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ADAPTIVE TEACHING GUIDE

Most Essential Topic # 9: Fundamental Concepts of Hypothesis Testing

Lesson # 1: Concepts of Hypothesis Testing

Prerequisite Content Knowledge Prerequisite Skill

The learners should know how to:
The learners should know: • properly write inequalities;
• concepts of hypothesis; and • translate statements into mathematical symbols; and
• concepts of inequalities • formulate an educated guess from a given situation.
Communication, Problem Solving, & Critical Thinking Skills

Prerequisite Assessment:
Content Knowledge Skill
Cloze Test: Complete the statement below by choosing the answer in the box A. Represent each of the following statements as an algebraic inequality:
provided. 1. x is at most 25.
2. The sum of 4x and y is at least 12.
Theory Observation Start Clear End 3. The product of m and 7n is less than 15.
Variables Precise Experiment Hypothesis Population 4. 19 less than a number 9p is under 45.

(1) is an assumption that is made on the basis of some evidence. It includes B. The two questions are about factors affecting plant growth. For each question,
components like (2), (3), and the relation between the variables. It should be (4) and write an appropriate hypothesis that could be tested with an experiment.
(5) to consider it to be reliable. It helps in making an (6) and (7) possible. It becomes 1. What effect does the amount of light have on plant growth?
the (8) point for the investigation. 2. What effect does the amount of water have on plant growth?
Answer Key: Answer Key:
1. Hypothesis 3. Population 5. Precise 7. Experiment 1. x ≤ 25 3. (m)(7n) < 15
2. Variables 4. Clear 6. Observation 8. Start 2. 4x + y ≥ 12 4. 9p – 19 > 45
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Pre–lesson Remediation Activity

For Students with Insufficient Level on Prerequisite Content-knowledge and/or For Students with Fairly Sufficient Level on Prerequisite Content-knowledge
Skill(s) and/or Skill(s)
• Reading materials, lecture notes, and video tutorials will be provided which will
• Give short discussions.
discuss the concepts and processes involved in hypothesis and inequalities
• Drills about the various prerequisite knowledge and skills of hypothesis testing.
essential to the fundamental concepts of hypothesis testing.

Introduction

Time Frame 2 hours Juan Dela Cruz

FB Messenger: Juan Dela Cruz
Contact
At the end of this lesson, the learner can illustrate (a) null hypothesis; (b) alternative hypothesis; (c) level of Email: [email protected]
RUA
significance; (d) rejection region; and (e) types of errors in hypothesis testing. Contact No.: +639xxxxxxxxxx
PAA/ EFAA Problem Analysis: The learner is provided with different real-life situations and is tasked to give their hypothesis on these situations.

A statistician's profession includes making statistical judgments about populations based on population samples. According to ABC tutoring firm, 85% of its
pupils receive an A or B as a result of their instruction. A car dealership may advertise that their new small truck gets an average of 45 miles per gallon.
According to MNP company, men managers make an average of P45,000 a year.
Overview
These claims will be analyzed and decided by a statistician, whether it should be rejected or failed to be rejected. This is referred to as "hypothesis testing,"
and it entails collecting and analyzing data from a sample. The statistician then decides whether there is enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis based
on data analyses. In this lesson, you will learn more about the concepts surrounding hypothesis testing.

Student’s Experiential Learning

Formative Questions For Students with Poor or No Internet Connectivity For Students with Strong Internet Connectivity
Chunk 1: Definition of Terms
1. What is null and alternative • Lesson Presentation using Slide Deck converted to PDF Format
• Lesson Presentation using Slide Deck through various meeting
hypothesis? that will be saved using USB or sent through other platforms
platforms (Zoom, Google Meet, etc.)
2. What are the possible (e.g., email; FB Messenger)
• Practice exercises/ Quick Checks using online platforms
outcomes of hypothesis • Practice exercises/ Quick Checks to determine the student’s
(Mentimeter, Kahoot, Quizizz, etc.)
testing? understanding of the lesson through SLM.
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3. How to identify the rejection

region? Null and Alternative Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis (H0)

A statement of no difference between sample means or proportions or no difference between a sample mean or proportion and a
population mean or proportion. In other words, the difference equals 0.

Alternative Hypothesis (Ha)

A claim about the population that is contradictory to H0 and what we conclude when we reject H0.

Mathematical Symbols Used in H0 and Ha:

H0 Ha
equal (=) not equal (≠) or greater than
(>) or less than (<)
greater than or equal to (≥) less than (<)
less than or equal to (≤) more than (>)

Example 1.
H0: No more than 45 percent of the registered voters in Calamba City, Laguna voted in the presidential election. p ≤ 45
Ha: More than 45 percent of the registered voters in Calamba City, Laguna voted in the presidential election. p > 45

Quick Check
State the null and alternative hypotheses.
1. A medical trial is conducted to test whether or not a new medicine reduces cholesterol by 30 percent.

Example 2.
We want to test whether the mean GPA of students in Philippine Universities is different from 2.0 (out of 4.0). The null and alternative
hypotheses are the following:
H0: μ = 2.0
Ha: μ ≠ 2.0
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Quick Check
Fill in the correct symbol (=, ≠, ≥, <, ≤, >) for the null and alternative hypotheses.
1. We want to test whether the mean height of eighth-graders is 54 inches. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
H0: μ ___ 54
Ha: μ ___ 54
2. We want to test if it takes fewer than 43 minutes to teach a lesson plan. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
H0: μ ___ 43
Ha: μ ___ 43

Video Tutorials
• Statistics: Introduction to Hypothesis Testing
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=plAiYXYaqY0
• Difference between Null and Alternate Hypothesis in Research |
Examples | MIM Learnovate
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xM_FGDdsPxQ

Outcomes and the Type I and Type II Errors

When you perform a hypothesis test, there are four possible outcomes depending on the actual truth, or falseness, of the null hypothesis
H0 and the decision to reject or not. The outcomes are summarized in the following table:

H0 is actually
Decision
True False
Do not reject H0 Correct Outcome Type II error
Reject H0 Type 1 error Correct Outcome

Example 3.
State the Type I and Type II errors. Identify the type of error that has the greater consequence. Suppose the null hypothesis, H0: Antonio's
rock-climbing equipment is safe.

Type I: Antonio does not go rock climbing because he considers that the equipment is not safe, when in fact, the equipment is really safe.

Type II: Antonio goes climbing, thinking that his equipment is safe, but this is a mistake, and he painfully realizes that his equipment is not
as safe as it should have been.
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Notice that, in this case, the error with the greater consequence is the Type II error. (If Antonio thinks his rock-climbing equipment is safe,
he will go ahead and use it.)

Quick Check
State the Type I and Type II errors. Identify the type of error that has the greater consequence. Suppose the null hypothesis, H0: A patient
is not sick.

Video Tutorials
• Statistics: Type I and Type II Errors
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Sdw2E7Xi0Q0
• Hypothesis Testing Basics: Type 1/ Type 2 errors | Statistical
Power
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CJvmp2gx7DQ

Making a Decision

To determine whether the probability is small or how many standard deviations are “acceptable”, we need a preset level of significance,
which is the probability of a Type I error. Recall that a Type I error is the event of rejecting the null hypothesis when that null hypothesis is
true. Think of finding guilty a person who is actually innocent.

When we specify our hypotheses, we should have some idea of what size of a Type I error we can tolerate. It is denoted as α. A
conventional choice of α is 0.05. Values ranging from 0.01 to 0.1 are also common and the choice of α depends on the problem one is
working on.

Once we have this preset level, we can determine whether or not there is significant evidence against the null. There are two methods to
determine if we have enough evidence, the rejection region method and p – value method.

Rejection Region Approach

We start the hypothesis test process by determining the null and alternative hypotheses. Then we set our significance level, α, which is the
probability of making a Type I error. We can determine the appropriate cutoff called the critical value and find a range of values where we
should reject, called the rejection region.

Critical Values
The values that separate the rejection and non-rejection regions.
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Rejection Region
The set of values for the test statistic leads to the rejection of H0.

The graphs below show us how to find the critical values and the rejection regions for the three different alternative hypotheses and for a
set significance level, α. The rejection region is based on the alternative hypothesis.

The rejection region is the region where, if our test statistic falls, then we have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis. If we
consider the right-tailed test, for example, the rejection region is any value greater than c1-α, where c1-α is the critical value.

Left–Tailed Test
Reject H0 if the test statistics are less than or equal to the critical value (cα)

Right–Tailed Test
Reject H0 if the test statistics is greater than or equal to the critical value (cα)
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Two-Tailed Test
Reject H0 if the test statistics are greater than or equal to the absolute value of the critical value (cα/2)

Video Tutorials
• Illustrating the Rejection Region || Statistics and Probability Q4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C3XWUQ3hFxQ
• What is a Rejection Region?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zEV9h5SXYkU
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P-Value Approach
As with the rejection region approach, the P-value approach will need the null and alternative hypotheses, the significance level, and the
test statistic. Instead of finding a region, we are going to find a probability called the p-value.

P-Value
The p-value (or probability value) is the probability that the test statistic equals the observed value or a more extreme value
under the assumption that the null hypothesis is true.

The p-value is a probability statement based on the alternative hypothesis. The p-value is found differently for each of the alternative
hypotheses.

Left-Tailed
If Ha is left-tailed, then the p-value is the probability the sample data produces a value equal to or less than the observed test
statistic.

Right-Tailed
If Ha is right-tailed, then the p-value is the probability the sample data produces a value equal to or greater than the observed test
statistic.

Two-Tailed
If Ha is two-tailed, then the p-value is two times the probability the sample data produces a value equal to or greater than the
absolute value of the observed test statistic.

Once we find the p-value, we compare the p-value to our preset significance level.

• If our p-value is less than or equal to α, then there is enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis.
• If our p-value is greater than α, there is not enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis.

Video Tutorials
• p-values: What they are and how to interpret them?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vemZtEM63GY
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Chunk 2: Steps in Hypothesis Testing

• Lesson Presentation using Slide Deck converted to PDF Format
• Lesson Presentation using Slide Deck through various meeting
or Lecture Videos that will be saved using USB or sent through
platforms (Zoom, Google Meet, etc.)
other platforms (e.g., email; FB Messenger)
• Practice exercises using online platforms (Mentimeter, Kahoot,
• Practice exercises to determine the student’s understanding of
Quizizz, etc.)
the lesson through SLM.
The following are the steps in hypothesis testing:

Step 1 Hypothesis
Formulate the null (H0) and alternative (Ha) hypotheses.

Step 2 Level of Significance

Decide the appropriate or identify the indicated level of
significance. Typical values are 0.05 and 0.01.

Step 3 Test Statistics

1. What are the steps in Gather sample data and calculate a test statistic where the
hypothesis testing? sample statistic is compared to the parameter value. The
test statistic is calculated under the assumption that the
null hypothesis is true and incorporates a measure of
standard error and assumptions (conditions) related to the
sampling distribution.

Step 4 Decision Rule/ Rejection Region/ Probability Value

A p-value is found by using the test statistic to calculate the
probability of the sample data producing such a test
statistic or one more extreme. The rejection region is found
by using alpha to find a critical value; the rejection region is
the area that is more extreme than the critical value.

Step 5 Computation
Solve for the computed value.

Step 6 Decision
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Make a decision about the null hypothesis. In this step, we

decide to either reject the null hypothesis or decide to fail to
reject the null hypothesis. Notice that we do not make a
decision where we will accept the null hypothesis.

Step 7 Conclusion
State an overall conclusion. Once we have found the p-
value or rejection region and made a statistical decision
about the null hypothesis (i.e. we will reject the null or fail to
reject the null), we then want to summarize our results into
an overall conclusion for our test.

In this lesson, the students were able to know the various concepts involved the hypothesis testing. Furthermore, they also learned the
Synthesis
specific steps of hypothesis testing.

Look for newspaper or magazine articles that are relevant in today’s Look for online articles relevant to today’s situation. Find articles
situation. Find articles from which you can write null and alternative from which you can write null and alternative hypotheses. Using this
RUA of a Student’s Learning hypotheses. Using this article, the learner will write the null and article, the learner will write the null and alternative hypothesis, and
alternative hypothesis, and identify the appropriate level of identify the appropriate level of significance, and the rejection
significance, and the rejection region. region.

Post–lesson Remediation Activity

• Additional Reading materials, lecture notes, video tutorials, and practice exercises will be provided for learners to understand the concept of hypothesis testing.