UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL & VOCATIONAL

EDUCATION REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
SCIENCE LABORATORY TECHNOLOGY

VACCUM PUMP TECHNIQUES/SCIENTIFIC GLASSBLOWING

COURSE CODE: GLT 222

YEAR 2- SE MESTER 2
THEORY

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 Version 1: December 2008

GLT 222 VACUUM PUMP TECHNIQUES/SCIENTIFIC GLASSBLOWING

THEORY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

WEEK 1………………………………………………………………7

1.0 VACUUM PUMP TECHNIQUES

1.1 Vacuum pump

1.2 Classification of vacuum pressure gauges

1.2.1 Low pressure

1.2.2 High – vacuum pressure

1.2.3 Ultra – high vacuum pressure

WEEK 2………………………………………………………………10

1.3 Units of measurement

1.3.1 Torr

1.3.2 Pascal

1.3.3 Newton per meter square

1.3.4 Bar

1.4 Method of measurement

1.5 Accuracy of measurement

WEEK 3………………………………………………………………13

1.6 Important physical concepts

1.6.1 Molecular density

1.6.2 Mean free path

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 1.6.3 Rate of molecular impact

1.7 Components of a simple vacuum system

1.7.1 Borosilicate glasses

1.7.2 Valves

WEEK 4………………………………………………………………21

2.0 PUMPS

2.1 What are pumps

2.2 Types of pumps

2.2.1 Centrifugal pumps

2.2.2 Reciprocating pumps

2.2.3 Rotary pumps

2.2.4 Direct fluid displacement pumps

2.2.5 Density pumps

2.2.6 Jet pumps

2.3 Vacuum pumps

WEEK 5………………………………………………………………28

3.0 VACUUM GAUGES

3.1 Mechanical gauges

3.1.1 U – tube manometer

3.1.2 Well – type manometer

3.1.3 Inclined tube manometer

3.1.4 McLeod gauge

WEEK 6………………………………………………………………33

3.2 Thermal conductivity gauges

3.2.1 The pirani gauge

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 3.3 Ionization gauges

3.3.1 The discharge tube

3.3.2 The hot cathode ionization gauge

3.3.3 Alphatron

WEEK 7………………………………………………………………40

3.4 Leak detection in gauges and maintenance

WEEK 8………………………………………………………………41

4.0 SCIENTIFIC GLASSBLOWING

4.1 History of glass

4.2 Glasses

4.3 Modern glass definition

4.4 Glass types

4.4.1 Vitreous silica glass

4.4.2 Borosilicate glasses

4.4.3 Sodalime silica glass

4.5 What is scientific glassblowing

4.6 Where is it found

4.7 Who does it

4.8 How is it done

4.9 Torches and burners

WEEK 9………………………………………………………………49

4.10 Glass processing

4.11 Gases used in glassblowing

4.12 Flame adjustment

4.13 Requirement of tubing for glassblowing

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 4.14 The work bench

WEEK 10………………………………………………………………52

5.0 GLASSBLOWING WORKSHOP SAFETY RULES AND HAZARDS

5.1 Glassblowing workshop safety rules

5.1.1 Eye protection

5.1.2 Clothing

5.1.3 Heat

5.1.4 Burns

5.1.5 Cuts

5.2 Glassblowing workshop hazards

5.2.1 Hazards due to glass

5.2.2 Burn hazards

5.2.3 Eye hazards

5.2.4 Emphysema

5.2.5 Hazards due to gas

5.2.6 Hazards due to repairable glasswares

WEEK 11………………………………………………………………56

5.3 Tools and materials in glassblowing workshop

WEEK 12………………………………………………………………64

6.0 CONSTRUCTION OF LABORATORY GLASS APPARATUS

6.1 Holding and rotating glass tubing

6.2 Cutting glass tubing

WEEK 13………………………………………………………………67

6.3 Test tube fabrication\

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WEEK 14………………………………………………………………69

6.4 T and Y seals fabrication

6.5 Troubleshooting guide T seals

6.6 Bend fabrication

6.7 Repairs

WEEK 15………………………………………………………………76

7.0 The glassblowing workshop

7.1 The glassblowers bench

7.2 The bench top

73 oxygen and fuel gas systems

7.4 Designing a glassblowing workshop

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WEEK 1: 1.0 VACUUM PUMP
1.1 Vacuum: Vacuum means the range of pressures below the atmospheric, and the
measurement of vacuum is the measurement of such pressures. Pressure is defined as the force
acting normally per unit area and the SI unit is Nm -2 or Pa. Pressure may also be stated in terms
of a column of a suitable liquid such as mercury or water that the pressure will support.

Vacuum pumps, like pressure gauges, operate in a limited pressure range. In general, a pump
that operates in the viscous flow region will not operate in the molecular flow region and vice
versa. The useful range of a pump is also limited by the vapour pressure of the materials of
construction and the working fluids within the pump.

In order to avoid inaccuracy in the measurement of a vacuum, it is preferable to use zero

pressures as the reference, and to measure pressures above this. Pressures expressed in this way
are called absolute pressures.

1,1.1 Mechanical Pumps:

The pump most commonly used for attaining pressured down to a few milli torr is the off-sealed
rotary pump shown schematically in figure ?. In this pump a rotor turns off-center within a
cylindrical stator. The interior of the pump is divided into two volumes by spring loaded vanes
attached to the rotor. Gas from the pump inlet enters one of these volumes and is compressed and
forced through a one-way valve to the exhaust. The seal between the vanes and the stator is
maintained by a thin film of oil. The oil used in these pumps is a good-quality lubricating oil
from which the high vapor pressure fraction has been removed. These pumps are also made in a
two-stage version in which two pumps with rotors on a common shaft operate in series. Rotary
pumps to be used for pumping condensable vapors are provided with a gas ballast. This is a
valve that admits air to the compressed gas just prior to the exhaust cycle. This additional air
causes the exhaust valve exceed their vapor pressure and thus prevents these vapors from
condensing inside the pump.

Oil sealed rotary pumps will operate well for years if the inner surfaces do not rust and the oil
maintains its lubricating properties. It is wise to leave these pumps operating continuously, so
that the oil stays warm and dry. For storage a pump should be filled with new oil and the ports
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sealed. IN use, an increase in the lowest attainable pressure (the base pressure) indicates that the
oil has been contaminated with volatile materials. The dirty oil should be drained while the pump
is warm. The pump should be filled with new oil, run for several minutes, drained and refilled.

Rotary pumps are available with capacities of 1 to 500 liter sec-1. A single –stage pump is
useful down to 50 m torr, and a two-stage pump is indicated by the pumping speed curve n figure
3.8. With a two stage pump, a base pressure of 10-4 torr can be achieved after a long pumping
time if the back diffusion of oil vapor from the pump is suppressed by use of absorption or
liquid air trap on the pump inlet. This is a simple scheme for evacuating small spectrometers and
dewar flasks or other vacuum type thermal insulators.

The exhaust gases from an oil-sealed mechanical vacuum pump contain a mist of fine droplets of
oil. This oil smoke is especially dense when the inlet pressure if in the 200 to 600 torr range. The
oil droplets are extremely small, usually less than 5 microns. Over the course of time, this oil
settle on the pump and its surroundings and collects dirt and grime. Furthermore, breathing the
finely dispersed oil may injure the operator’s lungs. Most pump manufacturers market filters to
cope with this problem, and their use is recommended. These filters cause the droplets to
accumulate into large drops, which run off into a sump at the bottom of the filter housing.
Fittings are available to install all these filters on most pumps. An alternative solution to the
pump-exhaust problem, particularly when pumping toxic gases, is to vent the pump into a fume
hood in the lab. Exhaust lines can be made of PVC drain pipe available from plumbing
suppliers.

In order to achieve high pumping speeds in the 10 to 10-2 torr region, a Roots blower can be
used in series with an oil-sealed rotary pump. As illustrated in figure 3.9, these pumps consist of
a pair of counter rotating, two lobed rotors on parallel shafts. Rotational speeds are about 3000
rpm. There is a clearance

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1.2 Classification of pressure gauges:

1.2.1 Low Pressure: From atmospheric to 10-3 torr (0.133 Nm-2)

1.2.2 High – Vacuum Pressure: Pressure range from 10-3 torr (0.1333 Nm-2) to 10-8 torr

(1.33µNm-2)

1.2.3 Ultra – High – Vacuum Pressure: Pressure less than 10-8 torr (1.33µNm-2)

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WEEK 2: VACUUM MEASUREMENT
1.3 Units of measurement:

Traditionally, the pressure in a system is stated in terms of the height of a column of mercury
that may be supported by the pressure in the system. At one standard atmosphere the force is
1.03 kg/sq cm. This pressure will support a mercury column 760 millimeters high (as in a
barometer). One millimeter of mercury is the equivalent of 1 Torr. A thousandth of a millimeter
is referred to as a micron of mercury or, in more current terminology, 1 milliTorr (mTorr). To be
proper in the modern scientific world, the SI system of units is used. Here pressure is referred to
in terms of Newtons per square metre or Pascal (Pa). To convert Torr to Pascal, divide by
0.0075.

Measurement of pressure in a vacuum system is done with any of a variety of gauges which,
for the most part, work through somewhat indirect means eg thermal conductivity of the gas or
the electrical properties of the gas when ionized. The former are typically used at higher
pressures (1 to 1000 mTorr), the latter in lower ranges. Such gauges are sensitive to the type of
gas in the system, requiring that corrections be made. Accidents have occurred when this was not
taken into account.

For example, the presence of argon in a system will result in a pressure reading on a thermal
conductivity gauge (thermocouple or Pirani, for example) that is much lower than the true
pressure. It is possible to significantly overpressure a system while the gauge is still indicating
vacuum.

The only gauges that are gas-type independent are those which directly measure pressure as force
per unit area. Barometers, McLeod gauges and other liquid manometers are examples of direct
gauges. Direct gauges also include instruments where the pressure causes a tube to distort (the
principle of the common dial, or Bourdon gauge) or where the displacement of a metal
diaphragm is measured by electrical means (the principle of the capacitance manometer).

1.3.1 Torr: This defines the pressure exerted by a column of mercury 1mm in height. It can
also be expressed as mm mercury.

i.e. 760 torr = 1 standard atmosphere (atm)

= 101325 N/m2

= 1013250 dyn / cm2

1.3.2 Pascal (Pa): This unit of pressure is equivalent to 1 Nm-2

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1.3.3 Newton per meter (Nm-2): This unit is used when the amount of force per unit area is
measured.

1.3.4 Bar: This is the unit of pressure used by the meteorologists.

1 bar = 105 Nm-2 = 750 torr

1 mb = 10-3 bar = 100 Nm-2

1.4 Method of measurement:

Since pressure is defined to be force acting normally per unit area , its measurement involves
directly or indirectly the measurement of the force exerted upon a known area. A gauge which
does this is called an absolute gauge, and allows the pressure to be obtained from a reading and
known physical quantities associated with the gauge such as areas lengths, sometimes
temperatures elastic constant, e.t.c. The pressure, when obtained is independent of the
composition of the gas or vapor which is present.

Many technological applications of vacuum use the long free paths, or low molecular incidence
rates that vacuum makes. Vacuum measurement requires pressures that are only a very small
fraction of atmospheric pressures where the force exerted by the gas is too small to be measured
making gauges not suitable for use. In such cases non – absolute gauges are used and these
measure pressure indirectly by measuring a pressure dependent physical property of the gas such
as thermal conductivity, viscosity, e.t.c. These gauges always require calibration against an
absolute gauge, for each gas that is to be measured. Commercial gauges are always calibrated by
the manufacturer using dry air, and will give true readings only when dry air is present. In
practice it is difficult to be certain of the composition of the gases in vacuum apparatus, thereby
causing errors. This problem is overcome in the following way. When a Gauge using variation of
thermal conductivity indicates a pressure of 10 -1 Pa, this would be recorded as an equivalent dry
air of 10-1. This means that the thermal conductivity of the unknown gases present in the vacuum
apparatus has then same value as that of air at 10-1 Pa, and not that the pressure is 10-1 Pa.

1.5 Accuracy of measurement:

Having chosen a suitable gauge, it is necessary to ensure that the pressure in the gauge head is
the same as that in the system to be measured. Firstly the gauge head is connected at the point as
close as possible to the point where the pressure is to be measured and by the shortest and widest
tube available. Secondly, sufficient time must be allowed for pressure equilibrium to be obtained.
This is particularly important when the pressure is below 10-1 Pa, and when ionization gauges
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which interact strongly with the vacuum apparatus, are used. When non- absolute gauges are
used, even under ideal conditions, the accuracy is rarely better than ±20%, and in a carelessly
operated ionization gauge worse than ±50%.

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WEEK 3: VACUUM MEASUREMENT
1.6 Important physical concepts:

To understand most high – vacuum phenomenon it is essential not to view the gas as a
continuous fluid but to consider its molecular nature. The gas particles (molecules) move
incessantly at random. Their constant, so- called thermal motion is the basis of the kinetic theory
of gases. According to this theory the fluid thrust at a specified position in a gas is given by the
rate of transfer of the normal component of momentum, associated with the passage of molecules
in both directions, through a small plane at the specified position. The fluid pressure is of course
the thrust divided by the area of the plane.

If the pressure in a vessel is reduced (by pumping away part of the gas), the number of molecules
in it is reduced, This number or rather the number of molecules per unit volume (the molar
density) is another quantity by which the pressure of a gas may be specified. Also, as the
pressure is reduced the molecules collide less frequently, travelling on the average longer
distances before they collide, and the number of encounters with any solid surface is reduced.

All these molecular concepts are intimately connected with low- pressure phenomena and hence
the measurement of low-pressures.

1.6.1 Molecular density:

The molecular density n, or number of molecules per unit volume, is related to the pressure p by
the equation of state:

p=nkT
Where: k = Boltzmann constant. Also expressed in terms of the universal gas constant R.

1.6.2 Mean free path:

The mean free path is the average distance travelled by gas molecules between collisions. If this
be denoted by λ, and the number of intermolecular collision per second by Z, then these
quantities are rated by the average velocity of the molecules, Ū, and :

Z = Ū/λ

Reduction in pressure results in a lower density of gas molecules. Given a certain average
velocity for each constituent molecule of air at a given temperature (at room temperature this
is about 1673 km/hr) an average molecule will travel a certain distance before it interacts
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(collides) with another at any given pressure. This average distance between collisions is the
mean free path. At 1 Torr in air this distance is about 0.005 cm, a value that scales directly with
pressure.

Thus the mean free path would be 5 cm at 1 mTorr and 50 meters at 0.001 mTorr. The
lengthening of mean free path at low pressures is a key enabler for devices such as vacuum tubes
and particle accelerators as well as for processes such as vacuum coating where microscopic
particles such as electrons, ions or molecules must traverse considerable distances with minimal
interference.

1.6.3 Rate of molecular impact:

The number of molecules hitting unit area of a small surface per second is:

N=¼nŪ

Where:N = beam density near the surface

Ū = the mean molecular velocity

The rate of molecular bombardment of a surface is fundamental in phenomenal involving non-

equilibrial molecular flow, i.e. where gas interacts with the walls of the vacuum chamber rather
than by molecular collision. In the above expression N = ¼ n Ū for the molecular impact rate,
purely random impact was assumed, i.e. incidence and emission of gas molecules like the
incidence and emission of light at a diffusely illuminated non- specularly reflecting optical
surface.

Gases at very low pressures behave very differently from gases at normal pressures. As a
reduction in pressure occurs in a vacuum system, the gas in the system will pass through several
flow regimes. At higher pressures the gas is in viscous flow where the gas behaves much like a
liquid. Viscous flow includes turbulent flow, where the flow is irregular, and laminar, where the
flow is regular with no eddies. Moving deeper into the vacuum environment, Knudsen
or transition flow occurs when the mean free path is greater than about one-hundredth of the
diameter of the tubing.

Full molecular flow, where molecules behave independently, begins when the mean free
path exceeds the tubing diameter. Which flow regime the gas is in is dependent upon several
factors including tube diameter and pumping speed.

To summarize, when the ratio of the average mean free path in a tube to the radius of the tube is
less than 0.01, the flow is viscous. When the ratio is greater than 1.00 the flow is molecular.
Transition (or Knudsen) flow exists between the viscous and molecular flow regimes and we
have a behavior that is bit of both. One of the factors which determines pump applicability is the

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flow regime it needs to operate in. Mechanical pumps are not effective in the molecular region
whereas diffusion pumps are.

1.7 Components of a simple vacuum system:

A simple vacuum system will consist of a hard glass or metal with accessories such as stopcocks,
Teflon sealed vacuum valves, ball joints, taper joints and o-ring sealed points and traps.

1.7.1 Borosilicate glasses:

They are particularly well suited for the construction of small laboratory vacuum systems. These

glasses are chemically inert and have a low coefficient of thermal expansion. Because of the

plasticity of the material, complicated shapes are easily formed.

1.7.2 Valves:

There are different types of valves such as flexible valves, mushroom valves, poppet – head

valves and ball valves. A valve can be made of rubber, plastic, or of metal, provided a seal is

obtained at its seat. Ball valves may be arranged in series for a more effective seal. Either

pressure in front or partial vacuum behind the valve causes it to open; it shuts by gravity. To

prevent it being drawn along with the liquid either stops are placed in the valve or outlet duct is

made smaller in diameter than the ball.

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16
1.7.3 Traps:

Traps are used in vacuum to intercept condensable vapours by means of chemisorption or

physical condensation. Most high-vacuum systems have a trap in the foreline to prevent

mechanical pump oil from back streaming from the forepump to the diffusion pump. In addition

a trap is usually placed between a diffusion pump and a vacuum chamber to pump water vapour

and to remove diffusion towards the chamber. A trap must have both an inlet and an outlet.

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1.8 Operation of a simple vacuum system

Resembling a jet engine, a turbo pump has a stack of rotors, each with multiple, angled blades
which drive at very high tangential speed. Gas molecules, hit by the underside of the angled
blades, move with momentum in the direction of the higher pressure exhaust.

Turbo pumps come in two basic designs. In the SNECMA design (named after a French jet-
engine manufacturer) all gas enters through the main flange at the visible single-end of the
pump; the Pfeiffer (named after the original turbo pump's manufacturer) double-ended design,
has two rotors set-mounted on a common axle. Gas enters the pump through a right angle port
between the two rotor sets and exits into an exhaust manifold connecting the two ends of the
pump.

For normal commercially-available pumps, pumping speeds range from approximately 20 L/s to
3,000 L/s. All gases are pumped at roughly the same rate. One pump, for example, listed with
450 L/s for nitrogen, has a pumping speed for hydrogen of 310 L/s.

Turbo pumps reach full operating speed within a few minutes of switch-on, making a separate
roughing line unnecessary since the accelerating turbo can rough the chamber. The trick is to
match chamber volume and the effective pumping speed, and to time the turbo pump's start so its
rotational speed is high enough to prevent backstreaming when the chamber reaches 10 -1 Torr
(that is, when an oil-sealed mechanical pump's relative backstreaming rate starts its rapid rise).

With proper venting, a turbo pump can be entirely halted in under one minute. This slight delay
before the chamber reaches atmospheric pressure and can be opened usually works for most
applications. The benefit is clear. If the pump does not run while venting the chamber, we have
no need for a high vacuum valve between pump and chamber. Further, in a correctly designed
and operated system, the turbo pump does not allow oil vapor to backstream so that the system
does not require an LN2 trap between chamber and pump.

1.9 Vacuum applications:

Industrial vacuum applications range from mechanical handling (such as the manipulation of
heavy and light items by suction pads) to the deposition of integrated electronic circuits on
silicon chips. Obviously, vacuum requirements are as widely varied as the particular processes
using vacuums. In the rough vacuum range from about one torr to near atmosphere, typical
applications are mechanical handling, vacuum packing and forming, gas sampling, filtration,
degassing of oils, concentration of aqueous solutions, impregnation of electrical components,

18
distillation, and steel stream degassing.

At lower pressures down to about 10-4 torr, many metallurgical processes such as melting,
casting, sintering, heat treatment, and brazing can derive benefit. Chemical processes such as
vacuum distillation and freeze-drying also need this range of vacuum. Freeze-drying is used
extensively in the pharmaceutical industry to prepare vaccines and antibiotics and to store skin
and blood plasma. The food industry freeze-dries coffee mainly, although most foods can be
stored without refrigeration after freeze-drying, and the technique is receiving widespread
acceptance.

The pressure range down to about 10-6 torr is used for cryogenic (low-temperature) and electrical
insulation. It is used in the production of lamps; television picture tubes, X-ray tubes; decorative,
optical, and electrical thin-film coatings; and mass spectrometer leak detectors.

In thin-film coating, a metal or compound is evaporated under high vacuum from a source onto a
base material or substrate. The base material is generally plastic for decorative coatings; glass for
optical coatings; and glass ceramic, or silica for electrical coatings. Thickness of the film can
vary from about 1/4 wavelength of visible light to 0.001 inches or more. In the optical field,
antireflection coatings are deposited on lenses for cameras, telescopes, eyeglasses, and other
optical devices, considerably reducing the amount of light reflected by the lenses and thus giving
a brighter transmitted image.

To achieve vacuum high enough for thin-film coating and for other industrial uses requiring
pressures down to 10-6 torr, a pumping system consisting of an oil-sealed rotary pump and a
diffusion pump is used. The oil-sealed rotary pump (sometimes referred to as forepump)
"roughs" the chamber down to a pressure of about 0.1 torr, after which the roughing valve is
closed. The fore valve and high-vacuum baffle valve are then opened so that the chamber is
evacuated by the diffusion pump and rotary pump in series.

Almost every research laboratory uses vacuum directly in its experiments or employs equipment
that depends on vacuum for its operation. The lowest pressures are obtained in the research
laboratories, where equipment is generally similar to, but smaller than that used by industry.

Typical of the research equipment using vacuum down to about 10 -6 torr are the electron
microscope, analytical mass spectrometer, particle accelerator, and large space simulation
equipment. Particle accelerators range from small van de Graaff machines to large proton
synchrotrons.

In space simulation, large units that simulate space around a complete vehicle require a vacuum
of 10-6 torr or below. Such vessels incorporate a complete shroud at liquid nitrogen temperature

19
and a port through which high-intensity light can be beamed to simulate the sun's radiation.

In the pressure region down to and below 10-9 torr, research applications include electrical
insulation, thermonuclear energy conversion experiments, microwave tubes, field ion
microscopes, field emission microscopes, storage rings for particle accelerators, specialized
space simulator experiments, and clean-surface studies. In many experiments it is not only
necessary to reach such pressures of 10-9 torr but to reduce the hydrocarbons in the residual gases
to an absolute minimum. Even small traces of hydrocarbons can render the results unreliable. To
achieve a vacuum of this order the vacuum vessel and the equipment inside must be cleared of
residual gas (degassed) to the greatest extent possible. A common solution is to bake the whole
apparatus for a number of hours at about 350 oC while maintaining a vacuum in the 10 -5 torr
region. Baking at this temperature requires the use of all-metal sealing rings. To eliminate
hydrocarbons, the unit is pumped down to about 10 -3 torr using sorption pumps; and from there,
sputter ion pumps and titanium sublimation pumps complete the task down to 10-9 torr or below.

Turbomolecular pumps are used in a wide variety of high vacuum applications -any that
demand clean, truly oil-free vacuum between 10 -4 and 10-10 Torr. The single-ended pump is
frequently chosen to replace a comparably sized diffusion pump in existing systems. Versions
made from materials that withstand chemical attack when pumping corrosive gases find
extensive application in semiconductor processing, particularly those using reactive gas plasmas.
For truly oil-free systems, choose magnetically levitated turbo pumps. They can work with an
oil-free piston pump or in some circumstances, with a diaphragm pump. The initial cost of a
turbo pump is higher than a diffusion pump with similar pumping speed. But the lack of need
for external components, the turbo pump's lower running costs, and the almost negligible chance
that clumsy operation will cause an expensive vacuum disaster, make the turbo pump the first
choice for many users. (We do not recommend turbo pumps for systems generating dust or
particulate matter, nor where the induced micro-vibrations might upset precise positioning, e.g.
electron microscopes, micro-surface analysis, atomic force and scanning tunneling microscopes.)
Turbo pumps find applications in processes involving: metal etching, dielectric etching,
interconnect etching, ion implantation, sputtering, and plasma deposition.

20
WEEK 4: 2.0 PUMPS AND THEIR TYPES
2.1 Pumps:

Pumps are mechanical devices used to move substances possessing flow properties from one
position to another (including changes in elevation) or to exhaust gases from a closed chamber
so as to create and maintain a vacuum. The substances may be any fluid, such as air water, oil,
steam, or molten metal; any material that will flow such as food products, freshly mixed concrete
or mixtures of sand and water. Pumps for compressible fluids like gas or steam are known as
fans, blowers, or compressors, depending on the magnitude of the pressure is produced.

2.2 Types of pumps:

The common pumps may be classified in the following groups: centrifugal, reciprocating, rotary,
direct fluid pressure displacement, density, jet and vacuum pumps.

2.2.1 Centrifugal pumps:

Figure 2.1. A Simple Centrifugal Pump

1 – Inlet 2 – Impeller 3 – Outlet 4 – Shaft 5 – Stationary casing (volute)

21
The centrifugal pump is the most important type from the stand point of quantity produced and
versatility in applications.

Elements: The essential parts of a centrifugal pump include an impeller (or rotor) attached to a
shaft which rotates in bearings, and a case enclosing the impeller the fluid being pumped enters
the central portion of the impeller through the suction opening in the case; passes through the
impeller where energy is needed, leaves the impeller and flows into the case, where
transformations of energy take place and finally leaves the case through the discharge open / or
employed as radial flow, mixed flow and axial flow path. A centrifugal pump will lift a liquid
provided the pipe between the supply reservoir and the pump, and the impeller is completely
filled with liquid before the pump is started. The procedure of filling is known as priming.

There are 2 types of centrifugal pump cases which find wide application: The volute pump, in
which the cross-sectional area for flow behind the impeller is increased until the discharge is
reached, and the diffuser vane or turbine pump, in which the liquid flows better stationary vanes
after leaving the impeller, the gradually enlarging, area of flow between the vanes serving to
reduce the velocity and increase pressure.

2.2.2 Reciprocating pump:

Figure 2.2 Double Action Piston Pumps

1 – Cylinder 2 – Piston 3 – Rod 4 – Suction valve 5 – Discharge valve

22
 6 – Inlet duct 7 – Outlet duct 8 – Piston rings 9 - Seals

Figure 2.3 Double Action Piston Pumps

1- Cylinder 2 – Piston 3 – Rod 4 – Suction 5 – Discharge valve

6 – Inlet duct 7 – Outlet duct 8 – Piston rings 9 - Seals

Reciprocating pumps have one or more pistons or plungers which pump by virtue of their back
and forth motion within a pump cylinder. The water end of a simplex direct-acting steam-driven
water pump is shown in the diagram above. The piston rod R, is directly connected to a driving
piston in a steam cylinder at the left (not shown). The movement of the water piston, P, to the left
forces water out of the water cylinder and out the discharge valve A, which is unseated by the
pressure of the water. Simultaneously a suction is created at the right side of the piston. This
suction opens valve D and draws water into the cylinder from the inlet, n suction connection, S.
When the piston begins it return stroke, discharge valve A closes and suction valve C rises, both
a result of the suction created at the left of the piston, and discharge valve B opens and suction

23
valve D seats, both because of the positive pressure to the right of the pistons. All valves operate
automatically against spring pressure. An air chamber (not shown in the diagram) in the
discharge line helps to damp out pulsation in the flow by cyclic compression and expansion of
the trapped air in the chamber.

Simple Lift Pump: is the one with which most people have the greatest familiarity, since it is the
type that achieved the greatest domestic and farm use.

2.2.3 Rotary pumps:

Figure 2.4 Lobe pump

1 - Body 2 – Two lobes rotor 3 – Inlet duct 4 – Outlet duct

24
 Figure 2.5 Gear Pump

A – Cut B - Section

1 – Gear 2 – Seal cover 4 – Inlet 5 – Outlet

Rotary pumps employ rotating impellers n screws which trap and discharge volumes of fluid
continuously, the operation not being based on centrifugal action. Like reciprocating pumps,
rotary pumps function by “positive displacement” that is, the displacement of a fluid by a
mechanical element (such as a piston) that reduces the volume of a constrained space by fixing
the fluid from the space.

The gear form of rotary pumps is widely applied for automobile lubrication pumps, air plane
hydraulic systems, and similar services. The sliding vane type is commonly use for air n vacuum
pumps and circulation of refrigerants. The rotating member is eccentric to the casing, and carries
two or more vanes which are pushed vertically outward by spring action so that their ends always
press against the casing. The liquid is trapped by the vanes and is carried to the discharge. The
major types of rotary umps may be classified as gear vane, oscillating piston, screw, plunger,
lobular and universal joint. Pressure of greater than 10,000 1b per sq in. may be achieved with
rotary pumps.

2.2.4 Direct fluid pressure displacement pump:

These are types of displacement pumps using, vapour in gas to pump water fluid some modern
applications one of this, the pulsemeter, may be lowered into a pit and will pump when
connected to a steam supply. The steam pressure must be greater than the discharge pressure by
about 50%, since the steam acts directly on the water forcing it out of the chamber. After the
steam is cut off automatically, it condenser in the chamber, which is submerged in water and the
vacuum then produced allowed water to enter the chamber through appropriate check valves.
The pulse meter is insufficient compared with electric in air driven pumps for the same
application.

25
2.2.5 Density pumps:

These devices consist of a U tube with the density of the fluid in one side reduced through
heating or mixing with another fluid of lower density. They contain air and gas lif which are not
high efficiency equipment.

2.2.6 Jet pumps (momentum pumps):

This includes injectors and ejections. In jet pumps the fluid is pumped by sucking action of a jet

of steam in compressed air.

Figure 2.6 Ejectors

1 – Fast flowing fluid inlet 2 – Fluid to be transferred

The principal use of the injector has been on the steam locomotive, where its compactness and
self contained operation make for effectiveness. As long as cold water had to be fed from the
tank, all the heat in steam is returned. But as a water ejector, as in unwatering and evacuation,
the injector is very inefficient. One use of a modified injector is in heating water in bulk.

26
Whereas the injector forces water into a boiler, the ejector throws its discharge out into the
atmosphere. The one common use of the ejector is to remove the air and vapour mixture from a
steam condenser. The real difference between the two is that discharge of the ejector is
compressible.

2.3 Vacuum pumps:

The vacuum pump is a device used to remove gas from a region maintained at a pressure less
than atmospheric and to discharge the gas at higher pressure. Essentially its an air compressor or
fan. It is of commercial in such field as steam power plants, vacuum heating systems. the
dehydration of foods and drugs, the production of electric (vacuum) tubes and in research into
the production of nuclear energy. No standard classification of pumps has been made on the
basis of degree of vacuum produced. Vacuum pumps are classified here as lower pressure pumps
intermediate – vacuum pumps, and high vacuum pumps, the respective pressure being from
atmospheric to about 0.1 inch of mercury; from 2mm – 0.001m of mercury and from 0.001mm
mercury to all lower pressure, 10-9mm of mercury being the region of the highest vacuum
produced.

REFERENCE:

1. Callier’s Encyclopaedia: No. 19 page 518-521

2. Pumps, Fans, Compressors; Cherkasky V. M. pages 20-28

27
WEEK 5: 3.0 COMMON VACUUM GAUGES
The pressure within a vacuum system may vary over ten or more orders of magnitude. No one
gauge will operate over this great range, and thus most systems are equipped with several
different gauges. However some of the most commonly used pressure gauges are discussed as
follows:

3.1 Mechanical gauges:

These gauges measure the pressure of gases and vapours by making use of the mechanical
deformation of tubes or diaphragms when exposed to a pressure difference. If one side of the
sensitive element is exposed to a good vacuum, the gauge is absolute.

3.1.1 U – tube manometer:

This tube measures pressure of gases and vapours to about 1 Pa by balancing the force exerted
by the gas or vapour against the weight of a column of liquid, usually mercury, water or oil. If a
very high pressure is to be measured, the density of the liquid must be high so that the height h
will be small. If a low pressure is to be measured, the density of the liquid must be low, so that
the height h will be large. This is because if a very high pressure is applied to a liquid of low
density, the liquid will be pushed out of the tube.

In this gauge, one arm of the manometer is connected to the system whose pressure is to be
measured while the other arm is exposed to the atmosphere.

The total pressure is given thus,

P = Pa + hρg

Where: Pa = atmospheric pressure

h= difference in the levels of the liquid in the manometer

ρ = density of the liquid

g = acceleration due to gravity

28
 Figure 3.1 U – tube manometers (liquid manometers)

3.1.2 Well – type manometer:

This manometer consists of a uniform tube of cross sectional area, a and a well of cross –
sectional area A. Pressure is normally applied, the liquid in the well drops and that in the uniform
tube rises. Due to the drop in the well, there exist a difference in level d in the well as a result of
the pressure exerted on the well.

P = Pa + (h +d)ρg

The volume of liquid displaced in the well is equal to the volume of the liquid that is raised in the
uniform tube, thus,

dA = ah

thus, d = a/Ah

Equating this into equation (i) above, we have,

P = P + (h +a/Ah)ρg

Therefore: P = Pa + ρgh (1 + a/A)

Where: A = Cross sectional area of the well

a = cross sectional area of the uniform tube

29
3.1.3 Inclined tube manometer:

This gauge works on the same princiole as that of a well – type manometer and so the same
equation as given below holds.

P = Pa + (h + d) ρg

Also, since volume of liquid displaced in the well is equal to that which is raised in the tube,
then,

Ad = Ra

d = Ra/A

But h = R Sin.θ

Therefore: P = Pa + ρg (R Sin.θ + Ra/A)

i.e.P = Pa + ρgR (Sin.θ + a/A)

The greater the angle θ, the more sensitive the

3.1.4 McLeod gauge:

In principle the McLeod gauge is an extension of the liquid – level manometer. This gauge
measures the pressure of gases only, from 5 x 10-4 to atmospheric by measuring the force
exerted by a sample of gas of known volume after a known degree of compression. It is made of
glass and uses mercury as the manometric liquid. The measuring capillary E, and the reference
capillary F are cut from the same length of tube to equalize capillary effects. A trap R,
refregirated with liquid nitrogen or solid carbon dioxide excludes vapours, and prevents the
escape of mercury vapour from the gauge. The trap T maintains the vacuum in the gauge when it
is transferred to another system.

The mercury normally stands at A, allowing the bulb and measuring capillary to attain the
pressure p in the vacuum apparatus: at pressures below 10-2 Pa several minutes are required for
this. To take a reading, the mercury is raised by slowly admitting air to the mercury reservoir M,
When the raises B, a sample of gas of volume is isolated, and the pressure indicated will be that
in the gauge at this instant. The mercury in the reference capillary is then brought to O, the level
of the top of the measuring capillary and the length h of the enclosed gas column, of area, a is
measured. The mercury is then returned to A, by reducing the pressure in the reservoir M, thus
preparing the gauge for a further measurement.

Applying Boyles law to the isolated sample of gas;

30
 Original gas x original volume = final pressure x final volume

Or

Pv = (hρg + p)ah

Where:ρ = density of mercury

A = acceleration due to gravity

Thus,

ah 2
p= ρg
v−ah

When measuring low pressures, the final volume ah is very much less than the original volume v

Hence

a
p 1 . pg . h 2
v

Showing that p ∝h 2, giving square law scale

The value of a is found by weighing a pellet of mercury of known length inserted in the
measuring capillary, and v is determined by weighing the quantity of distilled water that fills the
bulb and measuring capillary from the level A, to its closed end. Both of these measurements are
carried out by the manufacturer, who then calculate values of h corresponding ton a series of
known pressures which can then be read directly on the scale.

Figure 3.2 McLeod Gauge

31
Figure 3.3 Labelled diagram of the McLeod gauge

32
WEEK 6: GAUGE APPLICATIONS
3.2 Thermal conductivity gauges:

These gauges measure the pressure of gases and vapours from 1000 Pa to 10 -1 Pa by making use
of the changes in the thermal conductivity which take place over this range. Separate calibration
against an absolute gauge is required for each gas. Since the sensitive element used is an
electrically heated wire, these gauges are known as hot – wire gauges.

3.2.1 The pirani gauge:

An electrically heated platinum or tungsten wire, operating at a temperature of 320 K is mounted

along the axis of a glass or metal tube, which is connected to the vacuum apparatus. Changes in
the pressure cause temperature changes in the wire, which are followed by using the
corresponding changes in its electrical resistance. The wire temperature may also be affected by
variations in room temperature and these are compensated by use of an identical dummy gauge
head sealed off at a low pressure. The gauge and dummy head are shown in figure 3.3.1 and
3.3.2. For reasons of economy, the dummy head is often replaced by a bobbin of wire having the
same resistance and temperature coefficient of resistance, mounted close to thee gauge head.

The gauge and dummy heads form adjacent arms of a Wheatstone bridge circuit as shown in
figure 3.4. The arrangement also compensates for the effects of temperature changes on the
resistance of the leads connecting the gauge head to the control unit thereby allowing remote
indications of pressure. Resistances Y and Z form the other arms of the bridge, Z being variable
for use in zero setting. Power is obtained from a stabilized supply S, and the meter M measures
the out – of – balance current in the bridge.

The wire brought to its operating temperature, and the bridge is balanced giving zero current
through M, when the pressure is low. A rise in pressure causes an increase of heat loss and a fall
in temperature of the wire. If the power input is kept constant. The wire temperature falls,
causing a fall of resistance which produces a current through M, which is calibrated to read
pressure of dry air. Alternatively, the fall in wire temperature may be opposed by increasing the
input voltage so that the wire temperature remains constant. The input voltage then depends on

33
the pressure meter measuring the voltage can be sealed to read pressure. The constant balance of
the bridge is maintained by a simple electronic circuit. This arrangement is effective in extending
the high pressure sensitivity of the gauge to 10 4 Pa or higher, since the wire temperature is
maintained at this end of the pressure range.

Figure 3.3.1. Pirani Gauge Figure 3.3.2 Pirani Dummy Figure 3.4 Pirani Gauge

Head. Head Circuit

3.3 Ionization gauges:

These gauges measure the pressure of gases and vapours over the range 10 3 Pa to 10-8 Pa by
making use of the current carried by ions formed in the gas by the impact of electrons. In the
cold – cathode gauges, the electrons are released from the cathode by the impact of ions, whilst
in the hot – cathode gauges the electrons are emitted by heated element.

3.3.1 The discharge tube:

This is the simplest of the cold – cathode ionization gauges and operates over the range from 10 3
Pa to 10-1 Pa. The gauge head shown in figure 10 consist of a glass tube of about 15 cm long and
1 cm in diameter, connected to the vacuum apparatus. A flat or cylindrical metal electrode
Attached to a glass/metal seal is mounted at each end. Aluminium is preferable as it does not

34
readily disintegrate to form metal films on the gauge walls during use. A stable power supply
with an output of 20 kV at 20 mA is connected across the electrodes, in series with a resistor R,
of about 2 MΩ to limit the4 current, and a 1 mA meter M sealed to read the pressure.

When the gauge is operating, several distinct luminous glows appear in thee tube, the colours of
which depend on the gases present. These glows are called the [positive column P and negative
glow N and result from ionization of the gas. The process is illustrated in figure 11, where a
positive ion striking the cathode C releases an electron. The electron is accelerated towards the
anode, and after travelling some distances encounters a gas molecule and produces the ionization
which forms the negative glow. Ions from the negative glow are attracted to the cathode where
further electrons are emitted .The movement of these charges constitute a flow of current and this
is related to the amount of pressure to which the gauge is exposed. Thus the current indicated by
the meter is proportional to the pressure of the system to which the gauge is connected.

Figure 3.5 The Discharge Tube Gauge

Figure 3.6 The Production of Carriers in the Glow Direction

35
3.3.2 The hot-cathode ionization gauge:

This is the most sensitive available gauge, and has the unique property that its reading is directly
proportional to pressure over the range of from 100 Pa to 10-8 Pa.

The gauge head (figure 3.7) is a special triode valve, usually with a hard glass envelope.
Stainless steel may also be used, or a nude form of gauge in which the gauge electrodes are
inserted directly into the vacuum vessel. The filament F, of heavy – gauge tungsten, operates at
about 2000 K, and may be readily damaged by accidental in rushes of air. A filament of iridium
coated with Thorium oxide operating at a lower temperature is almost indestructible. Around the
filament is Molybdenum or tungsten grid G also heavily constructed, and outside the grid is a
cylindrical ion- collector C of nickel. Since the ion current received by this electrode is very
small, special care is taken with its installation.

The gauge head is furnished with stable electrical supplies (Figure 3.8). The filament is heated to
produce electrons which are attracted to the grid where a fraction of them is immediately
collected.

The remainder oscillate several times through the grid wires before collection, forming ions by
collision with the gas molecules. The electron current i – is measured by M1 and is usually
between 0.1 mA and 5.0 mA. Ions formed between the grid and ion-collector constitute an ion
current i+ shown by M2 .Electrons are prevented from reaching the ion-collector by the
application of a negative bias of 20 V. Ions formed between the filament and the grid are
attracted by the filament where their impact etches its surface and shortens its life. This is
particularly the case when the gauge is operated at pressures above 1 Pa, and if active gases as
oxygen are present.

36
Figure 3.7 Hot-Cathode Ionization Gauge Figure 3.8. Circuit for Hot-Cathode

Ionization Gauge

Outgasing: Since the gauge is highly sensitive, the gas molecules covering the electrodes and
envelop must be removed by heating them to the highest safe temperature. For the filament, the
required temperature can be obtained by increasing the filament current, whilst the grid and io-
collector may be heated by electron bombardment, using the filament as the source. Commercial
gauge control units make provision for this treatment. The envelope is heated in an oven, or by
means of a hot-air gun.

Pumping: During operation, the gauge removes gas molecules from the vacuum apparatus,
and thus behaves as a pump. Two processes are involved: in the other, at the ion-collector, the
positive ions embed themselves beneath its surface. The speed of pumping can be reduced by
lowering the filament temperature and by reducing the rate of collection of ions.

Relationship between ion current and pressure: If the pressure is p, the current i +, and the
electron current i - , it is found for a given gas, say nitrogen, that :

i+αpi

Therefore:

37
 i+¿ Kpi

Where: K = gauge factor for nitrogen

SI unit = Pa -1

-1.
Its value for an average gauge is 0.1 Pa The value for a particular gauge is given by the
maker. For other gases :

i+ = Cpi-

Where:C = relative sensitivity, with respect to nitrogen. Its approximate value for various gases
is given in the table below:

Gas He H2 N2 Air Ar Xe Orange

vapours
C 0.16 0.25 1.00 1.02 1.10 3.50 > 4.0

From the equation, i = Cpi

The value of i-

i+ α p

This valuable property of the gauge is obtained by stabilizing i – by means of an electronic servo
system which controls the filament temperature, and can switch the filament off if the gauge
pressure becomes excessive.

3.3.3 Alphatron:

The alphatron is a radioactive ionization gauge. A small radium source serves as an α – particle
emitter. These particles ionize the gas inside the gauge enclosure, and the degree of ionization is
determined by measuring the voltage output, Vo. The degree of ionization is a direct linear
function of pressure of pressure for a rather wide range of pressures, from 10 -3 to 103 torr (0.1 to
105 Pa). The output characteristics, however, are different for each type of gas used. The

38
Alphatron has the advantage that it may be used at atmospheric pressure as well as high vacuum
and there is no heated filament to contend with as in the conventional ionization gauge.
Consequently, there is no problem of accidental burning – out of a filament due to inadvertent
exposure of gauge to high pressures.

Figure 3.9 Alphatron

39
WEEK 7: LEAK DETECTION AND GAUGE MAINTANANCE
3.4 Leak detection in gauges and maintenance:

A leak that raises the base pressure of a system above about 10 -8 torr can usually be found by

probing suspected locations on the outside of the vacuum chamber with a liquid or vapor for

which the gauge sensitivity or pump speed is very different from that for air. A squeeze bottle or

acetone or a spray can of liquid Freon cleaner is a useful tool. These liquids will usually cause a

very abrupt increase in indicated pressure as they flow through a leak, but sometimes rapid

evaporation of a liquid through a leak will cause the liquid to freeze and temporarily plug the

leak, causing the pressure to fall. A disadvantage of this method is that the solvent may

contaminate 0-rings. A small jet of helium is also a useful leak probe, since an ionization gauge

is very insensitive to helium. The indicate pressure will fall when helium is introduced into a

leak.

In a glass system, a leak that raises the pressure into the range from 10 mtorr to several torr can

be located with a Tesla coil. The surface of the glass is brushed with the discharge from the Tesla

coil. The discharge is preferentially directed toward the leak, and a bright white spot will reveal

the location as the discharge passes through. Avoid very thin glass walls and glass-to-metal

seals, as the Tesla discharge can hole the glass in these fragile areas. For very small leaks in

high-vacuum systems a mass-spectrometer leak detector is needed.

40
WEEK 8: 4.0 INTRODUCTION - SCIENTIFIC GLASSBLOWING
4.1 History of glass:

Natural glass have existed since the beginning of time, formed when certain types of rocks melt
as a result of high temperature phenomena such as volcanic eruptions lightning strikes or the
impact of meteorites, and then cool and solidify rapidly. According to the ancient Roman
historian Pliny (AD 23 - 79), Phoenician merchants transporting stone actually discovered glass
(or rather became aware of its existed accidentally) in the region of Syria around 5000 BC. Pliny
tells how the merchants, after landing, rested cooking pots on blocks of nitrate placed by their
fire. With the intense heat of the fire, the blocks eventually melted and mixed with the sand of
the beach to form an opaque liquid.

Figure 4.1 Obsidian glass formed from volcanic eruptions

In the third millennium, in central Mesopotamia, the basic raw materials of glass were being
used principally to produce glazes on pots and vases. The discovery may have been coincidental,
with calciferous sand finding its way into an overheated kiln and combining with soda to form a
colored glaze on the ceramics. It was the then, above all the Phoenician merchants and sailors
who spread this new art along the coast of the Mediterranean.
The oldest fragments of glass vases, however, date back to the 16 th century BC and were found in
Mesopotamia. Hollow glass production was also evolving around this time in Egypt, and there is
evidence of other ancient glassmaking activities emerging independently in Mycenae (Greece),
China and North Tyrol.

A major breakthrough in glassmaking was the discovering of glassblowing sometime between 27

BC and AD 14, attributed to Syrian craftsman from the Sidon- Babylon area. The long metal
tube used in the blowing process has changed very little since then. In the last century BC, the

41
ancient Roman then began blowing glass inside moulds, greatly increasing the variety of shapes
possible for hollow glass items.

It was not until the later stages of the industrial revolution, that mechanical technology for mass
production and in-depth scientific research into the relationship between the composition of glass
and in-depth scientific research into the relationship between the composition of glass and its
physical qualities began to appear in the industry.

A key figure and one of the forefathers of modern glass research was the German scientist Otto
Schott (1851 - 1935), who used scientific methods to study the effects of numerous chemical
elements on the optical and thermal properties of glass. In the field of optical glass, Schott
teamed up with Ernst Abbe (1840 - 1905), a professor at the University of Jena and Joint owner
of the Carl Zeiss firm, to make significant technological advances.

Another major contributor in the evolution toward mass production was Friedrich Siemens, who
invented the tank furnace. This rapidly replaced the old pot furnace and allowed the continuous
production of far greater quantities of molten glass.

4.2 Glasses and their types:

American scientists, in 1945 defined glass as “an inorganic product of fusion which has cooled to
a rigid condition without crystallizing”.

However, this definition may not be applicable this day because:

(i) Sodium Silicate glass has been prepared by either evaporating an aqueous solution of
sodium silicate or baking to dryness to remove the water content.

(ii) Glass may not be inorganic since organic polymers also form glass e.g. glycerol (from
sugar cane) have been used to produce lollipops and cotton candy. The former in the shape of
a rigid block and the later are flexible fibers.

4.3 Modern glass definition:

Glass is an x-ray amorphous solid that exhibit the glass transition.

(i) An amorphous material lack long range order, i.e. there is no regularity in
arrangement of the molecular constituents on a scale any longer than a few times of
this constituent.
(ii) Glass is also referred to as a solid because when subjected to moderate forces it does
not flow.
(iii) An amorphous substance may not be glass if it does not exhibit this transition.
(iv) The glass transition temperature, Tg, is the temperature at which an amorphous solid, such
as glass or a polymer, becomes brittle on cooling, or soft on heating.

42
4.4 Glass types:

4.4.1 Vitreous silica glass (pure fused quartz):

It is made up of 100% silica. This is an extremely “hard” glass with a very high melting
temperature. It has a low coefficient of thermal expansion and thus a high thermal shock
resistance. It has a high chemical durability. Thus it is used in the manufacture of prisms and
windows for optical instruments especially where a high degree of transmission in the ultraviolet
and near infrared region is required. This type of glass is crystal-white in cross-section. They are
not normally found in the homes. This is high temperature material; it can be used up to 1000
degrees centigrade. Vycor is 97% pure silica or sand, quartz is 100% silica making it not a glass
but a crystal. It looks like any other glass to the eye. It is used for semiconductor manufacturing
because of its low metal contamination.

4.4.2 Borosilicate glass (pyrex):

This is also called “medium hard” glass. It generally contains about 75-81% silica, 10-13.5%
boric oxide, 4.5-6.0% alkali oxide and 2-5% alumina. It is a glass with a lower coefficient of
thermal expansion, but with a lower resistance to thermal shock when compared to vitreous silica
glass. It has a lower melting temperature when compared to fused silica. It also has a high
chemical durability. These properties explains its versatile application as laboratory glass wares,
oven wares, table wares and industrial glass wares. Borosilicate glasses are crystal-white in
cross-section. This Borosilicate glass and other similar glasses such as Kimax and Duran are the
backbone of laboratory apparatus. Relatively low thermal expansion helps to make this
glassware resist cracking from heat during experiments.

4.4.3 Soda-lime glasses:

They are also referred to as “soft” glasses. Generally contains 74% silica, 16% alkali oxide, 5%
alkali earth oxide and 1% alumina. It has a high coefficient of thermal expansion and
consequently has a very low resistance to thermal shock. These glasses have poor chemical
durability. However, the addition of small amount of alumina improves this property. Soda-lime
glasses account for over 90% of all glasses in present day use. They are usually light- green in
cross-section. Used in the manufacture of glass containers, flat glass and laboratory glass wares.
This is the kind of glass used for bottles and windows. The formula for tubing is slightly
different making it easier to use. This glass has a high rate of expansion making it likely to crack
if heated. Maximum temperature is 250C.

43
4.5 What is scientific glassblowing?

Scientific glassblowing is the process of making glassware by heating pre-formed glass pieces
and then shaping them when the glass is soft. The glassblower uses a plastic tube and a cork to
blow into the glass piece being formed so it can hold its shape. The glass is then annealed
(heated to high temperatures and allowed to cool slowly) to help reduce stress in the

Figures 4.2 and 4.3 Fabricated scientific glass apparatus

4.6 Where is it found?

Scientific glassware will be found in many governments, educational and industrial laboratories.
Chemical, medical, pharmaceutical and engineering laboratories use scientific glassware
extensively, and almost all areas of scientific research will use glass at some time.

44
4.7 Who does it?

The Scientific glassblower. Scientific Glassblowers in research are highly skilled artisans who
form the glass into the shapes and dimensions called for. The glassblower usually has a strong
background and understanding of the sciences. It takes many years of experience in a
multiscience environment to develop the professional scientific glassblower.

Figure 4.4 A scientific glassblower in action

4.8 How is it done?

Using a torch or burner, scientific glassblowers heat, form and seal glass tubing, rod and
preformed components into glass apparatus. This process is also occasionally referred to as
lampworking.

Figure 4.5 A Glass spindle being worked in an intense hot flame

45
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figures 4.6 (a), (b), (c) and (d)highlight the stages involved in the blowing of a bulb from a
glass tubing

46
4.9 Torches and burners:

They come in a variety of shapes, sizes and capabilities to fill the many applications required by
the glassblowers.

Figure 4.7 A lathe mounted four nozzle burner flame firing a test tube end

A scientific glassblower has a responsibility to the scientist using his/her glassblowing services
to provide a piece of glassware that is structurally sound and built within accepted safe
parameters for its intended use. The glass apparatus must be fully annealed to relieve all stress or
strain introduced into the glass during the glassblowing process. The colorful bands of light
(indicative of strain/stress) are visible with the aid of a polariscope. This is the last thing a
scientist would want to see in a piece of glassware used in the laboratory.

There are many thousands of glass compositions commercially and custom made, each with their
own specific chemical, thermal, optical and physical properties. The types of glasses found most
often in the chemistry laboratory will be in the borosilicate family.

47
WEEK 9:

48
4.10 Glass Processing:

Glass at normal temperature is a brittle material which is an almost perfect elastic body; it has
poor thermal conduction and the coefficient of expansion of soda and lead glasses is
approximately two thirds that of iron, whereas PYREX is about a quarter. Sudden heating or
cooling through a range of temperature exceeding the limits of these properties will cause
fracture. Because of its low thermal conduction, a mass of molten glass can be chilled to form a
solid skin while the inside remains molten; it can be considered that this mass is composed of
theoretical contiguous “LAYERS” arranged from the surface to the centre, across which exists a
temperature gradient rising towards the centre. while hot the mass of glass is in a relatively stress
free state. On cooling, the surface eventually reaches room temperature with the result that
further cooling ceases and contraction stops, but the inner mass of glass remains hot, the
condition now arises where each theoretical contiguous “layer” continues to cool and contract
after the previous ”layer” has reached surface temperature; thus a state of tension is created
between the “layers”. The amount of strain in a piece of apparatus is relative to the rate of
cooling and so, to minimize this factor during the manufacturing the glass is heated to a uniform
temperature before it is then slowly cooled to around 300°C in order to render it strain-free.
Below 300°C, even with rapid cooling, only a negligible strain can be formed. Conversely, glass
is heated slowly from cold to avoid fracture which can be caused by an over-rapid rise in
temperature. This condition can be achieved by flame control or more satisfactorily in a
temperature controlled oven.

Glass in its molten state can be manipulated by either manual or mechanical means to form items
such as flask, beakers, tubing and mould – blown cylinders. Glass tubing can be extruded
through an orifice over an inner mandrel, through which air is blown and the tubing drawn away
to be cut into regular sections. Tubing and other mass produced items are again processed by the
glassblower to manufacture glass apparatus.

4.11 Gases used in glassblowing:

Gases can be defined as being combustible, supporters of combustion or non – combustible gases
mixed with those of which support combustion and when ignited, produce a flame. Variations in
the proportions and combination of these types of gases produce characteristics of calorific
value (heat) and velocity (speed) of the flame. The sucessful burning and control of the flame
depend on the mixture and flow of the gases and the size of the burner nozzle. With a slow
flame, of too rich a mixture and too large a nozzle back—firing results, on the other hand with a
slow burning mixture and excessive gas flow, the flame will “lift – off” from the burner.The
performance of a flame can however, be predetermined and controlled for specific purposes
through specially designed burners and torches.

49
 The most common and important types of fuel gases are town gases (coal gas); Natural gas
(methane) and hydrogen gas.

Their approximate temperature values are:

Coal gas + air = 2000°C

Natural gas + O2 = 2500o C

Hydrogen gas + O2 = 2900°C

The proportion of gas to air (O2) for optimum results are:—

Coal gas 25% + Air 75%

Natural gas 10% + Air 90%

Calorific value (Heat content)

Natural gas 37MJ/KG

4.12 Flame adjustment:

In preparation for working the glass, the glassblower adjusts the burner to produce a distinct blue
cone in the flame without excessive blasting. The hottest zone of the flame is at the tip of the
blue cone and the intensity of the flame decreases with distance from the cone. The glassblower
utilizes the cooler zones for preheating and for cooling the glass after heating whereas the hottest
area is generally used for the actual glass softening and working. The blue cone next to the
burner nozzle is a comparatively cold zone of unburnt gases which is not satisfactory for
glassworking.

4.13 Requirement of glass tubing for glassworking:

Tubing is the main intermediate preformed glass product utilized by the scientific glassblower.

To be worked successfully the tube must be reasonably straight in its length, as circular as
possible in section, with an even wall thickness, it must also free from faults such as stones,
straei, air threads, severe stress and scratches. Faults may also arise in the manufacture or by
careless subsequent storage and handling.

Tubing is produced for general glassblowing in sizes from 4 mm – 100 mm outside diameter
with 1 mm – mm wall thickness and approximately 1500 mm in length. Other dimensions of
tubing can be produced to specification by arrangement with the manufacturer.

50
4.14 Work bench:

A convenient size for a working bench is 54” x 30” covered with a hard heat - resistant material.
The height of the table may vary considerably depending on the preference of the glass blower.
Air and gas connections should be located at the front of the table with an open oxygen supply to
a convenient point. The lighting should be from behind the worker or from his side but not in
front of him. The tools to be used in glass - working are usually very elementary in design, and
are readily available from laboratory suppliers.

It is essential that the burner selected should be compatible with the type of gas available and
should be easily adjustable to produce all variations from a sharp intense flame to a soft bushy
flame. The high working temperature of “pyrex” brand borosilicate glass demands the use of an
extremely hot flame. It is usually necessary to use a combined oxygen – air - gas flame.

A glass knife is frequently needed to score the surface of the glass. Since the surface of the glass
is hard, however, then edge of the file will blunt rapidly. A tungsten carbide knife is more
effective and produces a consistently fine score mark

Reamers of various sizes usually made of triangular pieces of brass fitted into handles, and
pointed carbon rods can also be used for reaming and shaping, while a flat piece of carbon is
frequently used for squaring. A fine piece of tungsten wire mounted in a glass rod or other
handle is useful for piercing hot glass. The remainder of the tool kit will be made up of tweezers,
a flask holder and tinted glass goggles.

51
WEEK 10: 5.0 GLASSBLOWING WORKSHOP SAFETY RULES AND
HAZARDS.

5.1 Glassblowing workshop safety rules:

Working glass is inherently dangerous, involving heavy materials that can be razor sharp, so hot
that damage can be done before feeling occurs, with chemicals immediately poisonous, dusts that
can damage the lungs, and heat sources that can wreck the eyes. Understand the safe practices
required and use them to blow beautiful glass apparatus.

5.1.1 Eye protection:

Every glass worker should have several levels of eye protection: at a very minimum, break
resistant glasses to save the eyes from glass fragments. Glasses commonly used for lampworking
are referred to as didymium glasses. This material specifically blocks the yellow sodium flare
that blocks viewing the glass in the flame. It does not, in and of itself, block UV or IR, and must
be part of shading or other design factors to produce full protection.

5.1.2 Clothing:

It is recommended that glassblowers wear cotton or wool clothing rather than nylon or polyester.
Part of the reason is the way that natural fibers hold sweat. But nylon can melt in the heat and if
it sticks to the skin is very painful. Many glassblowers work in short sleeves and short pants and
pull on a cotton sock with the toe cut out to protect the arm when working bigger pieces. Long
sleeved cotton tee's and blue jeans are recommended as good year-round glassblowing wardrobe.

Closed-toe shoes are a requirement to work in the hot shop and metal belt buckles, watches and
jewelry are also a risk since they can be inadvertantly heated and can cause burns.

5.1.3 Heat:

Heat is different from burns in that heat is an overall effect on the body, while burns (normally)
affect a small part of the body. Depending on how a glassworker works, the heat exposure of the
body can be very high. Hydration is very important particularly in the summer.

5.1.4 Burns:

Most of the more serious burns in the hot shop result picking a pipe or punty from the wrong end
[mistaking the dark heat damaged end for the dark rubber handle] or from rolling a pipe and
hitting a leg while sitting working. Mild burns from cooling hot glass on the floor, etc., occur
also. Always assume that anything metal in the hot shop that could be hot is hot. Metal surfaces
have a nasty habit of absorbing and holding heat for a very long time.

52
5.1.4.1 First degree:

Reddening of the skin with a continuing burning sensation - heavy sunburn

5.1.4.2 Second degree:

Small to large blisters - damage to surface of skin.

5.1.4.3 Third degree:

Blackening/charring/cooking of skin - damage to flesh under skin - shock likely.

A serious burn should be plunged/soaked in cold water (not ice) as soon as possible (if the skin is
not broken, any water may be ok), to drop the body temperature, then treated medically as
needed.

5.1.5 Cuts:

Cold glass has sharp edges. At a minimum, inexpensive leather gloves should be kept on hand.
Long cuff padded welding gloves cost under $10, eventually getting stiff if heated a bunch.
There are gloves on the market with rubber dots on the surface that help grip glass and keep it
from slipping. There are also gloves that have Kevlar or other tough fibers to resist cutting
through to the hands.

Always be cautious handling un-annealed glass. It can literally explode without any provocation.

Glassblowing is inherently a dangerous activity! It is a fact of being around so much intensely

hot equipment. These rules are meant to help keep the glassblowing experience as safe as
possible, but a lot depends on those around you! When you are walking behind someone, be sure
to say "Keith behind you!", or something like that, to make the other folks in the workshop, who
may be intensely focused on cutting, softening a tube, blowing, etc, aware of your position in the
workshop -- this is for the safety of all in the laboratory

5.2 Glassblowing workshop hazards:

5.2.1 Hazards due to glass:

Glass tube ends and all sharp-edged waste glass must be done with great care as they can easily
penetrate the skin and break-off, leaving a small piece of glass embedded in the hands or fingers.
All those who work in the glassblowing workshop must be properly dressed in cover-all for self
protection.

53
5.2.2 Burn hazards:

Due to absentmindedness, a hot glass can come in contact with an individual’s hand or body.
This is because a hot glass cannot be identified by appearance. This can be avoided by dressing
appropriately in cover-all, with hand gloves and giving absolute attention to the work being
done.

5.2.3 Eye hazards:

Small fragments of glass can sometimes enter the eye where the eye is not protected. Also
prolonged exposure to heat or infrared light can cause cataract of the eye. Ultraviolet light
emitted by hot borosilicate and silicate glasses is known ton cause Corneal ulcer. Thus the use of
safety spectacles like Didymium goggles is recommended.

Figure 6.1 Blowing glass wearing a safety goggles

5.2.4 Emphysema:

All those who do glassblowing are exposed to a small risk of developing a condition known as
“emphysema”. This is a permanent inflammation or over-expansion of the whole or part of either
or both lungs. This condition reduces breathing efficiency and leads to shortness of breath on
exertion. This can b e avoided by taking a deep breath before blowing, never with all the
pressure you can muster.

54
 Figure 6.3 Blowing glass using a blowhose

5.2.5 Hazards due to gas:

Unchecked gas leaks could result into fire. Gas/air/oxygen hoses should be properly fitted at both
the burner end and at the tap ends. The gas pipes and taps should be inspected at regular intervals
and all defective fittings replaced.

5.2.6 Hazards due to repairable glass wares:

Damaged apparatus may have contained inflammable substances. These substances will
evaporate and can easily form explosive mixture with air. Poisonous substances may be left in or
on glass brought for repairs and may find their way to the mouth or lips. Thus all glass wares
presented for modification or repair must be certified to have been cleaned and dried.

55
WEEK 11:
5.3 Tools and materials in glassblowing workshop:

The working tools of the scientific glassblower are numerous, however some of the basic tools
he uses includes the knife cutter, burners and torches, tweezers, blowhose, safety goggles,
polariscope, annealing oven and several others. Some scientific glassblowing tools and their uses
are shown in pictorial form in this text

Figure 7.1 (a) Oxygen Regulator Figure 7.1(b) Propane Regulator

Both 7 (a) and (b) are adjustable with Tank and line pressure gauges

Figure 7.2 Hose Set. Twin Lead Flexible Tubing. Rated for all types of fuels and oxygen

56
7.3 Flashback Arrestors. Helps prevent reverse gas flow and flashback.

Figure 7.4 (a) Double end gas splitter

Figure 7.4 (b) Junction – type Gas Splitter

57
Figure 7.5 Pluro: Pluro or multi-stoppers, when used in place of the standard rubber stopper,
offer a useful variety of glass size connections. These stoppers consist of a series of "rings" as
shown in the photograph. Available in different materials for a range of temperature and
chemical exposure. Black rubber compositions are good for temperatures up to approximately
160° F, green neoprene to about 200° F, and the red silicone stoppers are better to use for
temperatures up to 450° F.

Figure 7.6 Didymium lens: The glassblowing process can produce visible and UV light
transmission harmful to your eyes. Didymium lens have been used for years by scientific
glassblowers, offering protection from glass shards and providing sodium light filtration. The
upper two eyeglasses shown have didymium lens. The glasses on the mid- left are used for
quartz work. The upper 1/3rd contain a didymium lens, the lower 2/3rds are a welders shade 5 or
6, offering additional protection from the intense white light produced when working quartz.

58
Figure 7.7 Blowhose: The blowhose and the attachments shown are what glassblowers use to
blow air into the glassware being made. On the left of the photograph is a latex tube (blowhose)
with a mouthpiece at one end and a swivel at the other. The swivel is a device that serves as a
transition piece between the blowhose and the glass. The swivel allows glass rotation without
any twisting and kinking of the flexible blowhose tubing. Latex or rubber tubes and rubber
stoppers of assorted sizes are used to connect to the glass. Swivels (upper right) are usually made
of brass or stainless steel. Pictured are two brass swivels, a right angle and a straight swivel. A
short latex hose, brass insert and
rubber stopper assembly are also
shown.

Figure 7.8 Graphite tools: Graphite tools are used extensively in the glassworking field. Able to
withstand high temperature exposures, easy to machine and form into custom shapes, graphite is
the material of choice for many glassworking and forming tools. Three flat graphite paddles are
shown on the left. Flat paddles can be used in forming flat bottoms on glassware, an aid in

59
reducing outer diameters on tubing, or in forming an even taper. Note the 3rd flat has a small slit
at the base. This was used to produce a small ridge on a glass rod. Graphite rounds can be used to
enlarge a hole blown in a tube, as a flaring tool, or to poke an indentation in the glass sidewall.
The graphite tool pictured on the right is called a taper. Tapers can be used to create flares with
a heavier glass wall thickness.

Figure 7.9 Flint lighters and Tungsten

Carbide Knives: Additional tools found
in the glass shop. L to R. Two strikers or
flint lighters. Used to light the torch or
burner. The striker on the right has a cup
that traps the ignitable gas, making it
easier to use. Tweezers can be used to pull
or hold hot glass or tools. The next two
tools are tungsten carbide glass knives or
scorers. Used to scratch the surface of
glass when "cutting" tubes or rods. The
tungsten pick on the right is used to move
or sew small amounts of heated glass.
Most often used to help close small
openings found during glass repair or
fabrication. The scalloped piece of wood
is used as a rest for placing glass (hot or
cold) components used during the
fabrication process. There are many
variables in the glass repair and custom
fabrication business and glassblowers frequently make their own tools and fixtures.
Scientific glass apparatus is designed to perform certain functions. To work efficiently (or at all)
the glassware must be fabricated to certain specified measurements. Glassblowers will use a
number of instruments - including calipers - to verify compliance with specifications.
The gases commonly used for working borosilicate glasses are
propane or natural gas mixed with oxygen. It is important when
selecting your burner, torch and tips that they be designed for use
with these gases. Units designed for gas/air mixtures should not be
used with gas and oxygen.

60
 Figure 7.9(a)
Glassblowing Burners:
Typical glassblowers
burner. Burners are
usually bench or lathe
mounted. The bench
burner shown here has
two gas and two oxygen
valve controls, offering a
wide variety of flame
configurations. The
aluminum collar shown
mounted on the burner
barrel aids in heat
dissipation.

Figure 7.9(b)
Glassblowing Burner:
Another example of a
glassblowers bench
burner. The two inner
valves (green/oxygen and
red/gas) create a
relatively small tight
flame. Opening the two
outer valves offer the
glassblower a much
larger flame as shown
here. In use, burners are
usually stationary or
mounted as part of a
fixture. The glass is
brought into the flame
where it is heated and
manipulated by the
glassblower.

61
 7.9(c) Lathe Burners:
Lathe burners are
mounted on a movable
carriage. The four (4) jet
burner pictured can be
moved up or down to
match the diameter of the
glass being worked or
rolled back and forth
along the length of the
glass tubing using the
carriage. Each burner jet
angle may be adjusted as
well.

7.9(d) Glassblowing
Torch Glassblowers
torches are usually
smaller and much lighter
than burners or burner
assemblies. The torch
shown here is a pre-mix
(gas/oxygen are mixed in
a chamber within the
torch body) style quite
popular with many
glassblowers. Pre-mix
torches often have
removable tips in a wide
range of sizes, providing
a number of flame
options to the
glassblower.

62
 7.9(e) Glassblowing
Torch: Torches are
brought to the glass,
which is held stationary
by clamps or other
fixtures. The size, weight
and balance of a torch are
important features to the
glassblower.

http://www.blueflam
etech.com/

7.10: Vanier Caliper: for measuring

dimension of tubing.

63
WEEK 12: 6.0 CONSTRUCTION OF LABORATORY GLASSWARES
6.1 Holding and rotating tubing:
A convenient size of standard wall tubing for this exercise is 15 mm diameter and about 350 mm
long. It is held in the left hand, with the palm downwards and the fingers and thumb encircling
the tubing. The thumb, first and second fingers are then released so that the tubing is held in the
crook of the of the third and fourth fingers. This hold is slightly eased while still supporting the
tubing to serve as a bearing. With practice, the rotating movement can be improved and a
steadier motion can be obtained by alternately transferring the glass from the first and second
fingers. The other end of the tubing is held between the first two fingers and thumb of the right
hand below the glass, in a similar manner to that used in holding a pen when writing. When
rotating the tubing, the hold is slightly released so that the tubing now rest on the side of the
second finger between the first finger and thumb. The rotation of the tubing imparted by the left
hand must be synchronized between the two hands; initially the right hand merely supporting the
tubing as a bearing, but as the glass softens sufficient hold must be exercised, whilst rotating the
tubing to restrain any bending or sagging of the melted zone.

Note: Hold the glass tube in a declining or horizontal position with the tube end angled away
from you. This will prevent the flame from traveling up the tube and out the far end, possibly
resulting in a burn.

64
6.2 Cutting glass tubing:

The glassblower employs numerous methods of cutting the stock tubing into required sections.
These include the use of diamond, tungsten carbide or other hard material to produce a cut on the
outer surface of the glass and then to part the glass at the cut by mechanical stress applying a
pulling – bending motion. Such a cut can also be developed into a break by applying heat to the
cut, parting the glass by thermal stress. Glass tubing can also be cut by with diamond , tungsten
carbide or silicon carbide abrasive wheels rotating at high speeds and fed with lubricant. Various
flame techniques are also used for parting tubing such as softening a zone and pulling the two
sections apart so that the tubing stretches into a smaller diameter which can be readily melted for
complete separation. A modification of these technique involves a number of small intense
flames arranged to impinge onto rotating tubing until a narrow – extremely soft ring of glass
results which when drawn apart, instantly separates and produces a smooth fired – end to the
tubing.

65
66
WEEK 13:

6.3 Test – tube fabrication:

Test tubes are relatively easy to make, frequently used, and give you an opportunity to practice
rotation and fire polishing skills. This exercise will introduce you to the process of blowing into
the glass, forming and shaping the tube end. Take two glass tubing of size 15 cm long, 12 cm
diameter with 1-1½ mm wall thickness. One piece, closed at one end with a cork is held in the
left hand, while the other tube is held in the right hand, both as described for forming a
constriction. The ends to be joined are rotated, separately but simultaneously, in a fairly intense
flame. When the edges appear to thicken and flow, the tubes are removed from the flame, the
rotation is momentarily stooped. The ends are torched together, and rotation continued while the
join is slightly pulled to reduce the thickening at the point of contact.The tubing is immediately
blown to expand the join to a diameter slightly in excess of that of the tubing. The seam is
reheated with a small intense flame to re-thicken the glass in that zone and then remove from
flame to again blow and reform without thinning the wall. The join is re-heated again with a
slightly larger flame to remove any irregularities (as when forming a constriction), and then with
a blow and pull, the softened glass is formed into a uniform join similar in dimension to the
original tubing. Finally, any residual stress is removed (annealed) by re-heating the join and
adjacent glass until nearly soft, and gradually cooling in the forward zoneof a large flame of
medium intensity.

67
68
WEEK 14:
6.4 T and Y seals:

T seals are simply two tubes sealed together at right angles. Modified T seals may have the glass
tubes at any angle degree, the basic technique being the same. Joining dissimilar sized tubes end
to end may be more appropriately classified as butt seals, but for our purposes are carried in this
section because the technique shown is similar to the T seal.

69
Note: Re-blwing the bubble in steps 5 and 6 will help build up the wall thickness at the point
where the second tube is sealed. It is important not to skip this step. Use a second 10 mm piece
of tubing as the leg that will be attached to tube #1. If you have performed steps 3 – 8
correctlyyou hould have a very close match of the ID and OD of thehole in tube #1 to the end of
tube #2.

70
6.5 Troubleshooting guide T seals

Seal is blown out too far. Use smaller flame concentrated exactly on the seal area. Avoid flame
splash on tubing away from seal.

71
Seal is constricted – not blown out enough. Use sharp flame to heat up restricted area and blow
out to consistent tube ID.

Seal is lumpy and /or uneven. Seal was not heated hot enough to flow glass. Reheat seal with
sharp intense flame.

a)Seal has uneven wall thickness. Tube was heated excessively causing glass to flow with
gravity. (b) Reorient tube. (c) Reheat seal, gravity flow to correct.

72
Leg is tilted - too much heat applied over a large area. Use sharper flame and heat small section
at a time. If the intent was to create an angle seal of about 45 degrees - well done!

Hole! Did not seal completely or blew too hard creating hole. (a) Small hole - Heat the end of a
2 mm rod red hot and quickly stick and pull rod end into hole sealing it shut. Work out seal. (b)
If the hole is large you may have to add glass by "weaving" the hole shut, again use 2 mm rod.
Try to avoid using an excessive amount of glass with this method. (c) Use a tungsten pick to
"sew" the hole shut. Heat only the glass, not the pick. Do not create thin spots using this method.

Bends may be accomplished in two ways. The first involves rotating the glass in the flame. The
second method is used when the glass cannot be rotated (e.g. the glass I attached to a vacuum
line), so the torch flame is moved around the glass.

6.6 Bend fabrication:

Select 10 mm glass tubing about 16 inches long, blowhose attached at one end, sealed at the
other. Adjust flame on torch or burner to a bushy ho flame – between a sharp and annealing
setting. Rotate the glass tubing in the flame, simultaneously moving the glass back and forth ovr
a 3 inch range. When the glass has the “feel of a cooked noodle” remove from the flame, stop
rotating, and bend. Blow while bending to maintain ID and OD.

73
Another method of fabricating a bend is Mount tubing vertically in ring stand. Clamp should be
near end (not centered). Attach blow hose to tube at clamp end (a). Using a bushy hot flame,
rotate the torch around the tubin, evenly heating an area of tubing at least 2 inches in length.
Hand support tube at (b). When tube softens (cooked noodle) remove torch, bend and blow to
maintain ID and OD.

6.7 Repairs:

Repairs of scientific glassware should be attempted with caution. Assuming

the glass glassware was broken in use, or has been used in the laboratory at
some point in time, it would be wise to assume the glass has some chemical
residue on or in it. Do not attempt to repair any glass until it has been cleaned to
your satisfaction. Many glassblowers as policy will not accept glassware for repair
until the user has cleaned the glass of all chemical and grease residue. Remember,
as you heat the glass any outgassing that occurs is deposited directly into your
mouth via the blowhose assembly.

74
 Resources
Scientific Glassblowing - E.L.
Wheeler
Scientific Glassblowing Books Manual of Scientific Glassblowing -
British Society of Scientific
Glassblowers
The American Scientific
Glassblowers Society
British Society of Scientific
Glassblowers
Scientific Glassblowing Organizations
Scientific Glassblowers Association
of Australia
German Scientific Glassblowers
Scottish Glass Society
Wale Apparatus ...Hellertown, PA
Supplies - Equipment, Tools 18055
Heathway....Doylestown,PA 18901.
Ace Glass ....Vineland, NJ 08360
Supplies - Glass
ChemGlass....Vineland, NJ 08360
Laboratory Glassware The Glassware Gallery -
Descriptions and Use Interactive Learning Paradigms
(Great Resource) Inc.
Virtual Glass Museum
Glass Art Society
Warm Glass - Fusing and Slumping
Art Glass Links
Tutorial and more!
East Falls Glassworks - Step by
Step Pictorials !
More Information Canberra School of Art - Australia
About Glass Technical Resources - Glass Links
Stained Glass Organization of
Stained Glass
America

75
WEEK 15: 7.0 GLASSBLOWING WORKSHOP

Figure 10.1 Layout of a typical Glassblowing Workshop

7.1 The glassblowers bench:

The layout of a glassblowers bench is a personal thing....there is no right or wrong way to lay out
your tools. Some people like their tools and equipment to their right, others find it easier to have
everything to the left. Some like to stand while they work, others sit. The only constant is safety.
Protection of yourself, equipment and property should always be your first consideration in a

76
set-up you create. Take the time to understand the various properties of the material and
equipment you're working with and use that information as a guide in your set-up.

7.2 The bench top:

A flat, level non-combustible bench top surface about five (5) feet long and at least thirty (30)
inches deep should be considered a minimum size work area. A back shield is beneficial for
safety and practical reasons. If the back shield is constructed of the same material as your bench
top it will provide some fire protection. Glass will be easier to see if the background has a flat,
smooth non-textured surface. You may find that painting the bench top and back shield flat
black will help in determining the color of heated glass during the glassblowing process. The
wall thickness of the glass will also be more apparent against a solid background.

Figure 10.2 A customized hand torch holder

77
7.3 Oxygen and fuel gas systems:

The gases necessary to fuel your burners and torches may be delivered by way of complex gas
manifold systems or something as simple as a compressed gas cylinder, regulator and flexible
hose assembly. All federal, state and local regulations must be adhered to whichever system is
used. Prior to use all gas systems should be inspected for leaks and overall safe operating
condition.

Both gas delivery systems will require the use of flexible tubing at the torch or burner. Burners
are usually stationary on a bench top and may require only 2 -3 feet of tubing. The hand torch
will be moved a great deal, however, and will require 8 - 12 feet of tubing on average.

7.3.1 Compressed gases:

Natural gas or propane will be the fuel gases used in working borosilicate glass. Delivery
pressure of 5 psi is recommended. Hydrogen is commonly used for working quartz or fused
silica. Pressure ranges are adjusted to the type of seal and size of quartz being worked, but you
will find 5 - 10 psi a good starting point.

Oxygen is always used as the mixing gas in scientific glassblowing. Oxygen pressures range
from 10 - 15 psi for most applications. Compressed air is not capable of producing the flame
temperatures necessary for working borosilicate and quartz glasses.

A typical gas delivery system would be: Gas Source > Regulator > Delivery Line > Torch or
Burner. Safety and shutoff valves should be strategically placed in the distribution system.

The gases necessary to fuel your burners and torches may be delivered by way of complex gas
manifold systems or something as simple as a compressed gas cylinder, regulator and flexible
hose assembly. All federal, state and local regulations must be adhered to whichever system is
used. Prior to use all gas systems should be inspected for leaks and overall safe operating
condition.

Both gas delivery systems will require the use of flexible tubing at the torch or burner. Burners
are usually stationary on a bench top and may require only 2 -3 feet of tubing. The hand torch
will be moved a great deal, however, and will require 8 - 12 feet of tubing on average. TYGON

78
works very well as a flexible tubing material. It may be purchased in "twin-tubing" form with a
protective woven overbraid or sleeve (recommended).

7.4 Designing a glassblowing shop:

It is recommended that all gas delivery lines come up from under the work bench. Gas lines
that hang from above or lay on top of the work surface will be exposed to flames and hot glass
(not desirable).

7.5 Burners and torches:

Torches and burners will be described as being surface-mix or pre-mix. The difference is where
the mixing of the fuel gas and oxygen take place. Remember, your torch will be burning oxygen
and propane or natural gas. Do not use torch components designed for use with air.

Pre-mix torches as a rule are capable of burning a little hotter with a flame that can be very
concentrated. Gas and oxygen are mixed in a chamber within the torch body. This style torch is
preferred when making seals and/or when heating small concentrated areas. If you were to be
restricted to using only one torch, the pre-mix is recommended. Premix torches have the benefit
of having interchangeable tips, allowing the user the option of changing flame characteristics
over a broad range. Surface-mix torches and burners are used most frequently when large areas
of glass need to be worked. Oxygen and fuel gases are mixed at the torch tip. The flame
characteristics tend to be broader and softer, with less velocity than a comparable sized flame
from the pre-mix torch. This is a good torch to use when preheating a large piece of glass
apparatus for repair, or when shaping large tubing. An excellent example of a burner that
incorporates surface-mix and pre-mix capabilities would be the Carlisle CC Burner.

There are many other makes and models of burners and torches available to the glassblower.
Their different flame and body characteristics determine their application in the glassblowing
field.

Torches (handheld) may be used as burners by simply hanging or attaching them to some sort of
fixture. This fixture may be something as simple as a ring-stand and clamp assembly or a
custom made unit that will hold the torch in a safe and secure manner.

79
Before you start....Handle the tools you will be using. Feel their weight and balance, how to hold
them in a comfortable manner, and how easy/hard it is to open and close valves on your torch
and burners. Always wear your safety/didymium glasses when at the work bench.

80