Contribution of Major Geographers

The Renaissance and the Beginning of Scientific Geography

The Renaissance was a period of renewed interest in classical knowledge, arts,

and sciences following the Middle Ages. This era saw significant advancements
in navigation and exploration, fueled by innovations in shipbuilding and
cartography.

Impact on Geography

● Voyages of exploration, such as those undertaken by Columbus and

Magellan, expanded the known world and introduced new geographical
data.
● The period marked a departure from the Aristotelian geocentric view,
paving the way for heliocentric theories and scientific inquiry.

Key Developments in Scientific Geography

1. The Birth of Modern Concepts

● The Renaissance laid the foundation for the emergence of scientific

geography, which was characterized by a systematic and empirical
approach to understanding the Earth's surface and its phenomena.

2. Influential Figures and Their Contributions

2.1. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)

● Laws of Motion (1618): Kepler formulated the laws of planetary motion,

which laid the groundwork for a scientific understanding of celestial
mechanics.
● Impact: His work shifted the perception of the universe from a fixed
geocentric model to a dynamic heliocentric model.
2.2. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

● Acceptance of Heliocentrism (1623): Galileo supported Copernicus'

heliocentric model and introduced mathematical descriptions of motion.
● Significance: Galileo's work emphasized empirical observation and
mathematical analysis, contrasting with the teleological explanations of
Aristotle.

2.2.3. Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

● Law of Gravitation (1686): Newton's formulation of the law of universal

gravitation provided a mathematical framework for understanding the
forces governing planetary motion.
● Contribution: His work was instrumental in establishing physics as a
systematic science, influencing geographical thought regarding spatial
relationships.

3. The Challenge of Relating Specific Information to General Principles

3.1. Emergence of Dualism and Dichotomies

● As new geographical information emerged, scholars faced the challenge

of integrating specific observations into broader theoretical frameworks.
● This struggle gave rise to dualistic approaches in geography, particularly
the distinctions between physical and human geography, as well as
regional and systematic geography.

3.2. Revival of Classical Traditions

● Efforts were made to revive the classical traditions of Greek and Roman
geography, leading to the works of scholars such as:
○ Peter Apian: Advocated the Aristotelian concept of the ekumene, or
habitable zone.
 ○ Sebastian Münster: Authored Cosmographia Universalis,
emphasizing historical geography without incorporating
mathematical rigor.
○ Philipp Cluver: Formulated universal geography and contributed to
regional geography, distinguishing geography from chorography.

Contributions of Bernard Varenius to Geography

Bernard Varenius (1622-1650) was a Dutch scholar whose seminal work,

Geographia Generalis, represents a significant milestone in the evolution of
geographical thought. His ideas emerged during a period characterized by an
explosion of geographical information due to increased exploration and trade.

Historical Context of Varenius' Work

1. The Age of Exploration

● The 17th century was marked by extensive voyages of exploration that

expanded European knowledge of the world. Countries like Portugal and
Spain were at the forefront of these explorations, leading to a wealth of
new geographical data.
● The influx of information posed challenges for scholars who sought to
organize and synthesize this knowledge into coherent frameworks.

2. Transition from Cosmography to Geography

● Prior to Varenius, geographical scholarship was heavily influenced by

cosmography, which combined astronomy, geography, and the study of
the universe.
● Varenius’ work signified a transition from a cosmographic tradition to a
more scientific approach, focusing on empirical observations and
systematic classification.

Key Contributions of Varenius

1. Geographia Generalis (1650)

● Varenius published Geographia Generalis in 1650, which is considered

one of the first comprehensive texts to systematically address the field of
geography.
● This work sought to integrate and organize the vast amount of
geographical information available at the time into a coherent body of
knowledge.

2. Distinction Between Special and General Geography

● Varenius is credited with establishing a clear distinction between Special

Geography and General Geography.
○ Special Geography: Focuses on the detailed description of specific
places and regions. It involves the in-depth study of local
characteristics, including culture, climate, and resources.
○ General Geography: Concerned with broader principles and
patterns that govern the spatial distribution of phenomena across
the Earth. This branch aims to formulate general laws and theories
that can apply to various locations.

3. Legacy and Influence

A. Longevity of Varenius' Ideas

● Varenius’ work underwent multiple editions, with later versions being

edited by prominent scholars, including Sir Isaac Newton. The English
edition published in 1693 helped spread his ideas beyond the
Dutch-speaking world.
● For over a century, Varenius’ conceptualization of geography shaped
geographical thought in Europe, guiding scholars in their studies.

B. Contribution to Modern Geography

 ● Varenius is recognized as one of the foundational figures in modern
geography. His clear distinction between Special and General Geography
is still taught today, reflecting the enduring relevance of his contributions.
● The integration of empirical data with theoretical principles that he
championed continues to be a guiding principle in contemporary
geographical research.

Geography in the 18th Century

1. Shift to Empirical Knowledge

● The 18th century witnessed a growing emphasis on empirical approaches

in the natural sciences, enhancing the scientific description of the Earth's
surface.

2. Transition from Catastrophism to Uniformitarianism

● James Hutton (1726-1797): Proposed the concept of uniformitarianism,

asserting that current geomorphic processes also operated in the past.
● This shift influenced the understanding of landform evolution.

3. Key Geographical Developments

● Rise of the politico-statistical approach, emphasizing empirical data in

geographical studies.
● Development of "reine" (pure) geography, focusing on natural units rather
than political ones.

4. Prominent Geographers and Their Contributions

● Comte de Buffon: Emphasized environmental influences on human life

and the importance of forest conservation.
● Rheinhold Forster: Pioneered a practical approach to geography through
observations made during Captain Cook’s voyages.
 ● Philippe Buache: Advanced the concept of river basins as natural regions.

The Contribution of Immanuel Kant to Geography

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) stands as a monumental figure in the realm of

philosophy and the natural sciences, including geography. His profound ideas
and systematic approach laid a philosophical foundation that significantly
shaped the discipline of geography as it evolved.

Early Life and Education

● Birth and Upbringing: Kant was born in 1724 in Königsberg, East Prussia
(now Kaliningrad, Russia). He was raised in a Pietist household, which
emphasized education and morality.
● Academic Journey: Kant pursued his studies at the University of
Königsberg, focusing on philosophy, mathematics, and natural sciences.
He became a private tutor between 1746 and 1755, which allowed him to
refine his educational philosophy and approach.

Academic Career

● Lecturer and Professor: After earning his Ph.D. in 1755, Kant was
appointed a lecturer at the University of Königsberg, later becoming a
professor of logic and metaphysics. He offered lectures on physical
geography regularly from 1756 until 1796.
● Influence of Natural Sciences: Kant's interest in geography stemmed
from his broader curiosity about the natural world and the empirical
knowledge necessary for philosophical inquiry.

Kant’s Philosophical Contributions to Geography

1. Geographic Foundations

● Philosophical Foundation: Kant provided a philosophical framework for

geography, distinguishing it from other scientific disciplines. He
 emphasized the importance of geography as a field of empirical
knowledge crucial for understanding human existence.
● Critique of Geography's Development: Kant observed that geography
was inadequately developed at the time. He dedicated himself to
organizing geographical information from various sources and focused on
specific problems, such as the deflection of winds due to Earth's rotation.

2. Key Works and Ideas

● Early Works: Kant's initial works, like General Natural History and the
Theory of the Heavens (1755), primarily dealt with astronomy. However,
his later writings included geographical references, particularly in Critique
of Pure Reason (1781) and Critique of Judgment (1798).

● Geography vs. Theology: Kant's Critique of Pure Reason freed geography

from its ties to theology, rejecting the teleological approach prevalent
during the Aristotelian era. He argued that explanations should stem from
preceding events rather than divine purpose.

The Nature of Geography According to Kant

1. Human Progress and Physical Geography

● Role of Geography: Kant asserted that geography plays a vital role in

shaping human civilization. He viewed physical geography as
anthropocentric, encompassing both natural features and human
activities.
● Influence of Buffon: Kant's perspective aligned with Buffon’s ideas,
emphasizing the connection between physical geography and human
existence, laying the groundwork for future geographical studies.

2. Knowledge Acquisition
 ● Two Modes of Empirical Knowledge: Kant proposed that knowledge
could be obtained through:
○ Pure Reason: Abstract reasoning independent of sensory
experience.
○ Sensory Experience: Divided into:
■ Inner Senses: Pertaining to human consciousness
(psychology).
■ Outer Senses: Related to the physical world (nature).

3. Classification of Knowledge

● Logical Classification: Categorizing knowledge based on inherent

characteristics, leading to systematic sciences (e.g., zoology, geology).
● Physical Classification: Grouping items by their spatial or temporal
relationships, distinguishing geography (spatial) from history (temporal).

The Relationship Between Geography and History

1. Interdependence of Disciplines
● Geography and History: Kant argued that both disciplines coexisted
throughout history. Geography was viewed as a subset of history, as
every historical event had geographical implications.
● Descriptive Nature: Geography was characterized by its descriptive
approach to spatial phenomena, while history focused on chronological
sequences.

2. The Nature of Space

● Concept of Space: In Critique of Pure Reason, Kant posited that space is a
subjective construct governed by mental frameworks rather than an
objective reality.
 ● Framework for Knowledge: Space provided a basis for organizing
experiences and perceptions, playing a crucial role in understanding
geographical phenomena.

The Dichotomy in Geography: Nomothetic vs. Idiographic

1. Generalizations in Geography

● Exceptionalism: Kant is often regarded as the "father of exceptionalism,"

opposing generalizations that overlook unique geographical and historical
contexts.
● Dichotomy: He distinguished between:
○ Nomothetic Approach: Aimed at establishing general laws
applicable across contexts (deductive).
○ Idiographic Approach: Focused on describing specific places and
phenomena without the intent of establishing universal laws
(descriptive).

Kant’s Legacy in Geography

Kant's influence extended beyond physical geography:

● Mathematical Geography: Examined the Earth's shape, size, and

movements within the solar system.
● Moral Geography: Studied the customs and traditions of different
cultures.
● Political Geography: Analyzed the interrelationship between political
units and their physical environments.
● Commercial Geography: Investigated the distribution of commodities and
trade patterns.
● Theological Geography: Examined how theological concepts varied
across different regions.

Influence on Modern Geography

 ● Central Position: Kant placed geography at the heart of scientific inquiry,
a stance that has been reaffirmed by later geographers.
● Evolution of Geographic Thought: His ideas laid the groundwork for
subsequent geographical theories and practices, influencing modern
concepts of human-environment relationships.

Alexander von Humboldt - The Father of Modern Geography

Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) is universally acclaimed as the father of

modern geography, a versatile researcher whose contributions spanned various
scientific disciplines. His work laid the foundation for a scientific approach to
geography, integrating empirical research with philosophical insights. This
chapter delves into Humboldt's life, scientific contributions, and his impact on
the development of geography as a distinct field of study.

Birth and Education

● Birth: Humboldt was born in 1769 into the Prussian aristocracy. His
father was an officer in the Prussian army, who died when Humboldt was
just ten years old.
● Education: Raised under the strict guidance of his mother, he received a
comprehensive education through private tutors in Tegel and Berlin. He
initially studied at the University of Frankfurt, later shifting to physics,
philosophy, and archaeology at the University of Göttingen.

Influences and Early Interests

● George Forster: Humboldt met George Forster during his studies, who
significantly influenced his interest in field observation and natural
phenomena. Forster had previously accompanied Captain Cook on his
second voyage, gaining substantial insights into geographical research.
● Field Trips: A hiking trip with Forster along the Rhine initiated Humboldt’s
passion for studying the interrelations among natural phenomena,
establishing the fundamentals of geography.
Humboldt's Academic and Scientific Career

1. Pursuit of Natural Sciences

● Humboldt initially joined a commerce academy but soon shifted to the

Freiberg Academy of Mines, where he studied geology, mineralogy, and
botany under renowned geologist A.G. Werner.
● His work on underground plant life culminated in "Florae Fribergensis,"
emphasizing the relationship between plants and their environments,
laying the groundwork for modern geography.

2. Influences from Romantic Philosophy

● Weimar Society: During a visit to Jena, Humboldt interacted with

intellectuals like Goethe and Schiller, who espoused the idea of harmony
and unity in nature, opposing mechanistic views of science.
● Humboldt’s empirical approach harmonized with their ideals, leading him
to advocate for an organic view of nature while embracing empirical
research.

The Concept of Universal Science

1. The Vision of a Comprehensive Study

● After publishing his research on underground plants, Humboldt
envisioned a comprehensive study connecting plant life with the entire
spectrum of natural phenomena, aiming to establish a "universal science"
or "physique du monde."

2. Scientific Expeditions
● Humboldt embarked on significant scientific expeditions, including the
renowned journey to South America (1799-1804), where he aimed to
collect and analyze data on diverse aspects of nature.

3. Focus on Interconnections
 ● His objective was to examine the relationships between various
phenomena and their environment, emphasizing the influence of
inanimate nature on living organisms.

Impact on Geography and Ecology

● Humboldt's findings on the interactions between altitude, temperature,

and vegetation in the Andes provided foundational insights into
biogeography.
● His exploration of the Chimborazo mountain and studies on the effects of
altitude on human physiology were groundbreaking.

Contributions to Climatology and Oceanography

● He described ocean currents, including the cold Peruvian Current,

highlighting the influence of marine environments on terrestrial
ecosystems.
● His meticulous observations laid the groundwork for future research in
climatology and environmental science.

Scientific Publications and Achievements

1. Major Works
● Voyage aux Régions Équinoxiales du Nouveau Continent: This
thirty-volume work documented his South American journey, providing a
comprehensive account of various natural phenomena and their
interrelations.
● Kosmos: Projected as a five-volume work, "Kosmos" aimed to unify
Humboldt's scientific ideas and research, although he completed only the
first three volumes before his death.

2. Influence on Future Generations

 ● Humboldt’s works inspired subsequent scientists, including Charles
Darwin, who regarded Humboldt’s writings as instrumental in shaping his
own scientific explorations.

Humboldt's Philosophical Contributions

1. Interdependence of Natural Phenomena

● Humboldt's philosophy emphasized the interconnectedness of all aspects
of nature, rejecting the compartmentalization prevalent in contemporary
scientific thought.
● He believed in the unity of organic and inorganic elements, advocating for
a holistic view of the natural world.

2. Influence of Human Activity

● He recognized the role of human activity in shaping the environment,
emphasizing that understanding geography requires integrating human
impacts with natural processes.

3. Legacy as a Humanist Scientist

● Humboldt's writings often addressed social issues and injustices,
demonstrating his commitment to applying scientific inquiry to societal
concerns.

Carl Ritter and His Contribution to Geography as a Discipline

Carl Ritter (1779-1859) is renowned alongside Alexander von Humboldt as a

co-founder of modern geography. Born into modest circumstances, Ritter’s
journey into the realm of geography reflects the intersection of personal
experiences and intellectual pursuits.

Early Life and Education

 ● Birth and Family: Carl Ritter was born in 1779 to a family of modest
means in Prussia. His father, a physician, passed away when Ritter was
just five years old, leaving his mother to support their family of five.
● Education Opportunity: His fortunes changed when Christian Salzmann,
a progressive educationist, selected Ritter to attend his experimental
school, emphasizing a new educational philosophy based on the
principles of Rousseau and Pestalozzi.

Innovative Education

● Learning Approach: Salzmann’s school focused on clear thinking and

careful observation rather than rote learning. Under the guidance of J.C.F.
Guts-Muths, Ritter was introduced to geography as a subject emphasizing
observation and the relationship between humans and their natural
surroundings.
● Concept of Unity in Diversity: This educational environment instilled in
Ritter the idea of unity between man and nature, which would later
become a central theme in his geographical writings.

Early Publications

● Geography of Europe: Ritter published a two-volume work on the

geography of Europe to provide context for the region’s history,
establishing himself as a significant figure in geographical scholarship.
● Erdkunde: His seminal work, Erdkunde, first published in 1817-1818,
aimed to serve as a comprehensive text on the science of the Earth in
relation to nature and the history of mankind.

The Concept of Scientific Geography

1. New Scientific Geography

● Definition and Purpose: Ritter emphasized a "new scientific geography,"

moving away from mere inventories of facts towards understanding the
 causal relationships and interconnections among diverse phenomena on
Earth.
● Unity in Diversity: He believed in a unified approach to geography,
wherein the study of geographical phenomena involved examining their
interdependencies and contextual relationships.

2. Methodology
● Causation and Interdependence: In his essay "Historical Element in
Geographical Science," Ritter articulated the importance of tracing the
causation and interdependence of spatially distributed phenomena.
● Erdkunde vs. Erdbeschreibung: Ritter preferred the term Erdkunde (earth
science) over Humboldt’s Erdbeschreibung (earth description), asserting
that geography must focus on the Earth as the home of man and its
broader physical characteristics.

Thematic Contributions to Geography

1. Philosophical Underpinnings
● Organic Unity: Ritter’s view of geography was influenced by Kantian
philosophy, seeing the Earth as an organic whole rather than a
mechanical entity. This belief tied into his Christian perspective, viewing
the Earth as divinely created for humanity.
● Teleological Perspective: His geographical framework was teleological,
interpreting the Earth's organization as serving human needs, which
differentiated his approach from that of Humboldt.

2. Methodological Innovations

● Empirical Foundations: Ritter argued for an empirical approach to

geography, advocating for field observations and comprehensive studies
rather than relying solely on theoretical constructs.
● Regional vs. Systematic Geography: He viewed regional and systematic
geography as complementary, with regional geography focusing on the
 specific characteristics of Earth areas and systematic geography
examining general distribution patterns.

Major Works and Contributions

Erdkunde Series

● Expansion and Influence: Ritter expanded his Erdkunde into a

comprehensive series, ultimately encompassing 19 volumes that covered
Africa and Asia. This work provided a systematic and detailed account of
geographical phenomena.
● Foundation for Modern Geography: His writings laid a solid foundation
for future geographers, emphasizing the interconnectedness of human
and physical environments.

Legacy and Recognition

● Teaching Influence: As the first professor of geography in Germany,

Ritter’s teachings influenced a generation of geographers who embraced
the regional perspective.
● Integration of Geography and History: He aimed to provide a sound
basis for writing history through geography, promoting the idea that
understanding geography was essential for comprehending historical
events.

Fred K. Schaefer

Fred K. Schaefer, born in Berlin, Germany, played a significant role in shaping

the philosophy and methodology of geography during the 20th century. A
member of the Social Democratic Party, Schaefer’s political and academic
interests were interwoven, reflecting his broader commitment to scientific rigor
and social change.

Schaefer’s Critical Analysis of Hartshorne’s ‘The Nature of Geography’

Schaefer is best known for his critical engagement with Richard Hartshorne’s
work, The Nature of Geography.

Key Criticisms of Hartshorne’s Approach:

● Rejection of Idiographic Orthodoxy: Schaefer criticized Hartshorne’s

focus on the uniqueness of regional geography, arguing that it limited the
discipline’s potential for developing broader scientific laws.
● Promotion of the Positivist Approach: Schaefer suggested an
alternative—grounding geography in the positivist school of science.
Positivism emphasizes observation, empirical data, and the development
of laws, much like the natural sciences.
● Adoption of Scientific Methods: Schaefer advocated for geography to
adopt the philosophy and methods common in the physical sciences,
enabling it to formulate generalizable principles and theories, rather than
focusing solely on unique, isolated cases.

Exceptionalism in Geography

In his influential paper, Exceptionalism in Geography: A Methodological

Examination, Schaefer presented a bold argument for shifting the study of
geography toward a scientific basis. He argued that geography, like other
sciences, should strive to discover and establish geographical laws.

Core Arguments of Schaefer’s Paper:

● Search for Geographical Laws: Schaefer believed that geography should

not be limited by the uniqueness of places. Instead, he advocated for a
systematic and scientific approach, where the goal is to identify general
laws governing spatial phenomena.
● Critique of Exceptionalism: The core of Schaefer’s critique was that
exceptionalism, or the idea that geography was distinct from other
sciences due to its focus on unique regions, stunted the growth of the
 field. He argued that this uniqueness did not preclude the formulation of
scientific laws.

Challenging the Notion of Geography’s Uniqueness

Schaefer’s primary challenge to Hartshorne’s ideas centered on the argument

that geography’s focus on unique places and regions did not justify its exclusion
from the methodologies used in other sciences.

Key Points:

● No Exceptionalism in Geography’s Methodology: Schaefer argued that

geography’s subject matter (unique places or regions) did not warrant a
unique methodology. Instead, he proposed that geography could employ
the same scientific methods as physics, economics, and other disciplines.
● Integration of Laws from Systematic Sciences: Schaefer used analogies
from physics and economics to demonstrate that although these sciences
also deal with unique phenomena, they still develop laws to explain
those phenomena. He contended that geography could do the same by
integrating laws from systematic sciences.

The Role of Systematic Laws in Geography

Schaefer strongly believed that geographers should aim to discover systematic

laws governing spatial relationships, much like scientists in other fields. He
argued that focusing on unique cases did not prevent the formulation of general
principles.

Supporting Points:

● Comparison with Other Sciences: Schaefer highlighted that all sciences

deal with unique events or phenomena. For instance, physics and
economics deal with specific occurrences, yet these fields develop
overarching laws that apply broadly.
 ● Contribution of Geographers: Schaefer maintained that geographers
could distinguish themselves by identifying laws that explain the
integration of various phenomena within spatial contexts. This, he
believed, would align geography with the broader scientific community.

Richard Hartshorne

Richard Hartshorne (1899-1992) was a leading figure in American geography,

best known for his methodological contributions to the discipline. Born in the
United States, Hartshorne had a distinguished academic career, most notably as
a professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

Major Contributions to Geography

Hartshorne's influence in the field of geography is largely attributed to two

significant publications: The Nature of Geography (1939) and Perspectives on
the Nature of Geography (1959). Through these works, he explored the core
philosophical and methodological questions that geographers faced during his
time.

1. The Nature of Geography (1939)

● This seminal work is perhaps Hartshorne's most famous contribution to

geography. Published in 1939, it critically surveyed the current
geographical thought in light of past developments in the field.

2. Areal Differentiation:

● One of Hartshorne’s most significant contributions was the introduction of

the concept of areal differentiation.
● This term, which he coined and used in The Nature of Geography, refers
to the idea that the earth’s surface is divided into distinct regions, each
with unique characteristics.
 ● Hartshorne emphasized the importance of studying these regions to
understand the interrelatedness of geographical features.

3. Perspectives on the Nature of Geography (1959):

● In this follow-up to his earlier work, Hartshorne clarified his

methodological stance. He argued that the goal of geography is the
comprehension of the earth's surface, which involves both the analysis
and synthesis of the complex and interrelated phenomena that exist
across different regions.
● This work further reinforced his belief in the importance of understanding
geographical regions as integrated wholes, composed of both physical
and human elements.

Key Points in Hartshorne’s Philosophy:

● Interrelationship of Natural and Social Phenomena: Hartshorne

believed that geography must consider both natural laws (governing
physical landscapes) and social laws (governing human activity) to fully
explain the nature of regions. He rejected the idea that geography should
only focus on the physical environment, stressing the importance of
human influence on landscapes.
● Geography as a Space Science: Hartshorne famously described
geography as the science of space, in contrast to history, which he called
the "science of time." He believed that just as history focuses on
understanding events over time, geography should focus on
understanding phenomena across space.
● Equal Significance of Human and Physical Geography: Hartshorne
argued that the study of both the physical environment and human
activity were of equal importance to geography. He stressed that
geography must analyze how these two elements interact to shape the
landscape, contributing to the understanding of regions, places, and
geographic features.
Major School of thoughts and their key geographers

1. French school

Name Time Period Major Contributions

Vidal de Lablache 1848-1918 ● Founder of Human Geography,

● Developed "possibilism,"
● Published "Annales de geographie," "Atlas
Generale Vidal-Lablache," and "Human
Geography,"
Jean Brunhes 1869- ● Disciple of Vidal de Lablache, emphasized
principles of activity and interaction in
geographical studies
● Limited human geography to soil occupation,
conquest of plant and animal world, and
destructive/robber economy.
Élisée Reclus 1830-1905 ● Prominent idealist and social anarchist,
● Recognized for "La Terre," "Nouvelle
Géographie Universelle," and posthumous
"L’Homme et la Terre,"
Emmanuel de 1873-1955 ● Specialized in physical geography,
Martonne ● Known for "Traité de Géographie Physique"
and "La France Physique,"
Albert 1872-1940 ● Focused on Human Geography
Demangeon ● Edited "Annales,"
● Researched spatial variations of farmsteads,
transport geography, population and
international economics

2. German school

Name Time Period Major Contributions

Oscar Peschel 1826-1875 ● Developed comparative geography,

● Laid the foundation of modern physical
geography,
● Edited “DAS AUSLAND.”
Ferdinand von 1833-1905 ● Differentiated between "general" and
Richthofen "regional" geography,
● Emphasized systematic regional study,
conducted fieldwork in China,
● Introduced concepts such as Erteile, Länder,
Landschaften, Örtlichkeiten.
Friedrich Ratzel 1844-1904 ● Applied Darwin’s theory to human societies
(social Darwinism),
● coined "anthropogeography,"
● Advocated a deterministic approach and
"lebensraum" (living space).
Alfred Hettner 1859-1941 ● Advocated geography as a chorological
science (study of regions),
● Stressed the importance of regional
geography, and claimed geography should
include both unique (regional) and general
(universal) studies.
Albrecht Penck 1858-1945 ● Formulated the concept of geomorphology,
● Stressed the importance of accurate maps
and topographic maps,
● His work influenced Wladimir Koppen.

3. American School

Name Time Period Major Contributions

William Morris 1850-1934 ● Introduced new geography in America

Davis ● Developed the concept of the cycle of
erosion (geographical cycle)
● Founded the Association of American
Geographers.
Mark Jefferson 1863-1949 ● Focused on "man on the earth",
● Conducted extensive research in urban
geography,
● Coined concepts such as "Central places"
and "Primate City"
 Ellsworth 1876-1947 ● Studied climatic influences on human
Huntington societies
● Wrote "The Pulse of Asia" and "Civilization
and Climate", but faced criticism for lack of
robust data.
Ellen Churchill 1863-1932 ● Studied under Ratzel, brought Ratzel's
Semple ideas to English-speaking audiences,
● Published "American History and its
Geographic Conditions" and "Influences of
Geographic Environment"

4. British School

Name Time Period Major Contributions

Mary Somerville 1780-1872 ● Authored "Physical Geography" which

described surface features, oceans,
atmosphere, and human impacts;
● Influenced George P. Marsh.
Francis Galton 1822-1911 ● Developed the first British weather map
(1861),
● Introduced isobars, recognized air
circulation around high-pressure centers,
● contributed significantly to meteorology
through his work with the Royal
Geographical Society.
Halford J. 1861-1947 ● Introduced the heartland theory in "The
Mackinder Geographical Pivot of History" (1904),
● Emphasized the strategic importance of
geography in global power dynamics.
George Goudie 1850-1930 ● Authored "Handbook of Commercial
Chisholm Geography" (1889),
● Contributed to the understanding of world
trade, became a pioneer in commercial
geography
5. Russian School

Geographer Time Period Contribution

Petr Kropotkin 1842-1921 ● Served in the military in Siberia, observing

peasant communities and natural
landscapes, forming his ideas on "nature"
and social equality.
● Became an anarchist, emphasizing
freedom, cooperation over competition,
and self-organization without authority.
● Developed the theory of Mutual Aid,
focusing on cooperation in nature and
human societies.

M. V. Lomonosov 1711-1765 ● Father of geology, first geomorphologist,

studied internal structures of the earth,
and expeditions to Arctic land.

A. I. Voeikov 1842-1916 ● Worked on earth's heat and water

balance, studied climatology, contributed
to agriculture, pointed out overgrazing as
the cause of gully erosion.

V. V. Dokuchaev 1846-1903 ● Proposed the concept of the law of the

zonal distribution of integrated natural
complexes, contributing to soil geography.

Dmitry Nikolayevich 1843-1923 ● Anthropologist and geographer, wrote

Anuchin textbooks that popularized geography in
Russia.

Nikolai Mikhailovich 1862-1939 ● Founder of fisheries research in the

Knipovich Russian North, led expeditions and
authored monographs on hydrology and
fisheries.

Lev Semyonovich 1876-1950 ● Leading Russian geographer proposed the

Berg evolutionary theory of 'nomogenesis'