
melted thermoplastic cannot be deposited on thin air. For this reason, some geometries require
support structure. A detailed article explaining the use of support structure can be found here.

Surfaces printed on support will generally be of lower surface quality than the rest of
the part. For this reason, it is recommended that the part is designed in such a way to minimize
the need for support.

Support is usually printed in the same material as the part. Support materials that
dissolve in liquid also exist, but they are used mainly in high-end desktop or industrial FDM
3D printers. Printing on dissolvable supports improves significantly the surface quality of the
part, but increases the overall cost of a print, as specialist machine (with dual extrusion) are
required and because the cost of the dissolvable material is relatively high.

Infill & Shell Thickness

FDM parts are usually not printed solid to reduce the print time and save material.
Instead, the outer perimeter is traced using several passes, called the shell, and the interior is
filled with an internal, low-density structure, called the infill.

Infill and shell thickness affect greatly the strength of a part. A guide for choosing the
best shell and infill parameters for FDM 3D Printing can be found here. For desktop FDM
printers, the default setting is 25% infill density and 1 mm shell thickness, which is a good
compromise between strength and speed for quick prints.

Common FDM Materials

One of the key strengths of FDM is the wide range of available materials. These can
range from commodity thermoplastics (such as PLA and ABS) to engineering materials (such
as PA, TPU, and PETG) and high-performance thermoplastics (such as PEEK and PEI).

Thermoplastic materials pyramid available in FDM. As a rule of thumb, the higher a

material is the better its mechanical properties.

The material used will affect the mechanical properties and accuracy of the printed part,
but also its price. The most common FDM materials are summarized in the table below. A
review of the main differences of PLA and ABS, the two most common FDM materials
Rules of Thumb

• FDM can produce prototypes and functional parts fast and at a low cost from a wide
range of thermoplastic materials.
• The typical build size of a desktop FDM 3D printer is 200 x 200 x 200 mm. Industrial
machines have a larger build size.
• To prevent warping avoid large flat areas and add fillets in sharp corners.
• FDM is inherently anisotropic, so it is not recommended for mechanically critical
components.
Applications of FDM

Fused deposition modeling is great for rapid prototyping as it can produce cheap copies
of designs. Therefore, this is the main use of FDM, though it has some use in aerospace,
medical, and art sectors too.

Well-known companies such as BMW, Hyundai, and Nestle are known for using FDM
in their processes. This is in rapid prototyping to create protypes quickly to measure their
effectiveness.

Advantages and Disadvantages of FDM

FDM Advantages

• FDM is a cheap and accessible 3D technology. This makes it perfect for beginners to 3D
printing. It’s also the most commonly used rapid prototyping technology due to its ease of
access.
• The technology is simple to use, and printers are often user-friendly. This is because FDM
is mostly a consumer rather than industrial process so effort is made to make the 3D printers
easy to use.

FDM Disadvantages / FDM Limitations

• The print quality of FDM / FFF 3D prints are not as good as those by SLA or SLS.
• 3D printing with fused deposition modeling is slow. This makes it unusable in some
industries when large numbers of parts are needed quickly.
• The layer-by-layer printing in FDM can sometimes lead to problems with warping and
minor shrinking.
UNIT 4
 POWDER BASED SYSTEM
Different types of Powder Based System are :

• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

• Three Dimensional Printing (3DP)
• Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)
 Powder Based System – Selective Laser Sintering
(SLS)
• 3D Systems Corporation was founded by Charles W. Hull and
Raymond S. Freed in 1986.
• SLS is a additive manufacturing technology for producing models,
prototypes, and patterns.
• There are several models/Products available in SLS
 Sinterstation 2000
 Sinterstation 2500
 Sinterstation 2500 Plus
 Vanguard
The SLS® process is the only technology with the capability
to directly process a variety of engineering thermoplastic materials,
metallic materials, ceramic materials, and thermoplastic composites.
 Process Of SLS
• The SLS® process creates three-dimensional objects, layer by
layer, from CAD-data generated in a CAD software using
powdered materials with heat generated by a CO2 laser within
the Vanguard system.
• CAD data files in the STL file format are first transferred to the
Vanguard system where they are sliced.
From this point SLS process starts and operates as follows :
1. A thin layer of heat-fusible powder is deposited onto the part-
building chamber.
2. The bottom-most cross-sectional slice of the CAD part under
fabrication is selectively “drawn” (or scanned) on the layer of
powder by a heat-generating CO2 laser.
3. The interaction of the laser beam with the powder elevates the
temperature to the point of melting, fusing the powder particles
to form a solid mass.
 Process Of SLS
4. The intensity of the laser beam is modulated to melt the powder
only in areas defined by the part’s geometry. Surrounding powder
remain a loose compact and serve as supports.
5. When the cross-section is completely drawn, an additional layer of
powder is deposited via a roller mechanism on top of the previously
scanned layer. This prepares the next layer for scanning.
6. Steps 2,3,4 and 5 are repeated, with each layer fusing to the layer
below it. Successive layers of powder are deposited and the process is
repeated until the part is completed.
The SLS® system contains the following hardware components:
(1) Build chamber dimensions (381 × 330 × 457 mm)
(2) Process station (2100 × 1300 × 1900 mm)
(3) Computer cabinet (600 × 600 × 1828 mm)
(4) Chiller (500 × 800 × 900 mm)
SLS – Selective Laser Sintering
 Materials Used In SLS
• The Materials used in SLS are:
 Polyamide
 Thermoplastic elastomer
 Polycarbonate
 Nylon
 Metal
 Principle Of SLS
• The SLS process is based fundamentally on following principle:

(1) Parts are built by sintering when a CO2 laser beam hits a thin layer of
powdered material.
(2) The interaction of the laser beam with the powder raises the
temperature to the point of melting, resulting in particle bonding,
fusing the particles to themselves and the previous layer to form a
solid.
(3) The building of the part is done layer by layer. Each layer of the
building process contains the cross-sections of one or many parts.
(4) The next layer is then built directly on top of the sintered layer after
an additional layer of powder is deposited via a roller mechanism on
top of the previously formed layer.
 Advantages of SLS
(1) Good part stability
(2) Wide range of processing materials
(3) No part supports required
(4) Little post processing required
(5) No post curing required
(6) Advance software support

Disadvantages of SLS
(1) Large physical size of unit
(2) High power consumption
(3) Poor surface finish
 Application of SLS
The Vanguard SLS® system can produce a wide range of parts in a
broad variety of applications, including the following
(1) Concept models
(2) Functional models and working prototypes
(3) Polycarbonate (Rapid Casting) patterns
(4) Metal tools (Rapid Tool)
 Sinter Bonding
• In the process, particles in each successive layer are fused to each other
and to the previous layer by raising their temperature with the laser beam
to above the glass-transition temperature.
• The glass-transition temperature is the temperature at which the material
begins to soften from a solid to a jelly-like condition.
• This often occurs just prior to the melting temperature at which the
material will be in a molten or liquid state.
• As a result, the particles begin to soften and deform owing to their weight
and cause the surfaces in contact with other particles or solid to deform
and fuse together at these contact surfaces.
• One major advantage of sintering over melting and fusing is that it joins
powder particles into a solid part without going into the liquid phase, thus
avoiding the distortions caused by the flow of molten material during
fusing.
• As the sintering process requires the machine to bring the temperature of
the particles to the glass-transition temperature, the amount of energy
needed is considerable.
• The energy required to sinter bond a similar layer thickness of material is
approx b/w 300 to 500 times higher den photopolymerization.
 LASER ENGINEERED NET SHAPING
(LENS)
• Laser engineered net shaping or LENS is a technology developed
by Sandia National Laboratories in 1995 for fabricating metal
parts directly from a computer-aided design (CAD) solid model by
using a metal powder injected into a molten pool created by a
focused, high-powered laser beam.
• Since 1997, Optomec Inc. has focused on commercializing a direct
fabrication process
 The system consists of
• A Nd:YAG laser
• A controlled atmosphere glove box,
• A 3- 5axis computer controlled positioning system and
• A powder feed unit.
 Process Of LENS
The LENS process build components in an additive manner from
powdered metals using Nd:YAG laser to fuse powder to a solid.
• A deposition head supplies metal powder to the focus of a high
powdered Nd:YAG laser beam to be melted. This laser is
typically directed by fiber optics or precision angled mirrors.
• The laser is focused on a particular spot by a series of lenses,
and a motion system underneath the platform moves
horizontally and laterally as the laser beam traces the cross-
section of the part being produced.
• The fabrication process takes place in a low-pressure argon
chamber for oxygen-free operation in the melting zone,
ensuring that good adhesion is accomplished.
• When a layer is completed, the deposition head moves up and
continues with the next layer. The process is repeated layer by
layer until the part is completed.
• The entire process is usually enclosed to isolate the process
from the atmosphere.
 Principle Of LENS
(1) A high powered Nd:YAG laser focused onto a metal substrate
creates a molten puddle on the substrate surface. Powder is then
injected into the molten puddle to increase material volume.
(2) A “printing” motion system moves a platform horizontally and
laterally as the laser beam traces the cross-section of the partbeing
produced. After formation of a layer of the part, the machine’s
powder delivery nozzle moves upwards prior to building next layer.
 Advantages of LENS
(1) Superior material properties. The LENS process is capable of
producing fully dense metal parts . Metal parts produced can
also include embedded structures and superior material properties.
The microstructure produced is also relatively good.
(2) Complex parts. Functional metal parts with complex features
are the forte of the LENS system.
(3) Reduced post-processing requirements. Post-processing is
minimized, thus reducing cycle time.
 Disadvantages of LENS
(1) Limited materials. The process is currently narrowly focused to
produce only metal parts.
(2) Large physical unit size. The unit requires a relatively large area to
house.
(3) High power consumption. The laser system requires very high
wattage.
 APPLICATION OF LENS
LENS can be used in following general application:
(1) Build mold and die inserts
(2) Producing titanium parts in racing industry
(3) Fabricate titanium components for biological implants
(4) Produce functionally gradient structures
 THREE-DIMENSIONAL
PRINTING (3DP)
• Z Corporation was incorporated in 1994 by Hatsopoulos, Walter
Bornhost, Tim Anderson and Jim Brett.
• It commercialized its first 3DPrinter, the Z402 System, based on
three-dimensional technology (3DP) in 1997.
• Z Corporation’s latest products are the Z400, Z406 and Z810
systems.
 Process Of 3DP
• The machine spreads a layer of powder from the feed box to
cover the surface of the build piston.
• The printer then prints binder solution onto the loose powder,
forming the first cross-section.
• For monochrome parts, Z406 color printer uses all four print
heads to print a single-colored binder.
• For multi-colored parts, each of the four print heads deposits a
different color binder, mixing the four color binders to produce a
spectrum of colors that can be applied to different regions of a
part.
• The powder is glued together at where the binder is printed. The
remaining powder remains loose and supports the layers that
Will be printed above.
• When the cross-section is completed, the build piston is
lowered, a new layer of powder is spread over its surface, and
the process is repeated.
• The part grows layer by layer in the build piston until the part
is completed, completely surrounded and covered by loose
powder.
• Finally the build piston is raised and the loose powder is
vacuumed, revealing the complete part.
• Once a build is completed, the excess powder is vacuumed
and the parts are lifted from the bed.
• Once removed, parts can be finished in a variety of ways to
suit your needs.
 Advantages of 3DP
• High speed - Fastest 3D printer to date. Each layer is
printed in seconds, reducing the prototyping time of a
hand-held part to 1 to 2 hours.
• Simple to operate - The office compatible Zcorp system
is straightforward to operate and does not require a
designated technician to build a part.
• No wastage of materials - Powder that is not printed
during the cycle can be reused.
• Color - Enables complex color schemes in RP-ed parts
from a full 24-bit palette of colors.
• Versatile
 Disadvantages of 3DP
• Poor surface finish - Parts built by 3D printing have a
relatively poorer surface finish and post-processing is
frequently required.
• Limited functional parts - Relative to the SLS, parts
built are much weaker, thereby limiting the functional
testing capabilities.
• Limited Materials