Database Concepts: Introduction and Need

Introduction to Database Concepts: A database is an organized collection of structured

data, typically stored electronically in a computer system. A database is controlled by a
database management system (DBMS). Together, the data and the DBMS, along with the
applications that are associated with them, are referred to as a database system, often
shortened to just database.

Need for Databases:

1. Data Redundancy and Inconsistency: Databases minimize data redundancy

(duplicate data) by organizing data into a single repository. This also helps maintain
consistency across the data.
2. Data Sharing: Databases allow multiple users and applications to access the data
concurrently without data conflicts.
3. Data Integrity: Databases enforce rules to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the
data.
4. Data Security: Databases can control user access to sensitive data, ensuring that only
authorized users can view or modify the data.
5. Data Independence: Changes in database structure do not affect the data access and
application programs.
6. Efficient Data Management: Databases provide mechanisms for efficient data
retrieval, manipulation, and storage.

Relational Data Model

Relational Data Model: The relational data model organizes data into tables (relations).
Each table consists of rows (tuples) and columns (attributes).

 Relation: A table in a relational database.

 Attribute: A column in a table; it represents a data field.
 Tuple: A row in a table; it represents a single record.
 Domain: The set of permissible values for an attribute.
 Degree: The number of attributes in a relation (table).
 Cardinality: The number of tuples in a relation (table).

Keys in a Relational Data Model:

 Candidate Key: A set of one or more attributes that uniquely identify a tuple in a
relation.
 Primary Key: A candidate key selected to uniquely identify tuples in a table. It
cannot contain null values.
 Alternate Key: Candidate keys that are not selected as the primary key.
 Foreign Key: An attribute or set of attributes in one table that refers to the primary
key of another table.

Example: Consider a table Students:

StudentID Name Age Course
1 Alice 20 CS101
2 Bob 21 CS102
3 Charlie 22 CS103

 StudentID is a primary key.

 Name and Age can serve as a candidate key.
 If another table Enrollments has a StudentID that refers to the StudentID in
Students, then StudentID in Enrollments is a foreign key.

Structured Query Language (SQL)

Introduction to SQL: SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standard language for

accessing and manipulating databases. SQL is used to perform various operations on the data
stored in a relational database, such as creating tables, inserting data, updating data, and
retrieving data.

Data Definition Language (DDL): DDL is used to define or modify the structure of a
database. Common DDL commands include:

 CREATE DATABASE: Creates a new database.

sql
Copy code
CREATE DATABASE SchoolDB;

 USE DATABASE: Selects a database for subsequent operations.

sql
Copy code
USE SchoolDB;

 SHOW DATABASES: Lists all databases on the server.

sql
Copy code
SHOW DATABASES;

 DROP DATABASE: Deletes an existing database.

sql
Copy code
DROP DATABASE SchoolDB;

 SHOW TABLES: Lists all tables in the selected database.

sql
Copy code
SHOW TABLES;

 CREATE TABLE: Creates a new table.

 sql
Copy code
CREATE TABLE Students (
StudentID INT PRIMARY KEY,
Name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
Age INT,
Course VARCHAR(50)
);

 DESCRIBE TABLE: Displays the structure of a table.

sql
Copy code
DESCRIBE Students;

 ALTER TABLE: Modifies the structure of a table (e.g., add/remove columns or

primary key).

sql
Copy code
-- Add a new column
ALTER TABLE Students ADD Gender CHAR(1);

-- Remove a column
ALTER TABLE Students DROP COLUMN Gender;

-- Add a primary key

ALTER TABLE Students ADD PRIMARY KEY (StudentID);

 DROP TABLE: Deletes an existing table.

sql
Copy code
DROP TABLE Students;

Data Manipulation Language (DML): DML is used to manipulate data stored in the
database. Common DML commands include:

 INSERT INTO: Adds new data into a table.

sql
Copy code
INSERT INTO Students (StudentID, Name, Age, Course) VALUES (1,
'Alice', 20, 'CS101');

 DELETE FROM: Deletes data from a table.

sql
Copy code
DELETE FROM Students WHERE StudentID = 1;

 SELECT: Retrieves data from a table.

sql
Copy code
SELECT * FROM Students;
  UPDATE: Modifies existing data in a table.

sql
Copy code
UPDATE Students SET Age = 21 WHERE StudentID = 1;

SQL Operators:

 Mathematical Operators: +, -, *, /
 Relational Operators: =, >, <, >=, <=, <>
 Logical Operators: AND, OR, NOT

Other SQL Clauses and Functions:

 Aliasing: Renaming columns or tables temporarily.

sql
Copy code
SELECT Name AS StudentName FROM Students;

 DISTINCT Clause: Removes duplicate records from the result set.

sql
Copy code
SELECT DISTINCT Course FROM Students;

 WHERE Clause: Filters records based on a condition.

sql
Copy code
SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Age > 20;

 IN Clause: Matches values in a list.

sql
Copy code
SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Course IN ('CS101', 'CS102');

 BETWEEN Clause: Matches values within a range.

sql
Copy code
SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Age BETWEEN 20 AND 22;

 ORDER BY Clause: Sorts the result set.

sql
Copy code
SELECT * FROM Students ORDER BY Name ASC;

 NULL Values: Indicates the absence of a value.

sql
Copy code
 SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Age IS NULL;

 LIKE Clause: Searches for patterns in text.

sql
Copy code
SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Name LIKE 'A%';

Aggregate Functions:

 MAX: Returns the maximum value.

sql
Copy code
SELECT MAX(Age) FROM Students;

 MIN: Returns the minimum value.

sql
Copy code
SELECT MIN(Age) FROM Students;

 AVG: Returns the average value.

sql
Copy code
SELECT AVG(Age) FROM Students;

 SUM: Returns the sum of values.

sql
Copy code
SELECT SUM(Age) FROM Students;

 COUNT: Returns the number of rows.

sql
Copy code
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Students;

GROUP BY and HAVING Clause:

 GROUP BY: Groups rows that have the same values in specified columns.

sql
Copy code
SELECT Course, COUNT(*) FROM Students GROUP BY Course;

 HAVING: Filters groups based on a condition.

sql
Copy code
SELECT Course, COUNT(*) FROM Students GROUP BY Course HAVING COUNT(*)
> 1;
Joins in SQL:

 Cartesian Product: Combines each row from one table with each row from another
table.

sql
Copy code
SELECT * FROM Students, Courses;

 Equi-Join: Joins tables based on a condition that matches rows with equal values.

sql
Copy code
SELECT Students.Name, Courses.CourseName FROM Students
JOIN Courses ON Students.Course = Courses.CourseID;

 Natural Join: Joins tables automatically based on columns with the same name.

sql
Copy code
SELECT * FROM Students NATURAL JOIN Enrollments;

Practical Application Questions

1. Create a database named SchoolDB and within it create a table Students with
columns StudentID, Name, Age, and Course. Insert three records into this table.
2. Update the Age of the student with StudentID 2 to 22.
3. Delete the record of the student whose StudentID is 3.
4. Retrieve the names of students enrolled in CS101.
5. List all distinct courses from the Students table.
6. Group the students by Course and count the number of students in each course.
7. Perform a natural join between the Students table and an Enrollments table
based on a common StudentID field and retrieve all fields.