Dualism and Quantitative Revolution in Geographical Studies

Dualism and Dichotomy in Geography

Dualism refers to the ideological split within a subject that alters both its basic
philosophy and methodology. In geography, dualism represents the division of
the subject into two distinct branches, where the governing philosophical
perspectives of these branches differ significantly. When these branches’
methodologies and philosophies become contradictory, this division transforms
into a dichotomy.

Key Dichotomies in Geography

Over time, various dichotomies have emerged within the field of geography.
These dichotomies reflect the tension between competing methodologies and
approaches to the study of the Earth and human activity. The sequential order
of development of dualism includes:

1. Systematic Vs Regional
2. Physical Vs Human
3. Idiographic Vs Nomothetic
4. Quantitative Vs Behavioural
5. Determinism Vs Possibilism

Systematic and Regional Geography

The formal introduction of dualism in geography occurred in the 17th century,

often described as the classical period of modern geography. Bernhard
Varenius, a German geographer, was instrumental in framing this division. His
work, especially his book "Geographia Generalis," laid the groundwork for
distinguishing between two primary branches of geography:

Special Geography
 ● Definition: Special geography is primarily concerned with the detailed
description of particular places.
● Focus: It relies on direct observation and provides practical information for
governance and commerce.
● Example: This could include the study of specific landforms, climates, and
cultures in a region.

General Geography

● Definition: General geography is based on universally applicable laws,

often derived from mathematics and astronomy.
● Evolution: Over time, general geography evolved into what is now known
as systematic geography. This branch seeks to understand phenomena
like climate, vegetation, and landforms on a global scale.

Evolution into Systematic and Regional Geography

● Systematic Geography:
Systematic geography grew from general geography and involves the
study of specific physical or human phenomena across the world. It uses
the methods of systematic sciences like botany, zoology, or geology,
where phenomena are classified by form and grouped based on common
characteristics. For example:
○ The study of global vegetation patterns.
○ Investigating the distribution of climates across continents.

● Regional Geography:
Special geography evolved into regional geography, which focuses on the
study of particular regions and their various characteristics. It considers
multiple factors like:
○ Natural vegetation, landforms, and climate within a defined region.
○ Human and cultural influences that shape a region.
 ○ For example, the study of Europe's climate, vegetation, and
landforms would fall under regional geography.

Contributions of Key Geographers

1. Alexander von Humboldt

● Systematic Geography: Humboldt, considered the father of systematic

geography, expanded on the ideas of Varenius. In his famous book
"Cosmos," he emphasized the need for studying the harmonious unity of
the cosmos, integrating natural and human phenomena.
● Uranography vs. Geography:
○ Uranography: Descriptive astronomy that deals with celestial
bodies.
○ Geography: Concerned with the terrestrial part of the cosmos,
aiming to decipher the unity within the vast diversity of physical and
human phenomena on Earth.

2. Carl Ritter

● Inductive Method in Geography:

Ritter, a contemporary of Humboldt, introduced the inductive method into
geography, focusing on regional geography. His concept of geography
was based on local conditions, termed as ‘lokalverhaltnisse’, which
described a spatial unit using three characteristics:
○ Topographical: The physical divisions of the Earth's surface.
○ Formal: Distribution and movement of air, water, etc., crucial for
human life.
○ Material: The distribution of biotic life and minerals.

3. Ferdinand von Richthofen

● Systematic Geography: Richthofen perceived geography as the science

of the Earth’s surface and its phenomena, which were causally
 interrelated. He believed that systematic geography was crucial for
understanding the interrelationships between phenomena on the Earth’s
surface.

4. Friedrich Ratzel

● Anthropogeographie: Ratzel introduced the systematic study of human

geography. Before Ratzel, human geography was limited to regional
studies. His work reflected the Darwinian concept of natural selection,
applied to human geography.

5. Alfred Hettner

● Hettner made a clear distinction between systematic geography, which

aimed to formulate general laws, and regional geography, which focused
on peculiarities within regions. His contributions helped further solidify
the distinction between these two branches of geography.

6. Vidal de la Blache

● Pays (Small Local Units): De la Blache revived the regional tradition in

France by introducing the concept of pays, small local units that served as
ideal units for geographic study. This concept helped geographers use
smaller regions to draw general conclusions.

Physical Geography versus Human Geography

The dichotomy between Physical Geography and Human Geography has been
present since the inception of the field. This divide is one of the most prominent
and longest-standing debates in geography, shaping the way geographical
phenomena are studied and understood.

Understanding Physical Geography

Physical Geography is concerned with the study of Earth's natural landscapes,
processes, and features. It deals with the physical environment, including
landforms, climate, vegetation, oceans, and ecosystems. The goal of physical
geography is to understand the processes that shape the Earth and establish
general laws that apply universally.

Key Aspects of Physical Geography:

● Landforms and Geomorphology: Understanding the formation,

classification, and evolution of Earth's landforms, such as mountains,
valleys, and plains.
● Climatology: The study of climate, weather patterns, and atmospheric
phenomena.
● Oceanography: The exploration of the world's oceans, including their
physical properties, circulation, and marine life.
● Biogeography: Examining the distribution of species and ecosystems
across the planet.

Understanding Human Geography

Human Geography, on the other hand, focuses on the study of human societies
and their relationships with the environment. It explores how humans interact
with, modify, and organize space and place.

Key Aspects of Human Geography:

● Population Geography: Examining the distribution, density, and dynamics

of human populations.
● Cultural Geography: The study of cultural landscapes, traditions, and the
spatial expression of human cultures.
● Urban Geography: The analysis of cities, towns, and their spatial
organization.
 ● Economic Geography: Investigating how economic activities are
distributed across space, including trade, industry, and agriculture.

Historical Origins of the Dichotomy

The dichotomy between physical and human geography dates back to ancient
times, with Greek scholars playing a key role in its inception. The Greeks were
some of the earliest scholars to study geography, and they recognized the
distinction between natural and human-made phenomena.

Contributions from Greek Scholars:

● Hecataeus: One of the earliest geographers, who placed significant

emphasis on physical geography, focusing on describing the Earth's
surface features.
● Eratosthenes and Ptolemy: These scholars contributed heavily to
physical geography, particularly in understanding the Earth's size, shape,
and mathematical geography.
● Strabo and His Disciples: Strabo, in contrast, emphasized human
geography, focusing on human activities and cultural influences on
landscapes.

Key Figures in the Development of Physical and Human Geography

● Bernhard Varenius' Hecataeus, Kant, Humboldt, Darwin, Davis, Penck,

and L.C. King: These scholars laid the foundations for physical
geography, focusing on Earth’s natural features and processes.

● Herodotus, Friedrich Ratzel, Ellen Churchill Semple, Ellsworth

Huntington, Ritter, Mackinder, Harris, Burgess, Carl Sauer, and Stamp:
These geographers advanced the study of human geography, exploring
how humans interact with and modify their environments.

Idiographic versus Nomothetic Approaches in Geography

The debate between the Idiographic and Nomothetic approaches is one of the
foundational discussions in geography, representing two distinct perspectives
on how to study the Earth’s surface and its phenomena. These approaches
guide how geographers observe, analyze, and understand spatial differences
and similarities across places.

Idiographic Approach

The Idiographic Approach focuses on the uniqueness of places and aims to

describe and explain the variations that exist across different areas on the
Earth. It emphasizes the importance of studying individual regions or places in
detail, acknowledging that each place has its own distinctive characteristics
that set it apart from others.

Key Features of the Idiographic Approach:

● Focus on Uniqueness: Every place on Earth is unique, and the goal is to

understand the specific attributes that distinguish one place from another.
● Detailed Descriptions: Geographers employing this approach engage in
meticulous, descriptive work, often based on empirical observations of
places.
● Spatial Differentiation: The approach highlights the differences across
locations, explaining how and why certain phenomena occur in one place
but not another.

Historical Roots of the Idiographic Approach:

● Kant, Hettner, and Hartshorne: These geographers viewed geography as

fundamentally idiographic. They believed that geography should focus on
the spatial differentiation of phenomena, studying the variations across
different locations in detail. Kant, for example, saw geography as the
study of the Earth’s surface and its specific features, emphasizing the
importance of understanding the uniqueness of each region.
Examples of Idiographic Studies:

● Regional Geography: This branch of geography, which focuses on

understanding the characteristics of specific regions, exemplifies the
idiographic approach. For instance, studying the physical, cultural, and
economic features of a specific region, such as the Amazon Rainforest or
the Sahara Desert, falls under this approach.

Nomothetic Approach

In contrast to the idiographic approach, the Nomothetic Approach seeks to find

general laws and patterns that apply across various places. It aims to establish
theories or laws that can explain similarities between locations, moving from
specific observations to broader generalizations.

Key Features of the Nomothetic Approach:

● Generalization: The nomothetic approach focuses on identifying

commonalities and similarities across different places, aiming to establish
general laws or principles that apply universally.
● Theory Development: Instead of focusing on individual places, this
approach is concerned with developing theories that can explain
phenomena at a broader scale.
● Systematic Geography: This type of geography, which deals with global
or large-scale studies (e.g., climate patterns, vegetation distribution), is
rooted in the nomothetic approach.

Historical Roots of the Nomothetic Approach:

● Humboldt and Sauer: Geographers such as Alexander von Humboldt and

Carl Sauer laid the groundwork for the nomothetic approach. They
emphasized systematic geography, which seeks to find universal laws or
principles in geography. Humboldt, for instance, aimed to understand the
 unity of nature and formulated general laws regarding climate and
vegetation that could be applied globally.

Examples of Nomothetic Studies:

● Systematic Geography: The study of global phenomena like climate

systems, ocean currents, and patterns of landforms fall under the
nomothetic approach. For instance, identifying global patterns in climate
zones or the distribution of vegetation would be a nomothetic approach,
as it seeks to create universal laws that can explain these phenomena
across various regions.

Idiographic Approach Nomothetic Approach

Focuses on uniqueness of places Focuses on similarities between

places

Detailed, descriptive analysis of Seeks to develop general laws or

specific locations principles

Examples: Regional geography, Examples: Systematic geography,

studying specific regions like the studying global patterns like
Himalayas climate zones

Key figures: Kant, Hettner, Key figures: Humboldt, Sauer

Hartshorne

Inductive vs. Deductive Approaches

The idiographic and nomothetic approaches are closely related to inductive and
deductive methods of research.

Inductive Approach

● Description: In an inductive
approach, researchers begin by collecting data and then look for patterns
 in the data. From these patterns, they develop theories or explanations
that move from the specific to the general.
● Relation to Idiographic Approach: The inductive method aligns with the
idiographic approach, as it involves detailed observation of specific cases
and gradually building generalizations.

Deductive Approach:

● Description: In a deductive
approach, researchers start with a theory or general law and then test
this theory with data. This method moves from the general to the
specific.
● Relation to Nomothetic Approach: The deductive method is closely
related to the nomothetic approach, as it involves testing general laws or
theories to see if they apply in specific situations.

Quantitative Versus Behavioural Geography

In the years following World War II, geography as a discipline underwent

significant changes, with two major schools of thought emerging: Quantitative
Geography and Behavioural Geography. The rise of Quantitative Geography
marked a period of enthusiasm for the application of mathematics and statistics
to geographical research, aiming to bring precision and predictability to the
field. Conversely, Behavioural Geography emerged as a response to the
limitations of quantitative models, emphasizing the importance of
understanding human behaviour and cognition in shaping geographic
phenomena.

Quantitative Geography

Quantitative Geography emerged as a dominant approach in the post-World

War II era, particularly in the American academic community. It was inspired by
the growing influence of the physical sciences and mathematics, leading
geographers to adopt statistical methods and mathematical models to explain
geographic phenomena.

The Rise of Quantitative Geography

● Emphasis on Objectivity: Quantitative geography aimed to bring

objectivity and precision to the study of geography by using mathematical
and statistical techniques. This approach sought to eliminate the
ambiguity often associated with qualitative descriptions.
● Quantitative Revolution: The enthusiastic embrace of mathematical
methods during the 1950s and 1960s was dubbed the "Quantitative
Revolution." Geographers believed that quantification would unify the
discipline and provide a more scientific basis for geographical research.
● Complex Formulae and Models: Quantitative geographers used complex
formulae to model spatial relationships and processes. For instance,
models like Central Place Theory and Gravity Models were developed to
explain patterns of settlement, trade, and spatial interaction.

Key Features of Quantitative Geography

● Statistical Techniques: Geographers used tools such as regression

analysis, correlation, and factor analysis to study relationships between
different variables.
 ● Mathematical Models: These models aimed to explain spatial patterns
and predict future trends. For example, Central Place Theory used
mathematical principles to explain the distribution of cities and services.
● Generalization: The goal of quantitative geography was to establish
general laws that could be applied universally, allowing geographers to
predict and explain geographic phenomena in a more precise and
scientific manner.

Criticisms of Quantitative Geography

Despite its widespread acceptance, quantitative geography faced several

criticisms:

● Oversimplification: Critics argued that mathematical models often

oversimplified the complexities of human-environment interactions,
ignoring cultural, social, and psychological factors.
● Poor Descriptions of Reality: Quantitative models, such as Central Place
Theory, were found inadequate in explaining real-world phenomena. For
example, the theory’s assumption of a rational economic man—someone
who always makes decisions to maximize profit—failed to explain
behaviour like people choosing to live in flood-prone areas despite the
risks.
● Lack of Human Dimension: The approach was criticized for focusing too
much on numbers and not enough on the actual lived experiences of
people and their interactions with the environment.

Behavioural Geography

Behavioural Geography emerged in the 1960s as a reaction to the limitations

of quantitative geography. It emphasized the importance of human behaviour
and cognition in understanding geographical phenomena, challenging the
notion of humans as purely rational beings who make decisions based solely on
economic or mathematical principles.
The Origins of Behavioural Geography

● Reaction to Quantitative Models: Many geographers were dissatisfied

with the normative and mechanistic models developed through
quantitative methods. These models often assumed that people acted
rationally and that geographic spaces were homogeneous, which did not
reflect the complexities of real human behaviour.
● Cognitive and Decision-Making Variables: Behavioural geographers
introduced the idea that people's behaviour is influenced by their
perceptions and decisions, which are often subjective and shaped by their
understanding of the environment.

Key Features of Behavioural Geography

● Environmental Perception:

Behavioral geography focuses

on how people perceive their
environment and how these
perceptions influence their
spatial behaviour. People act
not only based on physical
realities but also on their
cognitive understanding of
their surroundings.

● Decision-Making Processes: Unlike the economic man in quantitative

models, who always acts to maximize profit, behavioural geography
recognizes that people often make decisions based on satisficing (doing
what is "good enough") rather than optimizing. For example, Wolpert
(1964) showed that Swedish farmers did not make decisions that
maximize their profits but instead made decisions that satisfied their basic
needs and circumstances.
 ● Behaviouralism: Rooted in psychology, behaviouralism is the study of
how people interact with their environment. It focuses on how individuals'
experiences and perceptions shape their behaviour, recognizing that
people are influenced by social, cultural, and psychological factors.

Environmental Cognition and Behaviour

● Man-Environment Relationship:

Behavioral geography examines

the psychological processes
through which people come to
know and understand their
environment, and how these processes influence their behaviour.

● Boulding's Model of Man-Environment Relationship (1956): According

to this model, people’s actions are influenced by their perceptions of the
environment. Behavioral geographers use this framework to understand
how environmental cognition shapes spatial behaviour.

The Rise of Behavioural Geography

● By the late 1960s, many geographers began to critique the limitations of

purely quantitative methods. The behavioural approach gained
popularity as geographers realized that the complexity of human
behaviour could not be adequately explained by mathematical models
alone. The focus shifted towards understanding how people perceive their
environments and make decisions based on their subjective experiences.
● Geographers like Wolpert and Downs showed that human behaviour
was often driven by satisfaction—making decisions that are "good
enough" rather than optimal. These insights led to a more nuanced
understanding of human-environment interactions, challenging the
assumptions of rationality embedded in quantitative models.
Determinism Versus Possibilism in Geography

The relationship between man and the environment has been a central
concern of geography throughout its history. One of the most significant
debates in this context is between the philosophies of determinism and
possibilism.

Determinism

Determinism is the view that the environment determines or significantly

influences human behavior and activities. It holds that human beings are
passive agents shaped by the forces of nature, with limited capacity to alter or
escape the effects of their environment.

Key Features of Determinism

● Environmental Control: Determinism posits that physical factors, such as

climate, landforms, and natural resources, play a dominant role in shaping
human activities, societies, and cultures.
● Humans as Passive Agents: According to this view, humans are seen as
passive in the face of nature’s control. They adapt to the constraints
imposed by the environment and have limited influence over their
surroundings.

Historical Background of Determinism

The idea of environmental determinism can be traced back to ancient scholars:

● Aristotle: He believed that the world’s climatic zones—frigid, temperate,

and torrid—determined where human habitation was possible. He argued
that temperate zones were more conducive to civilization, while extreme
climates hindered human development.
 ● Hippocrates: As a physician, Hippocrates suggested that the health and
behavior of people were directly influenced by climate and geographic
conditions.

In the medieval period, Montesquieu (1748) in his book The Spirit of the Laws
argued that climatic conditions governed the persistence or degeneration of
cultural traits.

Modern Determinism

Determinism continued into the modern era, supported by prominent scholars:

● Immanuel Kant: The philosopher Kant was a proponent of geographical

determinism, believing that the physical environment significantly
influenced human culture and society.
● Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904): As a key figure in modern geographical
determinism, Ratzel proposed that human societies were shaped by their
environment. In his seminal work Anthropogeographie, he analyzed
socio-economic activities and culture in relation to the physical
environment, laying the foundation for modern deterministic thought.

Examples of Determinism

● Climate and Civilization: According to environmental determinism, the

development of civilizations is heavily influenced by the climate. For
example, temperate climates are seen as promoting human progress,
while harsh climates may restrict it.
● Geographical Barriers: Determinists argue that natural barriers, such as
mountains or deserts, play a crucial role in isolating societies, affecting
trade, communication, and cultural exchange.

Possibilism
Possibilism, in contrast to determinism, argues that while the environment sets
certain constraints or offers opportunities, humans have the ability to choose
from a range of possibilities in how they respond to environmental challenges.
Possibilism places greater emphasis on human agency and the role of culture,
technology, and innovation in shaping human activities.

Key Features of Possibilism

● Human Choice and Agency: Possibilism views humans as active agents

capable of modifying their environment and making choices about how to
use the resources available to them.
● Environment as a Limiting Factor: The environment provides
opportunities and constraints, but human beings can adapt to these
conditions in various ways, and the final outcome depends on cultural and
technological factors.

Historical Background of Possibilism

The roots of possibilism can be traced back to classical scholars like Plato, who
emphasized human free will and choice. However, the concept gained
momentum in the 19th and 20th centuries through the work of French scholars.

● Vidal de la Blache (1845–1918): Often credited with formulating the

doctrine of possibilism, Vidal de la Blache argued that nature provides a
range of possibilities for human action, but humans ultimately decide how
to respond. He introduced the concept of "genre de vie" (way of life),
which refers to the ways in which human groups adapt to their
environment through practices, traditions, and technologies.
● According to Vidal, humans are partners with the environment, not slaves
to it. He emphasized that culture plays a significant role in how societies
interact with nature, and different groups may respond to the same
environmental conditions in different ways.

The Rise of Possibilism in the 20th Century

Possibilism gained significant traction in the 20th century, with scholars such as
Lucien Febvre (1932) and Jean Brunhes building on Vidal de la Blache's ideas.

● Lucien Febvre: In his work A Geographical Introduction to History, Febvre

argued that human action is shaped by a range of possibilities provided
by the environment, but that humans are not limited to one deterministic
outcome. Febvre rejected the idea that environmental conditions were the
sole determinant of human behavior, emphasizing instead the role of
human initiative.
● Jean Brunhes: Brunhes, in his book La Géographie de L'Histoire (1910),
focused on how humans exploit the Earth’s resources and adapt to its
limitations. He acknowledged that while the environment imposes certain
constraints, human activity can modify these conditions to a significant
extent.

Examples of Possibilism

● Agricultural Adaptations: Possibilism is evident in how different societies

use agricultural practices to adapt to their environment. For example,
terraced farming in mountainous regions and irrigation in arid areas
demonstrate how humans modify their surroundings to suit their needs.
● Urban Development: Possibilism explains how humans can overcome
natural barriers, such as building bridges across rivers or tunnels through
mountains, to expand trade and settlement opportunities.

Griffith Taylor, a prominent critic, argued that possibilism ignored the real
constraints posed by the physical environment, and that geography should
retain its focus on the natural world.

Quantitative Revolution in Geography

The Quantitative Revolution in geography, which occurred during the 1950s

and 1960s, marked a significant transformation in the discipline. It transitioned
geography from an idiographic (descriptive) approach, which focused on
regional differentiation, to a nomothetic (law-seeking) approach. The
quantitative revolution emphasized the development of models and spatial
structures, positioning geography as a spatial science.

Key Changes:

● Traditional geography, which previously described the Earth's surface,

evolved into a scientific discipline that explained spatial patterns.
● The revolution introduced the use of positivism, where statistical analysis
became essential in geography’s methodology.
● Scholars like Burton emphasized the discovery of universals and the
construction of theoretical bases through models.

Primary Objectives:

1. Shift from narrative to scientific discipline: To give geography a scientific

foundation through statistical methods.
2. Explain spatial patterns logically: Introducing objective methods to study
spatial distribution and phenomenon.
3. Incorporate mathematical and statistical techniques: To generalize and
explain patterns in geographical research.
4. Provide a theoretical foundation: Create laws and generalizations to
predict spatial patterns.
5. Introduce philosophical rigor: Elevate geography to a discipline rooted in
empirical, testable principles.

The Role of the Quantitative Revolution in Geography

1. The Historical Context

Historically, geography was a descriptive discipline that narrated the surface

features of the Earth. The quantitative revolution, influenced by natural
sciences (such as physics and mathematics), aimed to make geography more
analytical and theoretical. It emerged as geographers sought to explain
geographical phenomena in a spatial framework using quantitative methods.

2. Movement Initiated by Natural Sciences

The revolution was initially driven by scholars from physics and mathematics,
leading to a shift in physical sciences. By the late 1960s, it became a central
aspect of the social sciences (economics, psychology, sociology), although it
made little impact on disciplines like history and anthropology.

3. Opposition and Struggle for Acceptance

The revolution faced significant opposition, particularly from proponents of

environmental determinism. Geographers like Semple, Huntington, and
Ratzel sought deterministic laws, while the revolutionaries aimed to adopt
more probabilistic trends using statistical methods. The opposition was
especially strong in the United States, where determinism had a strong
foothold.

The Path of the Quantitative Revolution

1. Influential Publications

Several key publications significantly influenced the growth of quantification in

geography:

● Neuman and Morgenstern’s "Theory of Games and Economic Behavior"

(1944): Introduced game theory, which laid the foundation for
understanding spatial behaviors.
● Wiener's "Cybernetics" (1948): Pioneered the concept of feedback
systems, influencing geographic modeling.
● Zipf’s "Human Behavior and the Principle of Least Effort" (1949):
Applied quantitative analysis to human behavior in spatial contexts.
 ● Stewart’s "Empirical Mathematical Rules Concerning Distribution and
Equilibrium of Population" (1947): Introduced new methods for
analyzing geographic distributions.

2. Geographic Shifts

Quantification was rapidly embraced in geography. Strahler, for example,

criticized traditional geomorphology’s reliance on descriptive methods and
supported a more quantitative, dynamic systems approach. The revolution had
a profound impact on the subfields of geomorphology, climatology, economic
geography, and human geography.

Quantitative Revolution in Geomorphology and Climatology

1. Geomorphology

● The introduction of quantitative methods into geomorphology was

controversial. Traditionalists, like W.M. Davis, focused on descriptive and
regional geomorphology, while proponents like Strahler advocated for a
more scientific, quantitative approach.

2. Climatology

● Geographers such as Thornthwaite, Mather, and Bryson utilized

statistical techniques to explain various climatic patterns.
● Their work helped establish climatology as a data-driven field, reducing
the resistance seen in other subfields of geography.

Quantitative Revolution in Human and Economic Geography

1. Struggles in Human Geography

● In human geography, the quantitative revolution faced challenges due to

the uncertainty of human behavior.
 ● Human geography had traditionally relied on possibilism, which
emphasized human agency and free will. The application of statistical
methods seemed incompatible with the unpredictable nature of human
choices.
● However, proponents of quantification argued that parallels could be
drawn with quantum mechanics, where physicists also dealt with
unpredictable particles but were able to make probabilistic predictions.

2. Economic Geography

● The quantitative revolution had a profound impact on economic

geography, leading to the development of statistical models to explain
spatial economic phenomena. For example, debates between
geographers like Garrison and Nelson focused on the classification of
cities using quantitative methods.
● The establishment of the Regional Science Association in 1956 further
institutionalized the use of statistical techniques in economic geography,
fostering an appreciation for quantifiers in the academic community.

Criticism of Quantification in Geography

While the quantitative revolution sought to establish geography as a scientific

discipline, it was not without criticism.

● Critics, such as Stamp and Spate, argued that quantifiers became too
focused on the tools of quantification rather than its purpose.
● Quantification was also criticized for its positivist approach, which some
believed was unsuitable for understanding complex human behaviors and
social constructs.
● Feminist Critique
○ Feminist geographers criticized quantification for its focus on
universal causality, arguing that it overlooked the gendered,
racialized, and sexualized experiences of individuals.