Whati

sanet
wor
ktopol
ogy?
Anet workt opol
ogyisthephysicalandl
ogicalar
rangementofnodesand
connectionsinanet work.Nodesusuall
yincl
udedevicessuchas
switches,router
sandsof twarewit
hswitchandrouterfeat
ures.Net
work
topologi
esar eoftenrepresent
edasagr aph.

Net worktopologiesdescr i
bet hearrangementofnet worksandthe
relati
velocati
onoft raff
icfl
ows.Admi ni
stratorscanusenetworktopol
ogy
diagramst odet er
mi nethebestpl acement sforeachnodeandt he
opt i
mal pat
hf ortraf
ficfl
ow.Wi t
hawel l-definedandplanned-out
net worktopol
ogy,anor ganizati
oncanmor eeasilyl
ocatefaul
tsandfi
x
i
ssues,i mprovingitsdatatransfereffi
ciency.

Networkgeomet r
ycanbedef i
nedast hephysicalt
opol
ogyand
thel
ogicalt
opology.Networktopologydi
agramsareshownwit
hdevices
depi
ctedasnetwor knodesandt heconnecti
onsbetweent
hem asl
i
nes.
Thetypeofnetworktopologydif
fersdependi
ngonhowt henet
work
needstobearranged.

Whyi
snet
wor
ktopol
ogyi
mpor
tant
?
Networktopologyplaysamaj orroleinhow anet
wor kfuncti
ons.Namely,
t
het opol
ogyhasadi r
ecteffectonnet wor
kfunct
ionali
ty.Choosi
ngthe
r
ighttopologycanhelpincreaseper f
ormance,asapr operl
ychosenand
maintai
nednet wor
kt opol
ogyi ncr
easesenergyeffi
ciencyanddata
t
ransferrates.

Awell-definednetworktopologymakesiteasi
erfornetworkadmi nsto
l
ocatefaults,t
roubl
eshootissuesandtoall
ocat
enet wor kr
esources.
Diagr
amsar eanimportantrefer
encepointi
nhelpi
ngt odiagnose
networkissues,astheycanr epr
esentphysi
calandlogicall
ayouts.

Whatar
ethet
ypesofnet
wor
ktopol
ogi
es?
Net worktopol ogiesar ecategori
zedaseit
heraphysi calnetwork
topologyorl ogi calnetworktopol
ogy.Thephysicaltopol
ogyofanet work
i
st hephysi callayoutofnodesandconnect ions.Connect i
onsincl
udethe
l
inesindi agramst hatconnectnodes,suchasEt hernetorDigit
al
Subscr i
berLi newi res,fi
beropti
csandmi cr
owaves.Logi calnetwork
topologiesdef inehow anet wor
kissetup,incl
udingwhichnodes
connectandhow,aswel lasthepatt
ernofdatatransfer
s.

Thi
simageshowsdi
ff
erentl
ayout
sofnet
wor
ktopol
ogi
es.

Therear
eseveral
typesoft
opol
ogi
es.Forexampl
e,physi
cal
topol
ogi
es
i
ncludet
hefol
lowing:

 Busnetwork.I
nthebusnetworktopol
ogy,everynodeis
connectedi
nseri
esalongasi
nglecabl
e.Thisarrangementi
s
foundtodaypr
imari
l
yincabl
ebroadbanddistr
ibuti
onnetwor
ks.
 St
arnet
wor
k.I
nthest
arnet
wor
ktopol
ogy,acent
ral
devi
ce
 connectst
oallot
hernodest
hroughacentralhub.Swit
ched
l
ocalareanet
worksbasedonEthernetswi
tchesandmostwi r
ed
homeandof f
icenet
workshaveaphysical
startopol
ogy.

 Ringnetwor k.Inther i
ngnet worktopology,thenodesare
connectedinacl osed-loopconf igurati
on.Somer i
ngspassdat
a
i
nonedi recti
ononl y,whileothersarecapableoftransmi
ssioni
n
bothdir
ections.Thesebi dir
ecti
onal ri
ngnetworksaremore
resi
l
ientthanbusnet workssincet r
affi
ccanreachanodeby
movinginei t
herdirecti
on.Met ronet worksbasedon
SynchronousOpt icalNet worktechnologyaretheprimar
y
exampleofr ingnetwor ks.

 Meshnet wor k.Themeshnet worktopologyli

nksnodeswi t
h
connecti
onssot hatmul t
ipl
epathsbetweenatleastsomepoi nts
ofthenetwor kareavai l
able.Anetworkisconsider
edt obefull
y
meshedi fall
nodesar edirect
lyconnectedt
oal lot
hernodes
andpar t
ial
lymeshedi fonlysomenodeshavemul ti
ple
connecti
onst oot her
s.Meshi ngmulti
plepathsincr
eases
resi
li
encybutal soincreasescost.However,mor espaceis
neededf ordedicatedlinks.

 Treenetwor k.Thetreenetworktopologyconsist
sofoner oot
node,andal lothernodesareconnectedinahierarchy.The
topol
ogyitselfi
sconnect edi
nast arconfi
gurat
ion.Manyl ar
ger
Ether
netswi tchnetworks,i
ncl
udingdat acent
ernetworks,are
confi
guredast rees.

 Hybridnet work.Thehybr idnetwor ktopol

ogyisanycombinat
ion
oftwoormor etopol ogies.Hybr i
dt opol
ogiest
ypical
l
yprovi
de
exceptionalf
lexibi
l
ity,ast heycanaccommodat eanumberof
setups.Forexampl e,di f
ferentdepar tment
sinthesame
organizati
onmayoptf orper sonal
izednetworktopol
ogi
esthat
aremor eadapt abl
et ot heirnetworkneeds.
Alogicaltopol
ogyforanetwor
krefer
stotherel
ati
onshipbetweennodes
andlogicalconnect
ions--def
ini
nghow dat
ashouldtransf
er.

Al ogicalconnectiondif
fersfrom aphysi calpat
hwheni nformat ioncan
takeani nvi
si
blehopati ntermedi at
epoints.Inopti
calnet
wor ks,opti
cal
add-dr opmul ti
plexer
scr eatelogicalopt
icalpathsbecauset heADM hop
i
snotvi si
bletotheendpoi ntnodes.Net worksbasedonvi rtual
cir
cuitsort unnelshaveaphysi calt
opologybasedont her eal connecti
on
medi um --f i
ber,forexampl e--andal ogicalt
opologybasedont he
cir
cuitsandt unnels.

Somet i
mes,thelogicalt
opologyrefer
st ot hetopologyast heuserseesit.
I
nternetProt
ocol(I
P)andEt hernetnetwor ksar etwocommonexampl es.
Theyarefull
ymeshedatt heconnecti
onl evel si
nceanyusercanconnect
withanyotheruser.Thisi
strueunlesssomemeansofbl ocking
unwantedconnections,li
keaf i
rewall
,isintroduced.Fullconnecti
vi
tyisa
propert
yofthenetwor kprotocol
sused--I PandEt her
net--notoft he
networktopol
ogyitself
.

Asanexampl e,logi
calbusandlogicalri
ngtopologiescanbeusedt o
defi
nedatatransmissi
onf l
ows.Alogicalbustopologyfeat
uresnodes
thatbr
oadcastdatatotheentir
enet work.Othernodesont henetwork
checktoseeifthedataismeantfort hem.Logicalringt
opologyonl
y
all
owsonenodet otr
ansferdat
aatat i
me.

How doyoudi
agr
am anet
wor
ktopol
ogy?
Diagr
amsoft henet
worktopol
ogyshouldbemadebeforeconst
ructi
nga
network.Thi
sway,net
workadmi nsknowwhatcomponent
sconsti
tute
thenetworkandhowtheyint
eract.

Thi
sprocessshoul
dst artwi
thali
stofall
thedevi
cesinthenet
work.Thi
s
coul
d,forexampl
e,includerout
ers,f
ir
ewall
sandserver
s.Thetypeof
networkt opologyshouldthenbechosen.Oncet helistofdevicesisput
togetherandat opologyhasbeenchosen,thediagram canbesket ched
out.Devicesshoul dbeplacedinareasthatwouldbestmakesense,
consideri
ngdat af l
ows.Next,li
nesaredrawnfrom networkdevi ces.
Thesel i
nesar etheconnectionsthenetworknodesmake.St rayaway
from havingtoomanyl i
nescrossovereachotherandst ri
vetomaket he
diagr
am cl earandeasyt oread.Scalabi
li
tyandfut
uremodi fi
cations
shouldalsobekepti nmindwhencr eati
ngthediagram.

Afterasketchshowingar oughgeneral i
nputisconstr
ucted,di
agram
softwarecanbeusedt ohelpmapever yt
hingout.Thesof t
wareused
mayi ncl
udeanet workdiagram t
emplatet ofol
low.Thenetworknodes
shouldbenamed,andl inescanbecol or-codedt of
urtherhel
pmaket he
diagram moreunderst
andabl eandcl
ear .

Whatar
eexampl
esofnet
wor
ktopol
ogyt
ool
sandsof
twar
e?
Therear
emanynet workt
opologytool
savai
labl
e,i
ncl
udi
ngthosethat
canbecategor
izedasconfi
gurat
ionandmanagementtool
s,net
work
perf
ormancesoftwar
eandnetwor kmappi
ngsoftwar
e.

Fori
nstance,net
workconfi
gurat
ionsof t
war ehelpsconfi
gurenetworks,
whil
ealsoautomati
ngrepeti
ti
vetasks.Theset ool
sareoftenusedto
confi
gurecompli
catednet
wor kt
opol ogi
esandcanaut odetectnet
wor k
nodesandhighli
ghtappar
entvul
ner abil
i
ties.

Net workperfor
mancemoni tor i
ngandt roubleshooti
ngtoolskeept r
ackof
andal er
tuserstonetwork-relatedperformancei ssuesandout ages.
Someoft hesetool
smaykeept rackofperformanceusi ngavisual
displayofthenetworktopology.Af t
ersetti
ngbasel i
neperfor
mance
setti
ngs,userscantrack,l
ocat eandt r
oubleshootissues.

Net
wor
ktopol
ogymappi
ngsof
twar
eai
dsi
ncr
eat
ingnet
wor
ktopol
ogy
di
agr
ams.Exampl
esofmappi
ngt
ool
sandf
eat
uresar
ethef
oll
owi
ng:

 Dat
adogl
i
venet
wor
kmappi
ng

 Edr
aw

 Luci
dchar
t

 ManageEngi
neOpManagernet
wor
kmappi
ng

 Mi
crosof
tVi
si
o

 Net
Ter
rai
nLogi
cal

 Sol
arWi
ndsNet
wor
kTopol
ogyMapper

 Spi
cewor
ksnet
wor
kmappi
ng

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onmodes
o Thewayi
nwhi
chdat
aist
ransmi
tt
edf
rom onedevi
cet
oanot
herdevi
cei
sknown
ast
ransmi
ssi
onmode.
o Thet
ransmi
ssi
onmodei
sal
soknownast
hecommuni
cat
ionmode.
o Eachcommuni
cat
ionchannelhasadi
rect
ionassoci
atedwi
thi
t,andt
ransmi
ssi
on
medi
apr
ovi
det
hedi
rect
ion.Ther
efor
e,t
het
ransmi
ssi
onmodei
sal
soknownasa
di
rect
ional
mode.
o Thet
ransmi
ssi
onmodei
sdef
inedi
nthephysi
cal
layer
.

TheTr
ansmi
ssi
onmodei
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreecat
egor
ies:
 o Si
mpl
exmode
o Hal
f-dupl
exmode
o Ful
l
-dupl
exmode

Si
mpl
exmode

o I
nSi
mpl
exmode,t
hecommuni
cat
ioni
suni
dir
ect
ional
,i.
e.,t
hedat
afl
ow i
none
di
rect
ion.
o Adevi
cecanonl
ysendt
hedat
abutcannotr
ecei
vei
tori
tcanr
ecei
vet
hedat
abut
cannotsendt
hedat
a.
o Thi
str
ansmi
ssi
onmodei
snotver
ypopul
arasmai
nlycommuni
cat
ionsr
equi
ret
he
t
wo-wayexchangeofdat
a.Thesi
mpl
exmodei
susedi
nthebusi
nessf
iel
dasi
n
sal
est
hatdonotr
equi
reanycor
respondi
ngr
epl
y.
o Ther
adi
ost
ati
oni
sasi
mpl
exchannelasi
ttr
ansmi
tst
hesi
gnalt
othel
i
stener
sbut
neveral
l
owst
hem t
otr
ansmi
tback.
o Keyboar
dandMoni
torar
etheexampl
esoft
hesi
mpl
exmodeasakeyboar
dcan
onl
yacceptt
hedat
afr
om t
heuserandmoni
torcanonl
ybeusedt
odi
spl
ayt
he
dat
aont
hescr
een.
o The mai
n advant
age oft
he si
mpl
ex mode i
sthatt
he f
ullcapaci
ty oft
he
communi
cat
ionchannel
canbeut
il
izeddur
ingt
ransmi
ssi
on.

Advant
ageofSi
mpl
exmode:

o I
nsi
mpl
exmode,t
hest
ati
oncanut
il
izet
heent
ir
ebandwi
dthoft
hecommuni
cat
ion
channel
,sot
hatmor
edat
acanbet
ransmi
tt
edatat
ime.

Di
sadvant
ageofSi
mpl
exmode:

o Communi
cat
ion i
s uni
dir
ect
ional
,so i
thas no i
nter
-communi
cat
ion bet
ween
devi
ces.
Hal
f-Dupl
exmode

o I
naHal
f-dupl
exchannel
,di
rect
ioncanber
ever
sed,i
.e.
,thest
ati
oncant
ransmi
t
andr
ecei
vet
hedat
aaswel
l
.
o Messagesf
lowi
nbot
hthedi
rect
ions,butnotatt
hesamet
ime.
o Theent
ir
ebandwi
dthoft
hecommuni
cat
ionchanneli
sut
il
izedi
nonedi
rect
ionata
t
ime.
o I
nhal
f-dupl
exmode,i
tispossi
blet
oper
for
mtheer
rordet
ect
ion,andi
fanyer
ror
occur
s,t
hent
her
ecei
verr
equest
sthesendert
oret
ransmi
tthedat
a.
o AWal
kie-t
alki
eisanexampl
eoft
heHal
f-dupl
exmode.I
nWal
ki
e-t
alki
e,onepar
ty
speaks,andanot
herpar
tyl
i
stens.Af
terapause,t
heot
herspeaksandf
ir
stpar
ty
l
i
stens.Speaki
ngsi
mul
taneousl
ywi
l
lcr
eat
ethedi
stor
tedsoundwhi
chcannotbe
under
stood.

Advant
ageofHal
f-dupl
exmode:

o I
nhal
f-dupl
exmode,bot
hthedevi
cescansendandr
ecei
vet
hedat
aandal
socan
ut
il
izet
heent
ir
ebandwi
dthoft
hecommuni
cat
ionchanneldur
ingt
het
ransmi
ssi
on
ofdat
a.

Di
sadvant
ageofHal
f-Dupl
exmode:

o I
nhal
f-dupl
exmode,whenonedevi
cei
ssendi
ngt
hedat
a,t
henanot
herhast
o
wai
t,t
hiscausest
hedel
ayi
nsendi
ngt
hedat
aatt
her
ightt
ime.

Ful
l
-dupl
exmode
 o I
nFul
ldupl
exmode,t
hecommuni
cat
ioni
sbi
-di
rect
ional
,i.
e.,t
hedat
afl
ow i
nbot
h
t
hedi
rect
ions.
o Bot
hthest
ati
onscansendandr
ecei
vet
hemessagesi
mul
taneousl
y.
o Ful
l
-dupl
exmodehast
wosi
mpl
exchannel
s.Onechannel
hast
raf
fi
cmovi
ngi
none
di
rect
ion,andanot
herchannel
hast
raf
fi
cfl
owi
ngi
ntheopposi
tedi
rect
ion.
o TheFul
l
-dupl
exmodei
sthef
ast
estmodeofcommuni
cat
ionbet
weendevi
ces.
o Themostcommonexampl
eoft
hef
ull
-dupl
exmodei
sat
elephonenet
wor
k.When
t
wopeopl
ear
ecommuni
cat
ingwi
theachot
herbyat
elephonel
i
ne,bot
hcant
alk
andl
i
stenatt
hesamet
ime.

Advant
ageofFul
l
-dupl
exmode:

o Bot
hthest
ati
onscansendandr
ecei
vet
hedat
aatt
hesamet
ime.

Di
sadvant
ageofFul
l
-dupl
exmode:

o I
fther
eisnodedi
cat
edpat
hexi
stsbet
weent
hedevi
ces,t
hent
hecapaci
tyoft
he
communi
cat
ionchannel
isdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wopar
ts.

Dif
ferences b/
w Si
mpl
ex,Hal
f-dupl
ex and Ful
l
-
duplexmode
Basi
sfor Si
mpl
exmode Hal
f-dupl
ex Ful
l
-dupl
exmode
compari
son mode

Dir
ect
ion of I
n simpl
ex mode,t
he I
nhalf-duplexmode, I
n f ul
l
-duplex mode, t
he
communicat
ion communi cati
on i
s the communi cat
ion communicat
ion i
s
uni
dir
ect
ional
. i
s bidir
ecti
onal,but bi
dir
ect
ional
.
oneatat i
me.
Send/
Recei
ve Adevicecanonl ysend Both the devices Boththe devi
ces can send
the data but cannot can send and and r ecei
ve t he dat a
recei
veitoritcanonly recei
vethedat
a,but si
mult
aneousl
y.
recei
ve the data but oneatat i
me.
cannotsendi
t.

Per
for
mance The per f
ormance of Theper f
ormanceof The Ful l
-duplex mode has
hal
f-dupl
ex mode i s ful
l
-duplex mode i
s bett
er per f
ormance among
bet
terthanthesimpl
ex bett
erthanthehal
f- simplex and hal f
-dupl
ex
mode. duplexmode. mode as i t doubles the
uti
li
zati
on oft he capaci
ty of
thecommuni cati
onchannel.

Exampl
e Examples of Simplex Exampl
e of half
- Exampl
e of the Ful
l
-dupl
ex
mode ar
e radi
o, dupl
ex is Wal
ki
e- modeisatel
ephonenetwor
k.
keyboard,andmonit
or. Tal
ki
es.

Comput
erNet
wor
kAr
chi
tect
ure
ComputerNetwor kArchi
tect
ureisdefi
nedast hephysi
calandl ogi
caldesi
gnof
thesof
tware,hardware,prot
ocol
s,andmedi aoft
hetransmissi
onofdata.Simpl
y
wecansayt hathow computersareor
ganizedandhow tasksareall
ocat
edtothe
computer
.

Thet
wot
ypesofnet
wor
kar
chi
tect
uresar
eused:

o Peer
-To-Peernet
wor
k
o Cl
i
ent
/Ser
vernet
wor
k

Peer
-To-Peernet
wor
k
o Peer
-To-Peernet
wor
kisanet
wor
kinwhi
chal
lthecomput
ersar
eli
nkedt
oget
her
 wi
thequal
pri
vi
legeandr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesf
orpr
ocessi
ngt
hedat
a.
o Peer
-To-Peernet
wor
kisusef
ulf
orsmal
lenvi
ronment
s,usual
l
yupt
o10comput
ers.
o Peer
-To-Peernet
wor
khasnodedi
cat
edser
ver
.
o Speci
alper
missi
onsar
eassi
gnedt
oeachcomput
erf
orshar
ingt
her
esour
ces,but
t
hiscanl
eadt
oapr
obl
em i
fthecomput
erwi
tht
her
esour
cei
sdown.

Advant
agesOfPeer
-To-PeerNet
wor
k:

o I
tisl
esscost
lyasi
tdoesnotcont
ainanydedi
cat
edser
ver
.
o I
fonecomput
erst
opswor
kingbut
,ot
hercomput
erswi
l
lnotst
opwor
king.
o I
tiseasyt
osetupandmai
ntai
naseachcomput
ermanagesi
tsel
f.

Di
sadvant
agesOfPeer
-To-PeerNet
wor
k:

o I
nthecaseofPeer
-To-Peernet
wor
k,i
tdoesnotcont
aint
hecent
ral
i
zedsyst
em .
Ther
efor
e,i
tcannotbackupt
hedat
aast
hedat
aisdi
ff
erenti
ndi
ff
erentl
ocat
ions.
o I
thasasecur
it
yissueast
hedevi
cei
smanagedi
tsel
f.

Cl
i
ent
/Ser
verNet
wor
k
o Cl
i
ent
/Ser
vernet
wor
kisanet
wor
kmodeldesi
gnedf
ort
heenduser
scal
l
edcl
i
ent
s,
t
oaccesst
her
esour
cessuchassongs,vi
deo,et
c.f
rom acent
ralcomput
erknown
 asSer
ver
.
o Thecent
ral
cont
rol
l
eri
sknownasaser
verwhi
l
eal
lot
hercomput
ersi
nthenet
wor
k
ar
ecal
l
edcl
i
ent
s.
o A ser
ver per
for
ms al
lthe maj
or oper
ati
ons such as secur
it
y and net
wor
k
management
.
o Aser
veri
sresponsi
blef
ormanagi
ngal
lther
esour
cessuchasf
il
es,di
rect
ori
es,
pr
int
er,et
c.
o Al
lthe cl
i
ent
scommuni
cat
e wi
th each ot
hert
hrough a ser
ver
.Forexampl
e,i
f
cl
i
ent
1want
stosendsomedat
atocl
i
ent2,t
heni
tfi
rstsendst
her
equestt
othe
ser
verf
ort
heper
missi
on.Theser
versendst
her
esponset
othecl
i
ent1t
oini
ti
atei
ts
communi
cat
ionwi
tht
hecl
i
ent2.

Advant
agesOfCl
i
ent
/Ser
vernet
wor
k:

o A Cl
i
ent
/Ser
vernet
wor
kcont
ainst
hecent
ral
i
zedsyst
em.Ther
efor
ewecanback
upt
hedat
aeasi
l
y.
o A Cl
i
ent
/Ser
ver net
wor
k has a dedi
cat
ed ser
ver t
hat i
mpr
oves t
he over
all
per
for
manceoft
hewhol
esyst
em.
o Secur
it
yisbet
teri
nCl
i
ent
/Ser
vernet
wor
kasasi
ngl
eser
veradmi
nist
erst
heshar
ed
r
esour
ces.
o I
tal
soi
ncr
easest
hespeedoft
heshar
ingr
esour
ces.
Di
sadvant
agesOfCl
i
ent
/Ser
vernet
wor
k:

o Cl
i
ent
/Ser
vernet
wor
kisexpensi
veasi
trequi
rest
heser
verwi
thl
argememor
y.
o Aser
verhasaNet
wor
kOper
ati
ngSyst
em(
NOS)t
opr
ovi
det
her
esour
cest
othe
cl
i
ent
s,butt
hecostofNOSi
sver
yhi
gh.
o I
trequi
resadedi
cat
ednet
wor
kadmi
nist
rat
ort
omanageal
lther
esour
ces.

Comput
erNet
wor
kComponent
s
Comput ernetworkcomponent sarethemajorpart
swhichareneededtoinst
all
the softwar
e. Some i
mportant net
work components
areNIC,switch,cable,hub,router
, andmodem. Depending on t
he type of
networkthatweneedt oinst
all
,somenetworkcomponentscanal
soberemoved.
Forexample,thewirelessnetworkdoesnotr
equireacabl
e.

Fol
l
owi
ngar
ethemaj
orcomponent
srequi
redt
oinst
all
anet
wor
k:

NI
C
o NI
Cst
andsf
ornet
wor
kint
erf
acecar
d.
o NI
Cisahar
dwar
ecomponentusedt
oconnectacomput
erwi
thanot
hercomput
er
ont
oanet
wor
k
o I
tcansuppor
tat
ransf
err
ateof1
0,1
00t
o1000Mb/
s.
o TheMACaddr
essorphysi
caladdr
essi
sencodedont
henet
wor
kcar
dchi
pwhi
ch
i
sassi
gnedbyt
heI
EEEt
oident
if
yanet
wor
kcar
duni
quel
y.TheMAC addr
essi
s
st
oredi
nthePROM (
Progr
ammabl
eread-onl
ymemor
y).

Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofNI
C:
 1
. Wi
redNI
C
2.Wi
rel
essNI
C

Wired NIC:The Wir

ed NI
C is pr
esenti nsi
de the mot
her
boar
d.Cabl
es and
connect
orsareusedwit
hwir
edNICtotransferdat
a.

Wir
elessNIC:Thewir
elessNI
Ccont
ainstheant
ennatoobtai
ntheconnect
ionover
t
hewi r
elessnet
wor
k.Forexampl
e,l
aptopcomputercont
ainst
hewirel
essNIC.

Hub
AHubi sahar dwar edevicethatdi vi
desthenetworkconnecti
onamongmul ti
ple
devices.Whencomput errequestsf orsomeinfor
mat i
onfrom anetwork,i
tfi
rst
sendst herequesttotheHubt hroughcable.Hubwillbr
oadcastt
hisr
equesttot
he
enti
renet work.Allthedeviceswi l
lcheckwhethertherequestbel
ongstothem or
not.Ifnot,t
her equestwil
lbedr opped.

TheprocessusedbytheHubconsumesmorebandwi dthandlimi
tstheamountof
communicati
on.Nowadays,t
heuseofhubisobsol
ete,andi ti
sreplacedbymore
advancedcomputernet
workcomponent
ssuchasSwi tches,Rout
ers.

Swi
tch
A switch i
sa har dwar e device t
hatconnect smul t
iple devi
ceson a comput er
network.A Swi t
ch contains mor e advanced f eatures than Hub.The Swi tch
contai
nst he updated tablethatdeci deswher ethe dat aist r
ansmitt
ed ornot.
Switch del
iversthe message t ot he correctdestination based on t
he physi
cal
addresspr esentint he i
ncomi ng message.A Swi tch doesnotbr oadcastthe
messaget ot heenti
renet workliketheHub.I tdeterminest hedevicetowhom t he
messagei stobet ransmitted.Therefore,wecansayt hatswitchprovi
desadi r
ect
connectionbet weent hesour ceand dest inat
ion.Iti ncr
easest hespeed oft he
network.

Rout
er
o Ar
out
eri
sahar
dwar
edevi
cewhi
chi
susedt
oconnectaLAN wi
thani
nter
net
connect
ion.I
tisusedt
orecei
ve,anal
yzeandf
orwar
dthei
ncomi
ngpacket
sto
anot
hernet
wor
k.
o Ar
out
erwor
ksi
naLayer3(
Net
wor
klayer
)oft
heOSIRef
erencemodel
.
 o Ar
out
erf
orwar
dst
hepacketbasedont
hei
nfor
mat
ionavai
l
abl
eint
her
out
ingt
abl
e.
o I
tdet
ermi
nest
hebestpat
hfr
om t
heavai
l
abl
epat
hsf
ort
het
ransmi
ssi
onoft
he
packet
.

Advant
agesOfRout
er:

o Secur
it
y:The i
nfor
mat
ion whi
ch i
str
ansmi
tt
ed t
othe net
wor
kwi
l
ltr
aver
se t
he
ent
ir
ecabl
e,butt
heonl
yspeci
fi
eddevi
cewhi
chhasbeenaddr
essedcanr
eadt
he
dat
a.
o Rel
i
abi
l
ity:I
ftheser
verhasst
oppedf
unct
ioni
ng,t
henet
wor
kgoesdown,butno
ot
hernet
wor
ksar
eaf
fect
edt
hatar
eser
vedbyt
her
out
er.
o Per
for
mance:Rout
erenhancest
heover
allper
for
manceoft
henet
wor
k.Suppose
t
her
ear
e24wor
kst
ati
onsi
nanet
wor
kgener
atesasameamountoft
raf
fi
c.Thi
s
i
ncr
easest
het
raf
fi
cloadont
henet
wor
k.Rout
erspl
i
tst
hesi
ngl
enet
wor
kint
otwo
net
wor
ksof1
2wor
kst
ati
onseach,r
educest
het
raf
fi
cloadbyhal
f.
o Net
wor
krange

Modem
o Amodem i
sahar
dwar
edevi
cet
hatal
l
owst
hecomput
ert
oconnectt
othei
nter
net
overt
heexi
sti
ngt
elephonel
i
ne.
o Amodem i
snoti
ntegr
atedwi
tht
hemot
her
boar
drat
hert
hani
tisi
nst
all
edont
he
PCIsl
otf
oundont
hemot
her
boar
d.
o I
tst
andsf
orModul
ator
/Demodul
ator
.Itconver
tst
hedi
git
aldat
aint
oananal
og
si
gnal
overt
het
elephonel
i
nes.

Based on t
he dif
fer
ences i
n speed and t
ransmi
ssi
on r
ate,a modem can be
cl
assi
fi
edinthefol
lowingcat
egori
es:

o St
andar
dPCmodem orDi
al-upmodem
 o Cel
l
ularModem
o Cabl
emodem

Cabl
esandConnect
ors
Cabl
eisat
ransmi
ssi
onmedi
ausedf
ort
ransmi
tt
ingasi
gnal
.

Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofcabl
esusedi
ntr
ansmi
ssi
on:

o Twi
stedpai
rcabl
e
o Coaxi
alcabl
e
o Fi
bre-opt
iccabl
e

OSIModel
o OSIst
andsf
orOpenSyst
em I
nter
connect
ioni
sar
efer
encemodelt
hatdescr
ibes
how i
nfor
mat
ion f
rom asof
twar
eappl
i
cat
ion i
n onecomput
ermovest
hrough a
physi
cal
medi
um t
othesof
twar
eappl
i
cat
ioni
nanot
hercomput
er.
o OSIconsi
stsofsevenl
ayer
s,andeachl
ayerper
for
msapar
ti
cul
arnet
wor
kfunct
ion.
o OSImodelwasdevel
oped byt
heI
nter
nat
ionalOr
gani
zat
ionf
orSt
andar
dizat
ion
(
ISO)i
n1984,andi
tisnow consi
der
edasanar
chi
tect
uralmodelf
ort
hei
nter
-
comput
ercommuni
cat
ions.
o OSImodeldi
vi
dest
hewhol
etaski
ntosevensmal
l
erandmanageabl
etasks.Each
l
ayeri
sassi
gnedapar
ti
cul
art
ask.
o Eachl
ayeri
ssel
f-cont
ained,sot
hatt
askassi
gnedt
oeachl
ayercanbeper
for
med
i
ndependent
ly.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofOSIModel
:

o TheOSImodel
isdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wol
ayer
s:upperl
ayer
sandl
owerl
ayer
s.
o Theupperl
ayeroft
heOSImodelmai
nlydeal
swi
tht
heappl
i
cat
ionr
elat
edi
ssues,
andt
heyar
eimpl
ement
edonl
yint
hesof
twar
e.Theappl
i
cat
ionl
ayeri
scl
osestt
o
t
heenduser
.Bot
htheenduserandt
heappl
i
cat
ionl
ayeri
nter
actwi
tht
hesof
twar
e
appl
i
cat
ions.Anupperl
ayerr
efer
stot
hel
ayerj
ustaboveanot
herl
ayer
.
o Thel
owerl
ayeroft
heOSImodeldeal
swi
tht
hedat
atr
anspor
tissues.Thedat
ali
nk
l
ayerand t
he physi
call
ayerar
eimpl
ement
ed i
n har
dwar
e and sof
twar
e.The
physi
call
ayeri
sthel
owestl
ayeroft
heOSImodelandi
scl
osestt
othephysi
cal
medi
um.Thephysi
call
ayeri
smai
nlyr
esponsi
blef
orpl
aci
ngt
hei
nfor
mat
ionont
he
physi
cal
medi
um.

7Layer
sofOSIModel
Ther
earethesevenOSIl
ayer
s.Eachl
ayerhasdi
ff
erentf
unct
ions.Al
i
stofseven
l
ayersar
egivenbel
ow:

1
. Physi
cal
Layer
 2.Dat
a-Li
nkLayer
3.Net
wor
kLayer
4.Tr
anspor
tLayer
5.Sessi
onLayer
6.Pr
esent
ati
onLayer
7.Appl
i
cat
ionLayer

1
)Physi
call
ayer

o Themai
nfunct
ional
i
tyoft
hephysi
call
ayeri
stot
ransmi
tthei
ndi
vi
dualbi
tsf
rom
onenodet
oanot
hernode.
 o I
tist
hel
owestl
ayeroft
heOSImodel
.
o I
test
abl
i
shes,mai
ntai
nsanddeact
ivat
est
hephysi
cal
connect
ion.
o I
t speci
fi
es t
he mechani
cal
, el
ect
ri
cal and pr
ocedur
al net
wor
k i
nter
face
speci
fi
cat
ions.

Funct
ionsofaPhysi
call
ayer
:
o Li
neConf
igur
ati
on:I
tdef
inest
hewayhow t
woormor
edevi
cescanbeconnect
ed
physi
cal
l
y.
o Dat
aTr
ansmi
ssi
on:I
tdef
inest
het
ransmi
ssi
onmodewhet
heri
tissi
mpl
ex,hal
f-
dupl
exorf
ull
-dupl
exmodebet
weent
het
wodevi
cesont
henet
wor
k.
o Topol
ogy:I
tdef
inest
hewayhow net
wor
kdevi
cesar
ear
ranged.
o Si
gnal
s:I
tdet
ermi
nest
het
ypeoft
hesi
gnal
usedf
ort
ransmi
tt
ingt
hei
nfor
mat
ion.

2)Dat
a-Li
nkLayer

o Thi
slayeri
sresponsi
blef
ort
heer
ror
-fr
eet
ransf
erofdat
afr
ames.
o I
tdef
inest
hef
ormatoft
hedat
aont
henet
wor
k.
o I
tpr
ovi
desar
eli
abl
eandef
fi
cientcommuni
cat
ionbet
weent
woormor
edevi
ces.
o I
tismai
nlyr
esponsi
blef
ort
heuni
quei
dent
if
icat
ionofeachdevi
cet
hatr
esi
desona
l
ocal
net
wor
k.
 o I
tcont
ainst
wosub-l
ayer
s:
o Logi
calLi
nkCont
rol
Layer
o I
tisr
esponsi
blef
ort
ransf
err
ingt
hepacket
stot
heNet
wor
klayerof
t
her
ecei
vert
hati
srecei
vi
ng.
o I
tident
if
iest
headdr
essoft
henet
wor
klayerpr
otocol
from t
heheader
.
o I
tal
sopr
ovi
desf
lowcont
rol
.
o Medi
aAccessCont
rol
Layer
o A Medi
a accesscont
roll
ayeri
sa l
i
nk bet
ween t
he Logi
calLi
nk
Cont
rol
layerandt
henet
wor
k'sphysi
cal
layer
.
o I
tisusedf
ort
ransf
err
ingt
hepacket
sovert
henet
wor
k.

Funct
ionsoft
heDat
a-l
i
nkl
ayer
o Fr
ami
ng:Thedat
ali
nkl
ayert
ransl
atest
hephysi
cal
'
sraw bi
tst
ream i
ntopacket
s
knownasFr
ames.TheDat
ali
nkl
ayeraddst
heheaderandt
rai
l
ert
othef
rame.The
headerwhi
chi
saddedt
othef
ramecont
ainst
hehar
dwar
edest
inat
ionandsour
ce
addr
ess.

o Physi
calAddr
essi
ng:TheDat
ali
nkl
ayeraddsaheadert
othef
ramet
hatcont
ains
a dest
inat
ion addr
ess.The f
rame i
str
ansmi
tt
ed t
othe dest
inat
ion addr
ess
ment
ionedi
ntheheader
.
o Fl
ow Cont
rol
:Fl
ow cont
roli
sthemai
nfunct
ional
i
tyoft
heDat
a-l
i
nkl
ayer
.Iti
sthe
t
echni
quet
hroughwhi
cht
heconst
antdat
arat
eismai
ntai
nedonbot
hthesi
desso
t
hatnodat
agetcor
rupt
ed.I
tensur
est
hatt
het
ransmi
tt
ingst
ati
onsuchasaser
ver
wi
thhi
gherpr
ocessi
ngspeeddoesnotexceedt
her
ecei
vi
ngst
ati
on,wi
thl
ower
pr
ocessi
ngspeed.
o Er
rorCont
rol
:Er
rorcont
roli
sachi
evedbyaddi
ngacal
cul
atedval
ueCRC (
Cycl
i
c
RedundancyCheck)t
hati
spl
acedt
otheDat
ali
nkl
ayer
'st
rai
l
erwhi
chi
saddedt
o
t
hemessagef
ramebef
orei
tissentt
othephysi
call
ayer
.Ifanyer
rorseemst
o
 occur
r,t
hent
her
ecei
versendst
heacknowl
edgmentf
ort
her
etr
ansmi
ssi
onoft
he
cor
rupt
edf
rames.
o Access Cont
rol
:When t
wo or mor
e devi
ces ar
e connect
ed t
o t
he same
communi
cat
ionchannel
,thent
hedat
ali
nkl
ayerpr
otocol
sar
eusedt
odet
ermi
ne
whi
chdevi
cehascont
rol
overt
hel
i
nkatagi
vent
ime.

3)Net
wor
kLayer

o I
tisal
ayer3t
hatmanagesdevi
ceaddr
essi
ng,t
rackst
hel
ocat
ionofdevi
cesont
he
net
wor
k.
o I
tdet
ermi
nest
hebestpat
htomovedat
afr
om sour
cet
othedest
inat
ionbasedon
t
henet
wor
kcondi
ti
ons,t
hepr
ior
it
yofser
vice,andot
herf
act
ors.
o TheDat
ali
nkl
ayeri
sresponsi
blef
orr
out
ingandf
orwar
dingt
hepacket
s.
o Rout
ersar
ethel
ayer3devi
ces,t
heyar
especi
fi
edi
nthi
slayerandusedt
opr
ovi
de
t
her
out
ingser
viceswi
thi
nani
nter
net
wor
k.
o The pr
otocol
s used t
orout
ethe net
wor
ktr
aff
ic ar
e known as Net
wor
klayer
pr
otocol
s.Exampl
esofpr
otocol
sar
eIPandI
pv6.

Funct
ionsofNet
wor
kLayer
:
o I
nter
net
wor
king:Ani
nter
net
wor
kingi
sthemai
nresponsi
bil
i
tyoft
henet
wor
klayer
.
I
tpr
ovi
desal
ogi
cal
connect
ionbet
weendi
ff
erentdevi
ces.
 o Addr
essi
ng:A Net
wor
klayeradds t
he sour
ce and dest
inat
ion addr
ess t
othe
headeroft
hef
rame.Addr
essi
ngi
susedt
oident
if
ythedevi
ceont
hei
nter
net
.
o Rout
ing:Rout
ingi
sthemaj
orcomponentoft
henet
wor
klayer
,andi
tdet
ermi
nes
t
hebestopt
imal
pat
houtoft
hemul
ti
plepat
hsf
rom sour
cet
othedest
inat
ion.
o Packet
izi
ng:A Net
wor
k Layerr
ecei
ves t
he packet
sfr
om t
he upperl
ayerand
conver
tst
hem i
ntopacket
s.Thi
spr
ocessi
sknownasPacket
izi
ng.I
tisachi
evedby
i
nter
netpr
otocol
(IP)
.

4)Tr
anspor
tLayer

o TheTr
anspor
tlayeri
saLayer4ensur
est
hatmessagesar
etr
ansmi
tt
edi
ntheor
der
i
nwhi
cht
heyar
esentandt
her
eisnodupl
i
cat
ionofdat
a.
o Themai
nresponsi
bil
i
tyoft
het
ranspor
tlayeri
stot
ransf
ert
hedat
acompl
etel
y.
o I
trecei
vest
hedat
afr
om t
heupperl
ayerand conver
tst
hem i
nto smal
l
eruni
ts
knownassegment
s.
o Thi
slayercanbet
ermedasanend-t
o-endl
ayerasi
tpr
ovi
desapoi
nt-t
o-poi
nt
connect
ionbet
weensour
ceanddest
inat
iont
odel
i
vert
hedat
arel
i
abl
y.

Thet
wopr
otocol
susedi
nthi
slayerar
e:

o Tr
ansmi
ssi
onCont
rol
Prot
ocol
o I
tisast
andar
dpr
otocolt
hatal
l
owst
hesyst
emst
ocommuni
cat
eovert
he
i
nter
net
.
 o I
test
abl
i
shesandmai
ntai
nsaconnect
ionbet
weenhost
s.
o Whendat
aissentovert
heTCPconnect
ion,t
hent
heTCPpr
otocoldi
vi
des
t
hedat
aint
osmal
l
eruni
tsknownassegment
s.Eachsegmentt
ravel
sover
t
hei
nter
netusi
ngmul
ti
pler
out
es,andt
heyar
ri
vei
ndi
ff
erentor
der
satt
he
dest
inat
ion.Thet
ransmi
ssi
oncont
rolpr
otocolr
eor
der
sthepacket
sint
he
cor
rector
deratt
her
ecei
vi
ngend.
o UserDat
agr
am Pr
otocol
o UserDat
agr
am Pr
otocol
isat
ranspor
tlayerpr
otocol
.
o I
tisanunr
eli
abl
etr
anspor
tpr
otocolasi
nthi
scaser
ecei
verdoesnotsend
anyacknowl
edgmentwhent
hepacketi
srecei
ved,t
hesenderdoesnotwai
t
f
oranyacknowl
edgment
.Ther
efor
e,t
hismakesapr
otocol
unr
eli
abl
e.

Funct
ionsofTr
anspor
tLayer
:
o Ser
vice-poi
ntaddr
essi
ng:Comput
ersr
unsever
alpr
ogr
amssi
mul
taneousl
yduet
o
t
hisr
eason,t
het
ransmi
ssi
onofdat
afr
om sour
cet
othedest
inat
ionnotonl
yfr
om
onecomput
ert
oanot
hercomput
erbutal
sof
rom onepr
ocesst
oanot
herpr
ocess.
Thet
ranspor
tlayeraddst
heheadert
hatcont
ainst
headdr
essknownasaser
vice-
poi
ntaddr
essorpor
taddr
ess.Ther
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
henet
wor
klayeri
stot
ransmi
t
t
hedat
afr
om onecomput
ert
o anot
hercomput
erand t
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyoft
he
t
ranspor
tlayeri
stot
ransmi
tthemessaget
othecor
rectpr
ocess.
o Segment
ati
onand r
eassembl
y:Whent
het
ranspor
tlayerr
ecei
vest
hemessage
f
rom t
heupperl
ayer
,itdi
vi
dest
hemessagei
nto mul
ti
plesegment
s,and each
segmenti
s assi
gned wi
th a sequence numbert
hatuni
quel
yident
if
ies each
segment
.Whent
hemessagehasar
ri
ved att
hedest
inat
ion,t
hent
het
ranspor
t
l
ayerr
eassembl
est
hemessagebasedont
hei
rsequencenumber
s.
o Connect
ion cont
rol
:Tr
anspor
tlayerpr
ovi
dest
wo ser
vicesConnect
ion-or
ient
ed
ser
viceandconnect
ionl
essser
vice.Aconnect
ionl
essser
vicet
reat
seachsegment
as an i
ndi
vi
dualpacket
,and t
hey al
ltr
aveli
n di
ff
erentr
out
es t
oreach t
he
dest
inat
ion.Aconnect
ion-or
ient
edser
vicemakesaconnect
ionwi
tht
het
ranspor
t
l
ayeratt
he dest
inat
ion machi
ne bef
ore del
i
ver
ing t
he packet
s.I
n connect
ion-
or
ient
edser
vice,al
lthepacket
str
avel
int
hesi
ngl
erout
e.
o Fl
ow cont
rol
:The t
ranspor
tlayeral
so r
esponsi
blef
orf
low cont
rolbuti
tis
per
for
medend-t
o-endr
athert
hanacr
ossasi
ngl
eli
nk.
 o Er
rorcont
rol
:Thet
ranspor
tlayeri
sal
sor
esponsi
blef
orEr
rorcont
rol
.Er
rorcont
rol
i
sper
for
medend-t
o-endr
athert
hanacr
osst
hesi
ngl
eli
nk.Thesendert
ranspor
t
l
ayerensur
est
hatmessager
eachatt
hedest
inat
ionwi
thoutanyer
ror
.

5)Sessi
onLayer

o I
tisal
ayer3i
ntheOSImodel
.
o TheSessi
onl
ayeri
susedt
oest
abl
i
sh,mai
ntai
nandsynchr
oni
zest
hei
nter
act
ion
bet
weencommuni
cat
ingdevi
ces.

Funct
ionsofSessi
onl
ayer
:
o Di
alog cont
rol
:Sessi
on l
ayeract
s as a di
alog cont
rol
l
ert
hatcr
eat
es a di
alog
bet
weent
wopr
ocessesorwecansayt
hati
tal
l
owst
hecommuni
cat
ionbet
ween
t
wopr
ocesseswhi
chcanbeei
therhal
f-dupl
exorf
ull
-dupl
ex.
o Synchr
oni
zat
ion:Sessi
onl
ayeraddssomecheckpoi
ntswhent
ransmi
tt
ingt
hedat
a
i
nasequence.I
fsomeer
roroccur
sint
hemi
ddl
eoft
het
ransmi
ssi
onofdat
a,t
hen
t
het
ransmi
ssi
onwi
l
ltakepl
aceagai
nfr
om t
hecheckpoi
nt.Thi
spr
ocessi
sknown
asSynchr
oni
zat
ionandr
ecover
y.
6)Pr
esent
ati
onLayer

o A Pr
esent
ati
onl
ayeri
smai
nlyconcer
nedwi
tht
hesynt
axandsemant
icsoft
he
i
nfor
mat
ionexchangedbet
weent
het
wosyst
ems.
o I
tact
sasadat
atr
ansl
atorf
oranet
wor
k.
o Thi
slayeri
sa par
toft
he oper
ati
ng syst
em t
hatconver
tst
he dat
afr
om one
pr
esent
ati
onf
ormatt
oanot
herf
ormat
.
o ThePr
esent
ati
onl
ayeri
sal
soknownast
hesynt
axl
ayer
.

Funct
ionsofPr
esent
ati
onl
ayer
:
o Tr
ansl
ati
on:Thepr
ocessesi
ntwosyst
emsexchanget
hei
nfor
mat
ioni
nthef
orm of
char
act
erst
ri
ngs,number
sandsoon.Di
ff
erentcomput
ersusedi
ff
erentencodi
ng
met
hods,t
hepr
esent
ati
onl
ayerhandl
est
hei
nter
oper
abi
l
itybet
weent
hedi
ff
erent
encodi
ng met
hods.I
tconver
tst
he dat
afr
om sender
-dependentf
ormati
ntoa
commonf
ormatandchangest
hecommonf
ormati
ntor
ecei
ver
-dependentf
ormat
att
her
ecei
vi
ngend.
o Encr
ypt
ion:Encr
ypt
ioni
sneededt
omai
ntai
npr
ivacy.Encr
ypt
ioni
sapr
ocessof
conver
ti
ng t
hesender
-tr
ansmi
tt
edi
nfor
mat
ioni
ntoanot
herf
orm andsendst
he
r
esul
ti
ngmessageovert
henet
wor
k.
o Compr
essi
on:Dat
a compr
essi
on i
sa pr
ocessofcompr
essi
ng t
he dat
a,i
.e.
,it
r
educest
henumberofbi
tst
obet
ransmi
tt
ed.Dat
acompr
essi
oni
sver
yimpor
tant
 i
nmul
ti
medi
asuchast
ext
,audi
o,vi
deo.

7)Appl
i
cat
ionLayer

o Anappl
i
cat
ionl
ayerser
vesasawi
ndow f
oruser
sandappl
i
cat
ionpr
ocessest
o
accessnet
wor
kser
vice.
o I
thandl
esi
ssuessuchasnet
wor
ktr
anspar
ency,r
esour
ceal
l
ocat
ion,et
c.
o An appl
i
cat
ion l
ayeri
snotan appl
i
cat
ion,buti
tper
for
mst
he appl
i
cat
ion l
ayer
f
unct
ions.
o Thi
slayerpr
ovi
dest
henet
wor
kser
vicest
otheend-user
s.

Funct
ionsofAppl
i
cat
ionl
ayer
:
o Fi
l
etr
ansf
er,access,andmanagement(
FTAM)
:Anappl
i
cat
ionl
ayeral
l
owsauser
t
oaccesst
hef
il
esi
nar
emot
ecomput
er,t
oret
ri
evet
hef
il
esf
rom acomput
erand
t
omanaget
hef
il
esi
nar
emot
ecomput
er.
o Mai
lser
vices:Anappl
i
cat
ionl
ayerpr
ovi
dest
hef
aci
l
ityf
oremai
lfor
war
dingand
st
orage.
o Di
rect
oryser
vices:Anappl
i
cat
ionpr
ovi
dest
hedi
str
ibut
eddat
abasesour
cesandi
s
usedt
opr
ovi
det
hatgl
obal
inf
ormat
ionaboutvar
iousobj
ect
s.