Echelon matrix is a matrix where the number of zeroes preceding the first

nonzero entry of a row increases as illustrated in the matrices below.

𝟐 −𝟑 −𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟑 𝟐
𝟎 𝟒 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒 𝟎 𝟓 −𝟏
𝑨= 𝑩= 𝟎 𝟎 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟑 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

distinguished elements of an echelon matrix.

𝟏 −𝟑 −𝟐 𝟏 𝟎
If all the distinguished elements are 𝟏’s, 𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒
𝑪=
the matrix is a row echelon matrix. 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟑
A row echelon matrix with 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
distinguished elements as the only 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
𝑫= 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
nonzero entry in each column is called a
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
row reduced echelon matrix.
Matrix is a rectangular array of numbers placed inside the brackets and
represented by a capital letter.

 a11 a12  a1n  Row 𝟏

a a 22  a2n  Row 𝟐
A =  21 element or entry of
   aij   the matrix. Row 𝒊
 
a m1 am2  am n  Row 𝒎

column 𝟏 𝟐 𝒋 𝒏 𝑎21 is the element in row 2

and column 1
Matrix 𝐴 may also be denoted as 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗
𝑎𝑖𝑗 is the element in row 𝑖 (𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑚) and column 𝑗 ( 𝑗 = 1, 3, … , 𝑛)

The dimension or order of the matrix is determined by its total number of

rows and columns,𝑚 × 𝑛.
 −𝟏 𝟐 −𝟐 𝟓
Illustration 1. Given 𝑩= 𝟑 𝟎 𝟒 −𝟑
−𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 −𝟒
The following are some properties of the given matrix:
a. Dimension or order of matrix 𝑩 is 𝟑 × 𝟒
b. 𝒃𝟐𝟏 = 𝟑 𝒃𝟏𝟐 = 𝟐 𝒃𝟑𝟒 = −𝟒 𝒃𝟐𝟑 = 𝟒
𝒃𝟑𝟏 = −𝟐 𝒃𝟑𝟐 = 𝟏

A matrix which has only one row (𝒎 = 𝟏) is called a row matrix or row vector.
𝑪 = −𝟏 𝟒 𝟐 𝟑

A matrix with only one column (𝒏 = 𝟏) is called a column matrix

or column vector.
𝟑
𝑫 = −𝟐
−𝟏
Example 1. Given the following matrices:
𝟏 −𝟐 𝟐
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟎
𝑨= 𝑩 = −𝟐 𝑪= 𝟑 −𝟓 𝑬=
𝟑 −𝟑 𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏
−𝟏 𝟏 𝟒
𝑫= 𝟒 𝟐 𝟑

Required: a. order of each matrix

b. the elements 𝒂𝟐𝟏 , 𝒂𝟏𝟑 , 𝒂𝟏𝟐 , 𝒃𝟐𝟏 , 𝒃𝟑𝟏 , 𝒄𝟑𝟐 , 𝒄𝟐𝟏 , 𝒄𝟏𝟐 , 𝒅𝟏𝟑 .
Answers:
a. Order of 𝑨 is 𝟐 × 𝟑 𝑩 is 𝟑 × 𝟏 (𝑩 is a column matrix)
𝑪 is 𝟑 × 𝟐 𝑫 is 𝟏 × 𝟑 (𝑫 is a row matrix)
𝑬 is called a square matrix of order 2.
b. 𝒂𝟐𝟏 = 𝟑 𝒃𝟐𝟏 = −𝟐 𝒄𝟐𝟏 = 𝟑
𝒂𝟏𝟑 = 𝟐 𝒃𝟑𝟏 = −𝟏 𝒄𝟏𝟐 = 𝟐
𝒂𝟏𝟐 = −𝟏 𝒄𝟑𝟐 = 𝟒 𝒅𝟏𝟑 = 𝟑
Equality of Matrices

Two matrices 𝑨 and 𝑩 of order 𝒎 × 𝒏 are equal matrices if and only if their
corresponding elements are equal. That is, 𝑨 = 𝑩 if 𝒂𝒊𝒋 = 𝒃𝒊𝒋 .

Illustration 3. Given the statement 𝒘 𝟎 𝟒 𝟏 𝒚 𝟒

= .
𝟐 −𝟑 𝒙 𝟐 𝒛 −𝟏

Required: Find the values of 𝒘, 𝒙, 𝒚 and 𝒛 to make each statement true.

Answer: From the definition of equal matrices,

corresponding elements should be equal.

𝒘 = 𝟏; 𝒙 = −𝟏; 𝒚 = 𝟎; 𝒛 = −𝟑.
 𝟐𝒙 𝒚 −𝟒 𝟔
Example 2. Given the statement = .
𝒛−𝟏 𝒘 𝟏 𝟑

Required: Find the values of 𝒘, 𝒙, 𝒚 and 𝒛 to make each statement true.

Solution: From the definition of equal matrices, corresponding

elements should be equal.

𝒛−𝟏= 𝟏 𝒚 = 𝟔;
𝟐𝒙 = −𝟒
𝒙 = −𝟐 𝒛=𝟐 𝒘=𝟑
Operations on Matrices
1. Addition/Subtraction of Matrices
The sum/difference of two matrices of equal order is obtained by
adding/subtracting corresponding elements.
𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝒂𝒊𝒋 + 𝒃𝒊𝒋 𝑨 − 𝑩 = 𝒂𝒊𝒋 − 𝒃𝒊𝒋

Example 3. Given the following matrices:

𝟐 −𝟐 𝟒 𝟏
𝑨 = −𝟏 𝟑 𝑩= 𝟑 −𝟐
𝟏 𝟎 −𝟑 −𝟓
Required: Find 𝑨 − 𝑩.
Solution:
𝟐 −𝟐 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐−𝟒 −𝟐 − 𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟑
𝑨 − 𝑩 = −𝟏 𝟑 − 𝟑 −𝟐 = −𝟏 − 𝟑 𝟑 − −𝟐 = −𝟒 𝟓
𝟏 𝟎 −𝟑 −𝟓 𝟏 − −𝟑 𝟎 − −𝟓 𝟒 𝟓
 𝟐 −𝟐 𝟒 𝟏
Example 4. Given the following matrices: 𝑨 = −𝟏 𝟑 𝑩= 𝟑 −𝟐
𝟏 𝟎 −𝟑 −𝟓
Required: Find 𝒂. 𝑩 + 𝑨.
𝒃. 𝑨 + 𝑩.
Solution:
𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 −𝟐 𝟐 −𝟐 𝟒 𝟏
𝒂. 𝑩 + 𝑨 = 𝟑 −𝟐 + −𝟏 𝟑 𝒃. 𝑨 + 𝑩 = −𝟏 𝟑 + 𝟑 −𝟐
−𝟑 −𝟓 𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 −𝟑 −𝟓
𝟒+𝟐 𝟏 + −𝟐 𝟐+𝟒 −𝟐 + 𝟏
= 𝟑 + −𝟏 −𝟐 + 𝟑 = −𝟏 + 𝟑 𝟑 + (−𝟐)
−𝟑 + 𝟏 −𝟓 + 𝟎 𝟏−𝟑 𝟎 + (−𝟓)
𝟔 −𝟏
𝟔 −𝟏
𝑩+𝑨= 𝟐 𝟏
𝑨+𝑩= 𝟐 𝟏
−𝟐 −𝟓
−𝟐 −𝟓
Since 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑩 + 𝑨, the operation of matrix addition is commutative.
2. Scalar Multiplication.
When working with matrices, a real number (constant) is called a scalar,
thus, when multiplying a matrix and a real number, the operation is then
called scalar multiplication. The product of a constant 𝒌 and a matrix is
obtained by multiplying each of the elements in the matrix by 𝒌.
𝒌𝑨 = 𝒌 ∙ 𝒂𝒊𝒋
𝟐 −𝟐 𝟒 𝟏
Example 4. Given the following matrices: 𝑨 = −𝟏 𝟑 𝑩= 𝟑 −𝟐
𝟏 𝟎 −𝟑 −𝟓
Required: Find −𝟐𝑨 + 𝟑𝑩.
Solution:
𝟐 −𝟐 𝟒 𝟏 −𝟒 𝟒 𝟏𝟐 𝟑
−𝟐𝑨 + 𝟑𝑩 = −𝟐 ∙ −𝟏 𝟑 + (𝟑) 𝟑 −𝟐 = 𝟐 −𝟔 + 𝟗 −𝟔
𝟏 𝟎 −𝟑 −𝟓 −𝟐 𝟎 −𝟗 −𝟏𝟓
𝟖 𝟕
−𝟐𝑨 + 𝟑𝑩 = 𝟏𝟏 −𝟏𝟐
−𝟏𝟏 −𝟏𝟓
3. Multiplication of Two Matrices. It is important to note that two matrices
can only be multiplied if the number of columns in the first matrix is equal
to the number of row in the second matrix.

If 𝑨 is of order 𝒎 × 𝒏 and 𝑩 is of order 𝒏 × 𝒑

then 𝑪 = 𝑨 ∙ 𝑩 = 𝒄𝒊𝒋 , is of order 𝒎 × 𝒑

where: 𝒄𝒊𝒋 = 𝒂𝒊𝟏 ∙ 𝒃𝟏𝒋 + 𝒂𝒊𝟐 ∙ 𝒃𝟐𝒋 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝒊𝒏 ∙ 𝒃𝒏𝒋 .

To obtain the element 𝒄𝒊𝒋 ,

multiply each element in 𝒊𝒕𝒉 row of 𝑨 to the corresponding elements

in the 𝒋𝒕𝒉 column of 𝑩 and get the sum.
Example 5a. Given the matrices Required: Find the product 𝑨∙𝑩
𝟏
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟐
𝑨= 𝑩 = −𝟐 Since 𝑨 is 𝟐 × 𝟑 and 𝑩 is 𝟑 × 𝟏, the
𝟑 −𝟑 𝟏
−𝟏 product of the two matrices will be
Solution: of order 𝟐 × 𝟏.
𝟏
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟐
𝑨∙𝑩 = ∙ −𝟐 𝒑𝟏𝟏
𝟑 −𝟑 𝟏 𝑷= 𝒑
−𝟏
𝟐𝟏

𝟎 𝟏 + −𝟏 −𝟐 + 𝟐 (−𝟏)
𝑨∙𝑩=
𝟑 𝟏 + −𝟑 −𝟐 + 𝟏 (−𝟏) 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆:

𝟎
𝒑𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎 𝟏 + −𝟏 −𝟐 + 2 (−1)
=
𝟖
𝒑𝟐𝟏 = 𝟑 𝟏 + −𝟑 −𝟐 + 𝟏 (−𝟏)
Example 5b. Given the matrices Required: Find the product 𝑨 ∙ 𝑪
−𝟐 𝟐 Since 𝑨 is 𝟐 × 𝟑 and 𝑩 is 𝟑 × 𝟐, the
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟐 𝑪= 𝟑
𝑨= −𝟓 product of the two matrices will be
𝟑 −𝟑 𝟏
𝟏 𝟒
of order 𝟐 × 𝟐.
Solution:
−𝟐 𝟐 𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝒑𝟏𝟐
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟐 𝑷= 𝒑
𝑨∙𝑪 = ∙ 𝟑 −𝟓 𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟐𝟐
𝟑 −𝟑 𝟏
𝟏 𝟒
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆:
𝒑𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎 −𝟐 + −𝟏 𝟑 + 𝟐 (𝟏) = −𝟏
−𝟏 𝟏𝟑
𝑨∙𝑪=
−𝟏𝟒 𝟐𝟓 𝒑𝟐𝟏 = 𝟑 −𝟐 + −𝟑 𝟑 + 𝟏 (𝟏) = −14

𝒑𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟐 + −𝟏 −𝟓 + 𝟐 (𝟒) = 𝟏𝟑

𝒑𝟐𝟐 = 𝟑 𝟐 + −𝟑 −𝟓 + 𝟏 (𝟒) = 𝟐𝟓
Example 5c. Given the matrices Required: Find the product 𝑩∙𝑫

𝟏 Solution:
𝟏
𝑩 = −𝟐 𝑫= 𝟒 𝟐 𝟑 𝑩 ∙ 𝑫 = −𝟐 ∙ 𝟒 𝟐 𝟑
−𝟏 −𝟏
𝒑𝟏𝟏 𝒑𝟏𝟐 𝒑𝟏𝟑
𝑷 = 𝒑𝟐𝟏 𝒑𝟐𝟐 𝒑𝟐𝟑
𝒑𝟑𝟏 𝒑𝟑𝟐 𝒑𝟑𝟑 𝟒 𝟐 𝟑
𝑩 ∙ 𝑫 = −𝟖 −𝟒 −𝟔
−𝟒 −𝟐 −𝟑

𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆:

𝒑𝟏𝟏 = 𝟏 𝟒 = 𝟒 𝒑𝟏𝟐 = 𝟏 (𝟐) = 𝟐 𝒑𝟏𝟑 = 𝟏 (𝟑) = 𝟑

𝒑𝟐𝟏 = −𝟐 𝟒 = −𝟖 𝒑𝟐𝟐 = −𝟐 𝟐 = −𝟒 𝒑𝟐𝟑 = −𝟐 𝟑 = −𝟔

𝒑𝟑𝟏 = −𝟏 𝟒 = −𝟒 𝒑𝟑𝟏 = −𝟏 𝟐 = −𝟐 𝒑𝟑𝟏 = −𝟏 𝟑 = −𝟑
Example 5d. Given the matrices

𝟎 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝑨= 𝑩 = −𝟐
𝟑 −𝟑 𝟏
−𝟏

Required: Find the product 𝑩∙𝑨

Solution:
Since 𝑩 is 3 × 1 and A is 2 × 3, the number of column of 𝑩 is not
equal to the number of rows of 𝑨, hence, the two matrices
cannot be multiplied.
Example 6. Find the product of the given matrices
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟔
𝑩 = 𝑪=
𝟎 −𝟓 𝟒 𝟏

Required: Find the product 𝑩 ∙ 𝑪

Solution:
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟔
𝑩𝑪 = ∙
𝟎 −𝟓 𝟒 𝟏

𝟏 𝟑 + 𝟐(𝟒) 𝟏 𝟔 + 𝟐(𝟏)
𝑩𝑪 =
𝟎 𝟑 − 𝟓(𝟒) 𝟎(𝟔) − 𝟓(𝟏)

𝟏𝟏 𝟖
𝑩𝑪 =
−𝟐𝟎 −𝟓
Example 6. Perform the operations
−𝟏 −𝟏
a. 𝟒 − 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 b. 𝟐 𝟒 − 𝟐 𝟐
−𝟐 −𝟐
Solutions:
−𝟏
a. 𝟒 −𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟒 −𝟏 + −𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟐(−𝟐) = −𝟏𝟐
−𝟐
𝟏×𝟏
𝟏×𝟑 𝟑×𝟏

−𝟏 −𝟏(𝟒) −𝟏(−𝟐) −𝟏(𝟐) −𝟒 𝟐 −𝟐

b. 𝟐 𝟒 − 𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟐(𝟒) 𝟐(−𝟐) 𝟐(𝟐) = 𝟖 −𝟒 𝟒
−𝟐 −𝟐(𝟒) −𝟐(−𝟐) −𝟐(𝟐) −𝟖 𝟒 −𝟒
𝟑×𝟏 𝟏×𝟑 𝟑×𝟑
Basic Matrix Operations
a. Matrix Addition
b. Scalar multiplication
c. Matrix multiplication
Properties of Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication
If 𝑨, 𝑩, and 𝑪 are 𝒎 × 𝒏 matrices and 𝒄 and 𝒅 are scalars, then the
following properties are true.
𝟏. 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑩 + 𝑨 Commutative property of addition

𝟐. 𝑨 + (𝑩 + 𝑪) = (𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝑪 Associative property of addition

𝟑. 𝒄𝒅 𝑨 = 𝒄(𝒅𝑨) Associative property of multiplication
𝟒. 𝑰𝑨 = 𝑨 Multiplicative Identity
𝟓. 𝒄(𝑨 + 𝑩) = 𝒄𝑨 + 𝒄𝑩 Distributive property
𝟔. 𝒄 + 𝒅 𝑨 = 𝒄𝑨 + 𝒅𝑨 Distributive property
The Zero Matrix
An 𝒎 × 𝒏 matrix consisting entirely of zeros is called an 𝒎 × 𝒏 Zero
Matrix denoted by 𝑶𝒎𝒏 .
If the size of the matrix is understood, it may simply be denoted by 𝑶.

The Zero matrix is considered as an additive identity for the set of all
𝒎 × 𝒏 matrix.

Properties of Zero Matrix

If 𝑨 is an 𝒎 × 𝒏 matrix and 𝒄 is a scalar, then the following properties
are true.
𝟏. 𝑨 + 𝑶𝒎𝒏 = 𝑨
𝟐. 𝑨 + (−𝑨) = 𝑶𝒎𝒏 −𝑨 is the additive inverse of 𝑨.
𝟑. If 𝒄𝑨 = 𝑶𝒎𝒏 , then 𝒄 = 𝟎 or 𝑨 = 𝑶𝒎𝒏
Solving a Matrix Equation
Example. Solve for 𝑿 in the equation 𝟑𝑿 + 𝑨 = 𝑩, where
𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟑 𝟒
𝑨= 𝑩=
𝟎 𝟑 𝟐 𝟏
Solution:
𝟏 −𝟑 − 𝟏 𝟒 − (−𝟐)
Solve for 𝑿 in 𝑿=
𝟑 𝟐−𝟎 𝟏−𝟑
𝟑𝑿 + 𝑨 = 𝑩
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟒 𝟔
𝑿= 𝑩−𝑨 𝑿=
𝟑 𝟑 𝟐 −𝟐
Substitute the given matrices
𝟒
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟐 − 𝟐
−𝟑 𝟒 𝟑
𝑿= − 𝑿=
𝟑 𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟑 𝟐 𝟐
−
𝟑 𝟑
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
If 𝑨, 𝑩, and 𝑪 are matrices (with sizes such that the given matrix
products are defined) and 𝒄 is a scalar, then the following properties are
true.

𝟏. 𝑨 𝑩𝑪 = 𝑨𝑩 𝑪 Associative property

𝟐. 𝑨 𝑩 + 𝑪 = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑨𝑪 Distributive property

𝟑. 𝑨 + 𝑩 𝑪 = 𝑨𝑪 + 𝑩𝑪 Distributive property

𝟒. 𝒄 𝑨𝑩 = 𝒄𝑨 𝑩 = 𝑨(𝒄𝑩) Associative property

Matrix Multiplication is Associative
Example. Find the matrix product 𝑨𝑩𝑪. Show that 𝑨 𝑩𝑪 = 𝑨𝑩 𝑪.
𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟏 𝟎
𝑨= 𝟏 𝟎 𝟐
𝑩= 𝑪= 𝟑 𝟏
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑 −𝟐 𝟏
𝟐 𝟒
Solution:
−𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟏 + 𝟎 + 𝟒 𝟎 + 𝟎 + 𝟖
𝟏 −𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟐 =
𝑨 𝑩𝑪 = 𝟑 𝟏
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑 −𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟑 − 𝟔 + 𝟐 𝟎 − 𝟐 + 𝟒
𝟐 𝟒
𝟏 −𝟐 𝟑 𝟖 𝟑 + 𝟏𝟒 𝟖 − 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟕 𝟒
= =
𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟕 𝟐 𝟔 + 𝟕 𝟏𝟔 − 𝟐 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟒
−𝟏 𝟎 −𝟏 𝟎
𝟏 −𝟐 𝟏 𝟎 𝟐
𝑨𝑩 𝑪 = 𝟑 𝟏 = 𝟏−𝟔 𝟎+𝟒 𝟐−𝟐
𝟑 𝟏
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟑 −𝟐 𝟏 𝟐−𝟑 𝟎+𝟐 𝟒−𝟏
𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟒
−𝟏 𝟎
−𝟓 𝟒 𝟎 𝟓 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟎 𝟎 + 𝟒 + 𝟎 = 𝟏𝟕 𝟒
= 𝟑 𝟏 =
−𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 + 𝟔 + 𝟔 𝟎 + 𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟑 𝟏𝟒
𝟐 𝟒
Matrix Multiplication is not commutative
Example. Find the matrix product 𝑨𝑩 and 𝑩𝑨. Make a conjecture on the
obtained products.
𝟏 𝟑 𝟐 −𝟏
𝑨= 𝑩=
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟐
Solution:
𝟏 𝟑 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟑
𝑨𝑩 = 𝑩𝑨 =
𝟐 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟐 𝟎 𝟐 𝟐 −𝟏
𝟐+𝟎 −𝟏 + 𝟔 𝟐−𝟐 𝟔+𝟏
= =
𝟒+𝟎 −𝟐 − 𝟐 𝟎+𝟒 𝟎−𝟐
𝟐 𝟓 𝟎 𝟕
𝑨𝑩 = 𝑩𝑨 =
𝟔 −𝟒 𝟒 −𝟐
𝑨𝑩 ≠ 𝑩𝑨. Matrix Multiplication is not commutative
However, do not conclude that the product will never be the same.
In Matrix Multiplication, cancellation is not valid.
Example. Show that 𝑨𝑪 = 𝑩𝑪.
𝟏 𝟑 𝟐 𝟒 𝟏 −𝟐
𝑨= 𝑩= 𝑪=
𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 −𝟏 𝟐

Solution:
𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 −𝟐 𝟐 𝟒 𝟏 −𝟐
𝑨𝑪 = 𝑩𝑪 =
𝟎 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑 −𝟏 𝟐
𝟏 − 𝟑 −𝟐 + 𝟔 𝟐−𝟒 −𝟒 + 𝟖
= =
𝟎−𝟏 𝟎+𝟐 𝟐−𝟑 −𝟒 + 𝟔
−𝟐 𝟒 −𝟐 𝟒
𝑨𝑪 = 𝑩𝑪 =
−𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟐

Note that 𝑨𝑪 = 𝑩𝑪 though, 𝑨 ≠ 𝑩. Therefore, cancellation is not valid in

matrix multiplication.
The Square Matrix

A matrix is called a square matrix if

𝒎 = 𝒏, that is, the number of rows
𝟐 𝟑
and columns are equal. 𝑨𝟐 =
−𝟏 𝟏
The order of the square matrix is 𝒏.

−𝟏 𝟐 −𝟐
The diagonal of the square matrix are 𝑩= 𝟐 𝟏 𝟒
the elements 𝒂𝟏𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑𝟑 , … , 𝒂𝒏𝒏 . −𝟑 −𝟑 𝟐
Special Types of square matrix:

The diagonal matrix is a square matrix −𝟐 𝟎 𝟎

𝑨= 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
whose non-diagonal entries are all zero.
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟏

The scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix whose 𝟑 𝟎 𝟎

𝑩= 𝟎 𝟑 𝟎
entries in the diagonal are the same real
𝟎 𝟎 𝟑
number.

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
The identity or a unit matrix is a diagonal matrix 𝑪= 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
whose diagonal entries are all 𝟏’s. 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
Properties of Identity Matrix:
If 𝑨 is a matrix of size 𝒎 × 𝒏, then the following properties are true.

𝟏. 𝑨𝑰𝒏 = 𝑨
𝟐. 𝑰𝒎 𝑨 = 𝑨
If 𝑨 is a square matrix of order 𝒏, then 𝑨𝑰𝒏 = 𝑰𝒎 𝑨 = 𝑨.

Example. Perform the indicated operation.

𝟑 −𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 − 𝟐(𝟎) 𝟑(𝟎) − 𝟐(𝟏) 𝟑 −𝟐
𝟏 𝟎
𝒂. 𝟒 𝟎 𝟒 𝟏 − 𝟎(𝟎) 𝟒 𝟎 + 𝟎(𝟏) = 𝟒
𝟎 𝟏 = 𝟎
−𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏 + 𝟏(𝟎) −𝟏 𝟎 + 𝟏(𝟏) −𝟏 𝟏

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟔 𝟏 𝟔 + 𝟎 −𝟐 + 𝟎(𝟑) 𝟔
𝒃. 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 −𝟐 = 𝟎 𝟔 + 𝟏 −𝟐 + 𝟎(𝟑) = −𝟐
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟑 𝟎 𝟔 + 𝟎 −𝟐 + 𝟏(𝟑) 𝟑
Seat work. Perform the indicated operation.
𝟑 −𝟐 𝟔
𝟏. 𝑨 = 𝟒 𝟎 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝒎 𝑨. 𝟐. 𝑩 = −𝟐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑩 ∙ 𝑰𝒏 .
−𝟏 𝟏 𝟑

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟑 −𝟐
𝑰∙𝑨 = 𝟎 𝟔 𝟔(𝟏)
𝟏 𝟎 𝟒 𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏 𝑩 ∙ 𝑰 = −𝟐 𝟏 = −𝟐(𝟏)
𝟑 𝟑(𝟏)
𝟑+𝟎+𝟎 −𝟐 + 𝟎 + 𝟎
= 𝟎+𝟒+𝟎 𝟎+𝟎+𝟎
𝟎+𝟎−𝟏 𝟎+𝟎+𝟏 𝟔
𝑩 ∙ 𝑰 = 𝑩 = −𝟐
𝟑 −𝟐
𝟑
𝑰∙𝑨=𝑨= 𝟒 𝟎
−𝟏 𝟏
Transpose of a Matrix
If 𝑨 = 𝒂𝒊𝒋 , is an 𝒎 × 𝒏 matrix, then the transpose of 𝑨, 𝑨𝑻 ,
is obtained by interchanging the entries of the corresponding rows and
columns of the matrix.
𝑻
𝑨𝑻 = 𝒂𝒊𝒋 𝑨𝑻 = 𝒂𝒋𝒊

Illustration 2. Given the following matrices:

𝟏 −𝟐 𝟐
𝟎 −𝟏 𝟐 𝑩 = −𝟐 𝑪 = 𝟑 −𝟓
𝑨= 𝑫= 𝟒 𝟐 𝟑
𝟑 −𝟑 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟒
Required: Determine the transpose of each matrix.
Answers:
𝟎 𝟑 𝟒
−𝟐 𝟑 𝟏
𝑨𝑻 = −𝟏 −𝟑 𝑩𝑻 = 𝟏 −𝟐 −𝟏 𝑻
𝑪 = 𝑫𝑻 = 𝟐
𝟐 −𝟓 𝟒
𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
Properties of Transposes:
If 𝑨 and 𝑩 are matrices (with sizes such that the given matrix operations
are defined) and 𝒄 is a scalar, then the following properties are true.
𝑻 𝑻
𝟏. 𝑨 =𝑨 Transpose of a transpose
𝟐. 𝑨 + 𝑩 𝑻
= 𝑨𝑻 + 𝑩𝑻 Transpose of a sum

𝟑. 𝒄𝑨 𝑻
= 𝒄𝑨𝑻 Transpose of a scalar multiple
𝟒. 𝑨𝑩 𝑻
= 𝑩𝑻 𝑨𝑻 Transpose of a product
 Finding the Transpose of a product
−𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑 −𝟐
𝑻 𝑻 𝑻
Example. Show that 𝑨𝑩 =𝑩 𝑨 . 𝑨= 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐 𝑩= 𝟒 𝟎
𝟑 𝟐 −𝟑 −𝟏 𝟏
Solution:
−𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑 −𝟐 −𝟑 𝟓
𝑨𝑩 = 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟒 𝟎 𝑨𝑩 = −𝟑 𝟎
𝟑 𝟐 −𝟑 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝟎 −𝟗
−𝟐 𝟑 + 𝟏 𝟒 + 𝟏(−𝟏) −𝟐 −𝟐 + 𝟏 𝟎 + 𝟏(𝟏)
𝟏 𝟑 − 𝟏 𝟒 + 𝟐(−𝟏) 𝟏 −𝟐 − 𝟏 𝟎 + 𝟐(𝟏) 𝑻 −𝟑 −𝟑 𝟐𝟎
𝑨𝑩 = 𝑨𝑩 =
𝟑 𝟑 + 𝟐 𝟒 − 𝟑(−𝟏) 𝟑 −𝟐 + 𝟐 𝟎 − 𝟑(𝟏) 𝟓 𝟎 −𝟗

𝟑 𝟒 −𝟏 −𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
𝑩𝑻 𝑨𝑻 = 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟐
−𝟐 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 −𝟑
𝟑 −𝟐 + 𝟒 𝟏 − 𝟏(𝟏) 𝟑 𝟏 + 𝟒 −𝟏 − 𝟏(𝟐) 𝟑 𝟑 + 𝟒(𝟐) − 𝟏(−𝟑)
=
−𝟐 −𝟐 + 𝟎 𝟏 + 𝟏(𝟏) −𝟐 𝟏 + 𝟎(−𝟏) + 𝟏(𝟐) −𝟐 𝟑 + 𝟎 𝟐 + 𝟏(−𝟑)

−𝟑 −𝟑 𝟐𝟎
𝑩𝑻 𝑨𝑻 =
𝟓 𝟎 −𝟗
The Product of a Matrix and Its Transpose
−𝟑 𝟏
Example. Given the matrix 𝑨 = −𝟐 𝟐 ,
𝟐 𝟑
find the product 𝑨𝑨𝑻 and show that it is symmetric.

Solution:
−𝟑 𝟏 𝟗+𝟏 𝟔+𝟐 −𝟔 + 𝟑 𝟏𝟎 𝟖 −𝟑
𝑨𝑨𝑻 = −𝟐 −𝟑 −𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 = 𝟔+𝟐 𝟒+𝟒 −𝟒 + 𝟔 = 𝟖 𝟖 𝟐
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝟐 𝟑 −𝟔 + 𝟑 −𝟒 + 𝟔 𝟒+𝟗 −𝟑 𝟐 𝟏𝟑

𝟏𝟎 𝟖 −𝟑
𝑻 𝑻
𝑨𝑨 = 𝟖 𝟖 𝟐
−𝟑 𝟐 𝟏𝟑
𝑻
it follows that product 𝑨𝑨𝑻 = 𝑻
𝑨𝑨 , so 𝑨𝑨𝑻 is symmetric.
Quiz 2.
𝟑 𝟒 𝟏
Given the matrix 𝑨 = ,
𝟐 −𝟐 −𝟏

find the products:

a. 𝑨𝑻
b. 𝑨𝑻 𝑨
c. 𝑨𝑨𝑻