DATABASE MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM
Dr.Vinodha & Dr.Geetha
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

9/1/2021 1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Basics of SQL

Dr.Vinodha & Dr.Geetha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
2
Database Management Systems
Slides Credits for all PPTs of this course

• The slides/diagrams in this course are an adaptation, combination,

and enhancement of material from the below resource and persons:
• Author slides from “Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez
Elamsri, Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th
Edition, 2017.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 3 : SQL

1. SQL datatypes and Advanced data types like Blob Clob

2. Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL
3. Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries
4. Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
5. Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
6. Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE
7. CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
8. Specifying General Constraints as Assertions and Triggers
9. Views and view implementation
10. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
11. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
12. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
SQL

T1 : CHAPTER 6.1 Basic SQL

R1: CHAPTER 4.5 Advanced Data Types
like CLOB, BLOB
Database Management Systems
Overview

■ SQL Data Definition and Data Types

■ Advanced Data Types like CLOB, BLOB
 Database Management Systems
Introduction to SQL Commands

■ SQL language
■ Considered one of the major reasons for the commercial success of relational
databases
■ SQL
■ SQL Actually comes from the word “SEQUEL” which was the original term used in the paper:
“SEQUEL TO SQUARE” by Chamberlin and Boyce. IBM could not copyright that term, so they
abbreviated to SQL and copyrighted the term SQL.
■ Now popularly known as “Structured Query language”.
■ SQL is a practical rendering of the relational data model with syntax
Database Management Systems
SQL Data Definition, Data Types, Standards

■ Terminology:
■ Table, row, and column used for relational model terms relation,

tuple, and attribute

■ CREATE statement
■ Main SQL command for data definition

■ The language has features for : Data definition, Data Manipulation,

Transaction control ,Indexing ,Security specification (Grant and
Revoke), Active databases, Multi-media , Distributed databases etc.
 Database Management Systems
Schema Concepts in SQL

■ SQL schema
■ Identified by a schema name

■ Includes an authorization identifier and descriptors for each element

■ Schema elements include

■ Tables, constraints, views, domains, and other constructs

■ Each statement in SQL ends with a semicolon

■ CREATE SCHEMA statement

■ CREATE SCHEMA Lib AUTHORIZATION ‘Jsmith’;

■ Catalog
■ Named collection of schemas in an SQL environment

■ SQL also has the concept of a cluster of catalogs.

Database Management Systems
Types of Database Languages

Data Definition Language (DDL) statements are used to define the database structure or schema.
Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements are used for managing data within schema objects

DCL is the abstract of Data Control Language. Data Control Language includes commands such as
GRANT, and is concerned with rights, permissions, and other controls of the database system.
Transaction Control Language (TCL) is used to run the changes made by the DML statement.
Database Management Systems
Types of Database Languages: DDL

DDL includes commands such as CREATE, ALTER, and DROP statements. DDL is used to
CREATE, ALTER, OR DROP the database objects (Table, Views, Users).

CREATE - to create objects in the database

ALTER - alters the structure of the database
DROP - delete objects from the database
TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for the
records are removed
COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary
RENAME - rename an object
Database Management Systems
Types of Database Languages: DDL

CREATE TABLE

Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name(
Col_name1 datatype(),
Col_name2 datatype(),…
Col_namen datatype(),
);

Example:

CREATE TABLE DDL (

id int,
DDL_Type varchar(50),
DDL_Value int
);
Database Management Systems
Types of Database Languages: DDL
B) ALTER TABLE

1) ADD
3) RENAME

Syntax: Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD Col_name datatype()...; RENAME COLUMN (Old_fieldname TO New_fieldname...);

2) MODIFY 4) DROP

Syntax: Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN

MODIFY (fieldname datatype()...); column_name;
Database Management Systems
Types of Database Languages: DDL

C) DESCRIBE TABLE

Syntax:
DESCRIBE TABLE NAME;

D) DROP TABLE

Syntax:
DROP Table name; // Complete table structure will be dropped

E) RENAME

Rename a table

Syntax:
RENAME table table_name to new table_name

F) TRUNCATE

Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name; // delete complete data from an existing table. Table Structure remains
Database Management Systems
Types of Database Languages: DML

Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements are used for managing data within schema objects
DML deals with data manipulation, and therefore includes most common SQL statements such as
SELECT, INSERT, etc. DML allows adding / modifying / deleting data itself.

DML Commands

1.INSERT

2.SELECT

3.UPDATE

4.DELETE
Database Management Systems
Types of Database Languages: DML
1) INSERT

Syntax-1:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (column1, column2, column3,...columnN) VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN);
Syntax-2

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...valueN);

2) SELECT

Syntax:
SELECT * FROM <table_name>;

SELECT column1, column2, columnN FROM table_name;

3) UPDATE

Syntax:
UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2...., columnN = valueN WHERE [condition];
4) DELETE

Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE [condition];
Database Management Systems
Types of Database Languages: DCL & TCL

Data Control Language includes commands such as GRANT, and is concerned with rights,
permissions, and other controls of the database system.
1) GRANT

It provides the user's access privileges to the database.

Syntax:
GRANT privilege_name on object_name to {user_name | public | role_name};
Privilege_name are SELECT,UPDATE,DELETE,INSERT,ALTER,ALL

2) Revoke :
Revoke command withdraw user privileges on database objects if any granted.

Syntax:
REVOKE privilege_name on object_name from {user_name | public | role_name}
Database Management Systems
Types of Database Languages: DCL & TCL
TCL is used to run the changes made by the DML statement. TCL can be grouped into a logical transaction.
TCL Commands:
Commit
COMMIT is the SQL command that is used for storing changes performed by a transaction. When a COMMIT command is
issued it saves all the changes since last COMMIT or ROLLBACK.
Syntax for SQL Commit
COMMIT;
RollBack
ROLLBACK is the SQL command that is used for reverting changes performed by a transaction.
When a ROLLBACK command is issued it reverts all the changes since last COMMIT or ROLLBACK.
Syntax for SQL Rollback
ROLLBACK;

SAVEPOINT
A SAVEPOINT is a point in a transaction when you can roll the transaction back to a certain point without
rolling back the entire transaction.
Syntax:
SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
 Database Management Systems
Attribute Data Types in SQL

■ Basic data types

■ Numeric data types

■ Integer numbers: INTEGER, INT, and SMALLINT

■ Floating-point (real) numbers: FLOAT or REAL, and DOUBLE PRECISION

■ Character-string data types

■ Fixed length: CHAR(n), CHARACTER(n)

■ Varying length: VARCHAR(n), CHAR VARYING(n), CHARACTER

VARYING(n)
Database Management Systems
Attribute Data Types in SQL

■ Bit-string data types

■ Fixed length: BIT(n)

■ Varying length: BIT VARYING(n)

■ Boolean data type

■ Values of TRUE or FALSE or NULL

■ DATE data type

■ Ten positions

■ Components are YEAR, MONTH, and DAY in the form YYYY-MM-DD

■ Multiple mapping functions available in RDBMSs to change date

formats
 Database Management Systems
Attribute Data Types in SQL

■ Additional data types

■ Timestamp data type

Includes the DATE and TIME fields

■ Plus a minimum of six positions for decimal fractions of seconds

■ Optional WITH TIME ZONE qualifier

■ INTERVAL data type

■ Specifies a relative value that can be used to increment or decrement an

absolute value of a date, time, or timestamp

■ DATE, TIME, Timestamp, INTERVAL data types can be cast or converted to

string formats for comparison.

 Database Management Systems
Attribute Data Types in SQL

Large-Object Types

Many cu rrent-generation d atabase applications need to store attribu tes that can
be large (of the ord er of m any kilobytes), su ch as a photograp h, or very large
(of the ord er of m any m egabytes or even gigabytes), such as a high-resolu tion
m ed ical im age or vid eo clip .

SQL therefore provid es large-object d ata types for character d ata (clob) and binary
d ata (blob). The letters “lob” in these d ata types stand for “Large OBject.”
 Database Management Systems
Attribute Data Types in SQL

Large-Object Types

For exam ple, w e m ay d eclare attribu tes

book review clob(10KB)

image blob(10MB)
movie blob(2GB)

For resu lt tu ples containing large objects (m u ltiple m egabytes to gigabytes), it

is inefficient or im practical to retrieve an entire large object into m em ory.

.
 Database Management Systems
Attribute Data Types in SQL
Advanced Data Types like CLOB, BLOB
LOBs in the database are stored in a way that optimizes the space and provides efficient
access within the database tablespaces.
Internal LOBs (BLOBs, CLOBs) also provide transactional support (Commit, Rollback, and
so on) of the database server.
• BLOBs (Binary LOBs) used to store unstructured binary (also called “raw”) data,
such as video clips.
• CLOBs (Character LOBs) used to store large blocks of character data from the
database character set.
Binary Large Object Stores any kind of data in binary format such as images,
(BLOB) audio, and video.
Stores string data in the database having character set
Character Large Object
format. Used for large set of characters/strings or
(CLOB)
documents that use the database character.
 Database Management Systems
Attribute Data Types in SQL
Advanced Data Types like CLOB, BLOB
Blob and Clob together are known as LOB(Large Object Type). The following are the major differences
between Blob and Clob data types.
Blob Clob
The full form of Blob is a Binary Large Object. The full form of Clob is Character Large Object.
This is used to store large binary data. This is used to store large textual data.
This stores values in the form of binary streams. This stores values in the form of character streams.
Using this you can stores files like videos, images, Using this you can store files like text files, PDF
gifs, and audio files. documents, word documents etc.

•MySQL supports this with the following •MySQL supports this with the following
datatypes:TINYBLOB datatypes:TINYTEXT
•BLOB •TEXT
•MEDIUMBLOB •MEDIUMTEXT
•LONGBLOB •LONGTEXT
 Database Management Systems
Attribute Data Types in SQL
Advanced Data Types like CLOB, BLOB
Blob and Clob together are known as LOB(Large Object Type). The following are the major differences
between Blob and Clob data types.

In JDBC API it is represented by java.sql.Blob Interface. In JDBC it is represented by java.sql.Clob Interface.

The Blob object in JDBC points to the location of BLOB instead The Blob object in JDBC points to the location of BLOB instead
of holding its binary data. of holding its character data.
•To store Blob JDBC (PreparedStatement) provides methods •To store Clob JDBC (PreparedStatement) provides methods
like:setBlob() like:setClob()
•setBinaryStream() •setCharacterStream()
 Database Management Systems
Domains in SQL
■ Domain
■ Name used with the attribute specification

■ Makes it easier to change the data type for a domain that is used by

numerous attributes
■ Improves schema readability

■ Example:

■ CREATE DOMAIN SSN_TYPE AS CHAR(9);

■ TYPE
■ User Defined Types (UDTs) are supported for object-oriented

applications. Uses the command: CREATE TYPE

Database Management Systems
COMPANY relational database schema (Fig. 5.7)
Database Management Systems
One possible database state for the COMPANY relational
database schema (Fig. 5.6)
Database Management Systems
One possible database state for the COMPANY relational
database schema (Fig. 5.6)
Database Management Systems
SQL CREATE TABLE data definition statements for defining the
COMPANY schema from Figure 5.7 (Fig. 6.1)
Database Management Systems
SQL CREATE TABLE data definition statements for defining the
COMPANY schema from Figure 5.7 (Fig. 6.1)
Database Management Systems
SET Operators in SQL

SQL Set Operation

The SQL Set operation is used to combine the two or more SQL SELECT
statements.
Types of Set Operation

1.Union

2.UnionAll

3.Intersect

4.Minus

5.Except
Database Management Systems
SET Operators in SQL

1. Union
The SQL Union operation is used to combine the result of two or more SQL SELECT queries.
In the union operation, all the number of datatype and columns must be same in both the tables on which
UNION operation is being applied.
The union operation eliminates the duplicate rows from its resultset.
Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table1
UNION
SELECT column_name FROM table2;

2. Union All
Union All operation is equal to the Union operation. It returns the set without removing duplication and sorting
the data.
Syntax:
SELECT column_name FROM table1
UNION ALL
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
Database Management Systems
SET Operators in SQL

3. Intersect
It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation returns the common
rows from both the SELECT statements.
In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and columns must be the same.
It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by default.
Syntax
SELECT column_name FROM table1
INTERSECT
SELECT column_name FROM table2;

4. Minus
It combines the result of two SELECT statements. Minus operator is used to display the rows
which are present in the first query but absent in the second query.
It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending order by default.
Syntax:
SELECT column_name FROM table1
MINUS
SELECT column_name FROM table2;
Database Management Systems
SET Operators in SQL

5) EXCEPT
Syntax
The basic syntax of EXCEPT is as follows.
SELECT column1 [, column2 ] FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]
EXCEPT
SELECT column1 [, column2 ] FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]
Here, the given condition could be any given expression based on user requirement.
 Database Management Systems
Summary
■ Introduction to SQL Commands
■ SQL Data Definition, Data Types, Standards
■ Schema Concepts in SQL
■ The CREATE TABLE Command in SQL
■ Attribute Data Types in SQL
■ Advanced Data Types like CLOB, BLOB
THANK YOU

Dr.Vinodha & Dr.Geetha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Dr.Vinodha K & Dr.Geetha
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of

Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri, Shamkant B
Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

Dr.Vinodha K & Dr.Geetha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 3 : SQL

1. SQL datatypes and Advanced data types like Blob Clob

2. Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL
3. Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries
4. Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
5. Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
6. Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE
7. CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
8. Specifying General Constraints as Assertions and Triggers
9. Views and view implementation
10. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
11. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
12. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Relational Model Concepts: Reference

T1:6.2 -6.4,7.4

Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL

Database Management Systems
Specifying Constraints in SQL

Basic constraints:
 Relational Model has 3 basic constraint types that are supported in SQL:

 Key constraint: A primary key value cannot be duplicated

 Entity Integrity Constraint: A primary key value cannot be null

 Referential integrity constraints : The “foreign key “ must have a value

that is already present as a primary key, or may be null

 Database Management Systems
Specifying Constraints in SQL

Other Restrictions on attribute domains:

 Default value of an attribute
DEFAULT <value>

NULL is not permitted for a particular attribute (NOT NULL)

 CHECK clause
Dnumber INT NOT NULL CHECK (Dnumber > 0 AND Dnumber <

21);
Database Management Systems
Specifying Constraints in SQL

 PRIMARY KEY clause

 Specifies one or more attributes that make up the primary
key of a relation
 Dnumber INT PRIMARY KEY;

 UNIQUE clause
 Specifies alternate (secondary) keys (called CANDIDATE
keys in the relational model).
 Dname VARCHAR(15) UNIQUE;
Database Management Systems
Specifying Constraints in SQL

 FOREIGN KEY clause

 Default operation: reject update on violation
 Attach referential triggered action clause
 Options include SET NULL, CASCADE, and SET DEFAULT
 Action taken by the DBMS for SET NULL or SET DEFAULT is the
same for both ON DELETE and ON UPDATE
 CASCADE option suitable for “relationship” relations
Database Management Systems
Specifying Constraints in SQL

 Using the Keyword CONSTRAINT CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE

 Name a constraint (…,
 Useful for later altering Dno INT NOT NULL DEFAULT 1,
CONSTRAINT EMPPK PRIMARY KEY (Ssn),
CONSTRAINT EMPSUPERFK
The general structure of the SQL FOREIGN KEY (Super_ssn) REFERENCES
CONSTRAINT is defined as: EMPLOYEE(Ssn)
The CONSTRAINT keyword is ON DELETE SET NULL ON UPDATE
followed by a constraint name CASCADE,
followed by a column or a list of CONSTRAINT EMPDEPTFK
columns. FOREIGN KEY(Dno) REFERENCES
DEPARTMENT(Dnumber)
ON DELETE SET DEFAULT ON UPDATE
CASCADE);
Database Management Systems
Example for Specifying Constraints in SQL
Database Management Systems
Specifying Constraints in SQL

CREATE TABLE DEPT_LOCATIONS ( Dnumber INT NOT NULL,

Dlocation VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL DEFAULT ‘Banglore’,
PRIMARY KEY (Dnumber, Dlocation),
FOREIGN KEY (Dnumber) REFERENCES DEPARTMENT(Dnumber) );
Database Management Systems
Specifying Constraints on Tuples Using CHECK

 Additional Constraints on individual tuples within a relation are also

possible using CHECK
 CHECK clauses at the end of a CREATE TABLE statement
 Apply to each tuple individually
 CHECK (Dept_create_date <= Mgr_start_date);
Database Management Systems
Schema Change Statements in SQL (from chapter 7)

 Schema evolution commands

 DBA may want to change the schema while the

database is operational
 Does not require recompilation of the database schema
Database Management Systems
The DROP Command

 DROP command
 Used to drop named schema elements, such as tables, domains, or
constraint
 Drop behavior options:
 CASCADE and RESTRICT

 Example:
 DROP SCHEMA COMPANY CASCADE;

 This removes the schema and all its elements including tables,views,
constraints, etc.
Database Management Systems
The DROP Command
SQL> create table gender_tab (
2 gender_id char(1),
3 gender_nm varchar2(6),
4 constraint gender_pk primary key (gender_id),
5 constraint gender_id_ck check (gender_id in ('M',
'F'))
6 );
Table created.
SQL>
SQL> insert into gender_tab values ('F', 'Female');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into gender_tab values ('M', 'Male');
1 row created.
SQL>
Database Management Systems
The DROP Command
SQL> create table people (
first_name varchar2(20),
last_name varchar2(25),
gender char(1)
);

Table created.
SQL>
SQL> alter table people
add constraint people_gender_fk
foreign key (gender)
references gender_tab;

Table altered.
Database Management Systems
The DROP Command
SQL> insert into people values ('S', 'Dillon', 'M');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into people values ('C', 'Beck', 'M');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into people values ('N', 'Ellis', 'F');
1 row created.
SQL>
SQL> drop table gender_tab;
drop table gender_tab
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02449: unique/primary keys in table referenced by foreign keys

SQL>
SQL> drop table gender_tab cascade constraints;

Table dropped.
Database Management Systems
MySql Commands

To create a new database in MySQL use the CREATE DATABASE statement with the
below syntax:
CREATE DATABASE [IF NOT EXISTS] database_name

To show the database created in MySQL

mysql> SHOW CREATE DATABASE employeedb;

To check the created database using the following query:

mysql> SHOW DATABASES;
Database Management Systems
MySql Commands

SQL command USE is used to select a particular database:

Syntax:
USE database_name;

To create table in the database the following query is used:

Create table table_name(…….)

To drop the database

DROP DATABASE [IF EXISTS] database_name;
Example:
Drop database customers;
Database Management Systems
The ALTER table command

 Alter table actions include:

 Adding or dropping a column (attribute)

 Changing a column definition

 Adding or dropping table constraints

 Example:
 ALTER TABLE people ADD COLUMN Job

VARCHAR(12);
Database Management Systems
The ALTER table command

1) ADD a column in the table

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD new_column_name column_definition
[ FIRST | AFTER column_name ];
2) Add multiple columns in the table
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD new_column_name column_definition
[ FIRST | AFTER column_name ],
ADD new_column_name column_definition [ FIRST | AFTER column_name ],
3) MODIFY column in the table
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name column_definition
[ FIRST | AFTER column_name ];
4) DROP column in table
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name;
 Database Management Systems
The ALTER table command
5) RENAME column in table
ALTER TABLE table_name CHANGE COLUMN old_name new_name column_definition
[ FIRST | AFTER column_name ]
6) RENAME table
ALTER TABLE table_name
RENAME TO new_table_name;

7) Altering (Changing) a Column Definition or a Name

To change a column's definition, use MODIFY or CHANGE clause along with the ALTER command.
For example, to change column c from CHAR(1) to CHAR(10), you can use the following command
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY c CHAR(10);
ALTER TABLE table_name CHANGE i j BIGINT;
ALTER TABLE table_name CHANGE j j INT;
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY j BIGINT NOT NULL DEFAULT 100;
ALTER TABLE table_name ALTER i SET DEFAULT 1000;
*Note:i,j are columns
Database Management Systems
Adding and Dropping Constraints

 Change constraints specified on a table

 Add or drop a named constraint

ALTER table people add constraint people_gender_fk foreign

key (gender) references gender_tab;

ALTER TABLE Persons DROP CONSTRAINT PK_Person;

Database Management Systems
Dropping Columns, Default Values

 To drop a column
 Choose either CASCADE or RESTRICT
 CASCADE would drop the column from views etc. RESTRICT is
possible if no views refer to it.
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE DROP COLUMN Address CASCADE;
 Default values can be dropped and altered :
ALTER TABLE DEPARTMENT ALTER COLUMN Mgr_ssn DROP DEFAULT;
ALTER TABLE DEPARTMENT ALTER COLUMN Mgr_ssn SET DEFAULT ‘333445555’;
Database Management Systems
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL

 SELECT statement
 One basic statement for retrieving information from a database
 SQL allows a table to have two or more tuples that are identical in all
their attribute values
 Relational model is strictly set-theory based

 Multiset or bag behavior

 Tuple-id may be used as a key

Database Management Systems
The SELECT-FROM-WHERE Structure of Basic SQL Queries

 Basic form of the SELECT statement:

Database Management Systems
The SELECT-FROM-WHERE Structure of Basic SQL Queries (cont’d.)

 Logical comparison operators

 =, <, <=, >, >=, and <>

 Projection attributes
 Attributes whose values are to be retrieved

 Selection condition
 Boolean condition that must be true for any retrieved tuple.

Selection conditions include join conditions (see Ch.8) when

multiple relations are involved.
Database Management Systems
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL

The condition Dnumber = Dno is called

a join condition,
because it combines two tuples: one
from DEPARTMENT and one from
EMPLOYEE,
whenever the value of Dnumber in
DEPARTMENT is equal to the value of
Dno in
EMPLOYEE.
Database Management Systems
Basic Retrieval Queries in SQL
Database Management Systems
Ambiguous Attribute Names

 Same name can be used for two (or more) attributes in

different relations
 As long as the attributes are in different relations
 Must qualify the attribute name with the relation name to
prevent ambiguity
Database Management Systems
Aliasing, and Renaming

 Aliases or tuple variables

 Declare alternative relation names E and S to refer to the
EMPLOYEE relation twice in a query:

Query 8. For each employee, retrieve the employee’s first and last name and the first and
last name of his or her immediate supervisor.
 SELECT E.Fname, E.Lname, S.Fname, S.Lname
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, EMPLOYEE AS S
WHERE E.Super_ssn=S.Ssn;
 Recommended practice to abbreviate names and to prefix
same or similar attribute from multiple tables.
Database Management Systems
Aliasing, Renaming and Tuple Variables
(contd.)
 The attribute names can also be renamed
EMPLOYEE AS E(Fn, Mi, Ln, Ssn, Bd, Addr, Sex, Sal, Sssn,
Dno)
 Note that the relation EMPLOYEE now has a variable name E which
corresponds to a tuple variable
 The “AS” may be dropped in most SQL implementations
Database Management Systems
Unspecified WHERE Clause and Use of the Asterisk

 Missing WHERE clause

 Indicates no condition on tuple selection
 Effect is a CROSS PRODUCT
 Result is all possible tuple combinations
Database Management Systems
Unspecified WHERE Clause and Use of the Asterisk

 Specify an asterisk (*)

 Retrieve all the attribute values of the selected tuples
 The * can be prefixed by the relation name; e.g., EMPLOYEE *
Database Management Systems
Tables as Sets in SQL

 SQL does not automatically eliminate duplicate tuples in query results

 For aggregate operations duplicates will be accounted in end results.
 Use the keyword DISTINCT in the SELECT clause
 Only distinct tuples should remain in the result
Database Management Systems
Tables as Sets in SQL

 Set operations
 UNION, EXCEPT (difference), INTERSECT
 Corresponding multiset operations: UNION ALL,
EXCEPT ALL, INTERSECT ALL)
 Type compatibility is needed for these operations to
be valid
Database Management Systems
Substring Pattern Matching and Arithmetic Operators

 LIKE comparison operator

 Used for string pattern matching
 % replaces an arbitrary number of zero or more characters

 underscore (_) replaces a single character

 Examples: WHERE Address LIKE ‘%Houston,TX%’;

 WHERE Ssn LIKE ‘_ _ 1_ _ 8901’;

 BETWEEN comparison operator

E.g., in Q14 :
WHERE(Salary BETWEEN 30000 AND 40000)
AND Dno = 5;
 Database Management Systems
Arithmetic Operations

 Standard arithmetic operators:

 Addition (+), subtraction (–), multiplication (*), and division (/) may
be included as a part of SELECT

 Query 13. Show the resulting salaries if every employee working on the ‘ProductX’ project
is given a 10 percent raise.

SELECT E.Fname, E.Lname, 1.1 * E.Salary AS Increased_sal

FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, WORKS_ON AS W, PROJECT AS P
WHERE E.Ssn=W.Essn AND W.Pno=P.Pnumber AND P.Pname=‘ProductX’;
Database Management Systems
Basic SQL Retrieval Query Block
Database Management Systems
Ordering of Query Results

 Use ORDER BY clause

 Keyword DESC to see result in a descending order of values

 Keyword ASC to specify ascending order explicitly

 Typically placed at the end of the query

ORDER BY D.Dname DESC, E.Lname ASC, E.Fname ASC

Database Management Systems
INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE Statements in SQL

 Three commands used to modify the database:

 INSERT, DELETE, and UPDATE

 INSERT typically inserts a tuple (row) in a relation (table)

 UPDATE may update a number of tuples (rows) in a relation (table) that
satisfy the condition
 DELETE may also update a number of tuples (rows) in a relation (table)
that satisfy the condition
Database Management Systems
INSERT

 In its simplest form, it is used to add one or more tuples to a

relation
 Attribute values should be listed in the same order as the
attributes were specified in the CREATE TABLE command
 Constraints on data types are observed automatically
 Any integrity constraints as a part of the DDL specification are
enforced
Database Management Systems
The INSERT Command

 Specify the relation name and a list of values for the tuple. All
values including nulls are supplied.

 The variation below inserts multiple tuples where a new table is

loaded values from the result of a query.
Database Management Systems
The Insert Command

CREATE TABLE WORKS_ON_INFO

( Emp_name VARCHAR(15),
Proj_name VARCHAR(15),
Hours_per_week DECIMAL(3,1) );

INSERT INTO WORKS_ON_INFO ( Emp_name, Proj_name, Hours_per_week )

SELECT E.Lname, P.Pname, W.Hours FROM PROJECT P, WORKS_ON W,

EMPLOYEE E

WHERE P.Pnumber = W.Pno AND W.Essn = E.Ssn;

 Database Management Systems
BULK LOADING OF TABLES

 Another variation of INSERT is used for

bulk-loading of several tuples into tables
 A new table TNEW can be created with
the same attributes as T and using LIKE
and DATA in the syntax, it can be
loaded with entire data.
 EXAMPLE:

CREATE TABLE D5EMPS LIKE EMPLOYEE

(SELECT E.*
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E
WHERE E.Dno=5)
WITH DATA;
Database Management Systems
DELETE

 Removes tuples from a relation

 Includes a WHERE-clause to select the tuples to be deleted

 Referential integrity should be enforced

 Tuples are deleted from only one table at a time (unless CASCADE is

specified on a referential integrity constraint)

 A missing WHERE-clause specifies that all tuples in the relation are to be

deleted; the table then becomes an empty table

 The number of tuples deleted depends on the number of tuples in the relation

that satisfy the WHERE-clause

Database Management Systems
The DELETE Command

 Removes tuples from a relation

 Includes a WHERE clause to select the tuples to be deleted. The
number of tuples deleted will vary.
Database Management Systems
UPDATE

 Used to modify attribute values of one or more selected tuples

 A WHERE-clause selects the tuples to be modified
 An additional SET-clause specifies the attributes to be modified and their
new values
 Each command modifies tuples in the same relation
 Referential integrity specified as part of DDL specification is enforced
Database Management Systems
UPDATE (contd.)

 Example: Change the location and controlling department number of

project number 10 to 'Bellaire' and 5, respectively

U5: UPDATE PROJECT

SET PLOCATION = 'Bellaire',
DNUM = 5
WHERE PNUMBER=10
Database Management Systems
UPDATE (contd.)

 Example: Give all employees in the 'Research' department a 10%

raise in salary.
U6: UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET SALARY = SALARY *1.1
WHERE DNO IN (SELECT DNUMBER
FROM DEPARTMENT
WHERE DNAME='Research')

 In this request, the modified SALARY value depends on the original

SALARY value in each tuple

 The reference to the SALARY attribute on the right of = refers to

the old SALARY value before modification
 The reference to the SALARY attribute on the left of = refers to
the new SALARY value after modification
 Database Management Systems
Summary

 SQL
 A Comprehensive language for  Schema Modification for the
relational database management DBAs using ALTER TABLE ,
 Data definition, queries, updates, ADD and DROP COLUMN,
constraint specification, and view ALTER CONSTRAINT etc.
definition
 Covered :
 Data definition commands for creating
tables
 Commands for constraint specification
 Simple retrieval queries
 Database update commands
THANK YOU

Dr.Vinodha K & Dr.Geetha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Dr.Vinodha, Dr. Geetha, Prof.Shanthala
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 3 : Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries

1. SQL datatypes and advanced Blob and clob datatypes

2. Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL
3. Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries
4. Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
5. Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
6. Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE
7. CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
8. Specifying General Constraints as Assertions and Triggers
9. Views and view implementation
10. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
11. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
12. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries

T1:7.1.1,7.1.2

Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries

Database Management Systems
More Complex SQL Retrieval Queries

■ Additional features allow users to specify more complex retrievals

from database:
■ Nested queries, joined tables, and outer joins (in the FROM
clause), aggregate functions, and grouping
Database Management Systems
Comparisons Involving NULL and Three-Valued Logic

■ Meanings of NULL
■ Unknown value
■ Unavailable or withheld value
■ Not applicable attribute
■ Each individual NULL value considered to be different from
every other NULL value
■ SQL uses a three-valued logic:
■ TRUE, FALSE, and UNKNOWN (like Maybe)
■ NULL = NULL comparison is avoided
Database Management Systems
Comparisons Involving NULL and Three-Valued Logic (cont’d.)
Database Management Systems
Comparisons Involving NULL and Three-Valued Logic (cont’d.)

■ SQL allows queries that check whether an attribute

value is NULL
■ IS or IS NOT NULL
Database Management Systems
Nested Queries, Tuples, and Set/Multiset Comparisons

■ Nested queries
■ complete select-from-where blocks within another SQL query.
■ That other query is called the outer query.
■ These nested queries can also appear in the WHERE clause or the
FROM clause or the SELECT clause or other SQL clauses as needed.
■ Comparison operator IN
■ Compares value v with a set (or multiset) of values V
■ Evaluates to TRUE if v is one of the elements in V
Database Management Systems
Nested Queries (cont’d.)
Database Management Systems
Nested Queries (cont’d.)

Use tuples of values in comparisons

○ Place them within parentheses
Database Management Systems
Nested Queries (cont’d.)

■ Use other comparison operators to compare a single value v

■ = ANY (or = SOME) operator
■ Returns TRUE if the value v is equal to some value in the set V and
is hence equivalent to IN
■ Other operators that can be combined with ANY (or SOME): >,
>=, <, <=, and <>
■ ALL: value must exceed all values from nested query
 Database Management Systems
Nested Queries (cont’d.)

■ Avoid potential errors and ambiguities

■ Create tuple variables (aliases) for all tables referenced in SQL query
 THANK YOU

Dr.Vinodha & Dr.Geetha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

SQL : Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 3 : Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries

1. SQL datatypes and advanced Blob and clob datatypes

2. Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL
3. Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries
4. Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
5. Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
6. Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE
7. CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
8. Specifying General Constraints as Assertions and Triggers
9. Views and view implementation
10. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
11. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
12. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries

T1 :7.1.3 -7.1.5
Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
Database Management Systems
Correlated Nested Queries
■ Correlated nested query

Whenever a condition in the WHERE clause of a nested

query references some attribute of a relation declared in the outer
query, the two queries are said to be correlated.

• Evaluated once for each tuple in the outer query

Database Management Systems
Correlated Nested Queries

■ Queries that are nested using the = or IN comparison operator can be collapsed
into one single block.
■ E.g., For each employee tuple, evaluate the nested query, which retrieves the Essn values for all DEPENDENT
tuples with the same sex and name as that EMPLOYEE tuple; if the Ssn value of the

■ EMPLOYEE tuple is in the result of the nested query, then select that EMPLOYEE tuple.
Q16A: SELECT E.Fname, E.Lname
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, DEPENDENT AS D
WHERE E.Ssn=D.Essn AND E.Sex=D.Sex
AND E.Fname=D.Dependent_name;
Database Management Systems
The EXISTS and UNIQUE Functions in SQL for correlating queries

■ EXISTS function
■ EXISTS and UNIQUE are Boolean functions that return TRUE or FALSE;
hence, they can be used in a WHERE clause condition

■ Check whether the result of a correlated nested query is empty or not.

They are Boolean functions that return a TRUE or FALSE result.

■ The result of EXISTS is a Boolean value TRUE if the nested query result
contains at least one tuple, or FALSE if the nested query result contains no
tuples
Database Management Systems
The EXISTS and UNIQUE Functions in SQL for correlating queries

■ EXISTS and NOT EXISTS

■ Typically used in conjunction with a correlated nested query
■ SQL function UNIQUE(Q)
■ Returns TRUE if there are no duplicate tuples in the result of query
Q
Database Management Systems
The EXISTS and UNIQUE Functions in SQL for correlating queries
Database Management Systems
USE of EXISTS
 Database Management Systems
USE OF NOT EXISTS
To achieve the “for all” (universal quantifier- see Ch.8) effect, we use double negation this way
in SQL:
The query Q3: Retrieve the name of each employee who works on all the projects controlled by department number 5 can be written

using EXISTS and NOT EXISTS in SQL systems

The above is equivalent to double negation: List names of those employees for whom there does NOT exist a project managed by
department no. 5 that they do NOT work on.
Database Management Systems
Double Negation to accomplish “for all” in SQL

In Q3B, the outer nested query selects any WORKS_ON (B) tuples whose Pno is of a project controlled by department 5, if
there is not a WORKS_ON (C) tuple with the same Pno and the same Ssn as that of the EMPLOYEE tuple under consideration
in the outer query. If no such tuple exists, we select the EMPLOYEE tuple.
 Database Management Systems
Explicit Sets and Renaming of Attributes in SQL
■ Can use explicit set of values in WHERE clause
Q17: SELECT DISTINCT Essn
FROM WORKS_ON
WHERE Pno IN (1, 2, 3);

■ Use qualifier AS followed by desired new name Aliases for Attributes

■ Rename any attribute that appears in the result of a query

THANK YOU

Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha, Prof. Shanthala
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez

Elamsri, Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause

T1:7.1.6 - 7.1.8
Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 3 : Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause

1. SQL datatypes and advanced Blob and clob datatypes

2. Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL
3. Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries
4. Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
5. Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
6. Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE
7. CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
8. Specifying General Constraints as Assertions and Triggers
9. Views and view implementation
10. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
11. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
12. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
 Database Management Systems
Specifying Joined Tables in the FROM Clause of SQL

■ Joined table
■ Permits users to specify a table resulting from a join operation in the
FROM clause of a query
■ The FROM clause in Q1A
■ Contains a single joined table. JOIN may also be called INNER JOIN
 Database Management Systems
Different Types of JOINed Tables in SQL

■ Specify different types of join

■ NATURAL JOIN
■ Various types of OUTER JOIN (LEFT, RIGHT, FULL )
■ NATURAL JOIN on two relations R and S
■ No join condition specified
■ Is equivalent to an implicit EQUIJOIN condition for each pair of attributes
with same name from R and S
Database Management Systems
NATURAL JOIN

■ Rename attributes of one relation so it can be joined with another using

NATURAL JOIN:

Q1B: SELECT Fname, Lname, Address

FROM (EMPLOYEE NATURAL JOIN
(DEPARTMENT AS DEPT (Dname, Dno, Mssn,
Msdate)))
WHERE Dname=‘Research’;

The above works with EMPLOYEE.Dno = DEPT.Dno as an implicit join condition

Database Management Systems
Different Types of SQL JOINs

Here are the different types of the JOINs in SQL:

•(INNER) JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both tables
•LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the left table, and the
matched records from the right table
•RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the right table, and the
matched records from the left table
•FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records when there is a match in either left
or right table
Database Management Systems
INNER and OUTER Joins

■ INNER JOIN (versus OUTER JOIN)

■ Default type of join in a joined table
■ Tuple is included in the result only if a matching tuple exists in the other relation
■ LEFT OUTER JOIN
■ Every tuple in left table must appear in result
■ If no matching tuple
■ Padded with NULL values for attributes of right table
■ RIGHT OUTER JOIN
■ Every tuple in right table must appear in result
■ If no matching tuple
■ Padded with NULL values for attributes of left table
Database Management Systems
Example: LEFT OUTER JOIN

SELECT E.Lname AS Employee_Name,

S.Lname AS Supervisor_Name
FROM (Employee AS E LEFT OUTER JOIN EMPLOYEE AS S
ON E.Super_ssn = S.Ssn)

ALTERNATE SYNTAX:

SELECT E.Lname , S.Lname

FROM EMPLOYEE E, EMPLOYEE S
WHERE E.Super_ssn + = S.Ssn
Database Management Systems
Multiway JOIN in the FROM clause

■ FULL OUTER JOIN – combines result of LEFT and RIGHT OUTER JOIN
■ Can nest JOIN specifications for a multiway join:

Q2A: SELECT Pnumber, Dnum, Lname, Address, Bdate

FROM ((PROJECT JOIN DEPARTMENT ON
Dnum=Dnumber) JOIN EMPLOYEE ON Mgr_ssn=Ssn)
WHERE Plocation=‘Stafford’;
Database Management Systems
Aggregate Functions in SQL

■ Used to summarize information from multiple tuples into a single-tuple

summary
■ Built-in aggregate functions
■ COUNT, SUM, MAX, MIN, and AVG
■ Grouping
■ Create subgroups of tuples before summarizing
■ To select entire groups, HAVING clause is used
■ Aggregate functions can be used in the SELECT clause or in a HAVING
clause
 Database Management Systems
Renaming Results of Aggregation

■ Following query returns a single row of computed values from EMPLOYEE

table:

Q19: SELECT SUM (Salary), MAX (Salary), MIN (Salary), AVG (Salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE;
■ The result can be presented with new names:

Q19A: SELECT SUM (Salary) AS Total_Sal, MAX (Salary) AS

Highest_Sal, MIN (Salary) AS Lowest_Sal, AVG Salary) AS Average_Sal
FROM EMPLOYEE;
 Database Management Systems
Aggregate Functions in SQL (cont’d.)

■ NULL values are discarded when aggregate functions are applied to a

particular column
 Database Management Systems
Aggregate Functions on Booleans

■ SOME and ALL may be applied as functions on Boolean Values.

■ SOME returns true if at least one element in the collection is TRUE (similar to
OR)
■ ALL returns true if all of the elements in the collection are TRUE (similar to
AND)
Database Management Systems
Grouping: The GROUP BY Clause

■ Partition relation into subsets of tuples

■ Based on grouping attribute(s)
■ Apply function to each such group independently
■ GROUP BY clause
■ Specifies grouping attributes
■ COUNT (*) counts the number of rows in the group
 Database Management Systems
Examples of GROUP BY

■ The grouping attribute must appear in the SELECT clause:

Q24: SELECT Dno, COUNT (*), AVG (Salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY Dno;
 Database Management Systems
Examples of GROUP BY

■ If the grouping attribute has NULL as a possible value, then a separate group is
created for the null value (e.g., null Dno in the above query)
■ GROUP BY may be applied to the result of a JOIN:
■ Query 25. For each project, retrieve the project number, the project name,
and
the number of employees who work on that project.

Q25: SELECT Pnumber, Pname, COUNT (*)

FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE Pnumber=Pno
Q25 shows how GROUP BY usePnumber,
we can Pname; in conjunction with GROUP BY. In this
a join condition
case, the grouping and functions are applied after the joining of the two relations in the
WHERE clause.
 Database Management Systems
Grouping: The GROUP BY and HAVING Clauses (cont’d.)

■ HAVING clause
■ Provides a condition to select or reject an entire group:
■ Query 26. For each project on which more than two employees work, retrieve the
project number, the project name, and the number of employees who work on the
project.

Q26: SELECT Pnumber, Pname, COUNT (*)

FROM PROJECT, WORKS_ON
WHERE Pnumber=Pno
GROUP BY Pnumber, Pname
HAVING COUNT (*) > 2;
Database Management Systems
Grouping: The GROUP BY and HAVING Clauses (cont’d.)
 Database Management Systems
Combining the WHERE and the HAVING Clause

■ Consider the query: we want to count the total number of employees whose
salaries exceed $40,000 in each department, but only for departments where more
than five employees work.

■ INCORRECT QUERY:
SELECT Dno, COUNT (*)
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Salary>40000
GROUP BY Dno
HAVING COUNT (*) > 5;
 Database Management Systems
Combining the WHERE and the HAVING Clause (continued)

Correct Specification of the Query:

Note: the WHERE clause applies tuple by tuple whereas HAVING applies to entire group
■

of tuples
THANK YOU

Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Dr.Vinodha & Dr.Geetha
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

Dr.Vinodha & Dr.Geetha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 3 : Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries

1. SQL datatypes and advanced Blob and clob datatypes

2. Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL
3. Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries
4. Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
5. Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
6. Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE
7. CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
8. Specifying General Constraints as Assertions and Triggers
9. Views and view implementation
10. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
11. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
12. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries

T1:7.1.9,7.1.10

Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE, Recursive

Queries in SQL
Database Management Systems
USE OF WITH

 The WITH clause allows a user to define a table that will only
be used in a particular query (not available in all SQL
implementations)
 Used for convenience to create a temporary “View” and use
that immediately in a query
 Allows a more straightforward way of looking a step-by-step
query
Database Management Systems
Example of WITH

The alternate approach for the above Q28:

Q28’: WITH BIGDEPTS (Dno) AS

( SELECT Dno
FROM EMPLOYEE
GROUP BY Dno
HAVING COUNT (*) > 5)
SELECT Dno, COUNT (*)
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Salary>40000 AND Dno IN
BIGDEPTS
GROUP BY Dno;
Database Management Systems
Use of CASE

• SQL also has a CASE construct

• Used when a value can be different based on certain
conditions.
• Can be used in any part of an SQL query where a value
is expected
• Applicable when querying, inserting or updating tuples
Database Management Systems
EXAMPLE of use of CASE
The following example shows that employees are
receiving different raises in different departments (A
variation of the update U6)

U6’: UPDATE EMPLOYEE

SET Salary =
CASE WHEN Dno = 5 THEN
Salary + 2000
WHEN Dno = 4 THEN
Salary + 1500
WHEN Dno = 1 THEN
Salary + 3000
Database Management Systems
Recursive Queries in SQL

• An example of a recursive relationship between tuples of the same type is the

relationship between an employee and a supervisor.
• This relationship is described by the foreign key Super_ssn of the EMPLOYEE relation
• An example of a recursive operation is to retrieve all supervisees of a supervisory
employee e at all levels—that is, all employees e directly supervised by e, all
employees e’ directly supervised by each employee e, all employees e directly
supervised by each employee e, and so on.
• Thus the CEO would have each employee in the company as a supervisee in the
resulting table. Example shows such table SUP_EMP with 2 columns
(Supervisor,Supervisee(any level)):
Database Management Systems
An EXAMPLE of RECURSIVE Query

● Q29: WITH RECURSIVE SUP_EMP (SupSsn, EmpSsn) AS

SELECT SupervisorSsn, Ssn
FROM EMPLOYEE
UNION
SELECT E.Ssn, S.SupSsn
FROM EMPLOYEE AS E, SUP_EMP AS S
WHERE E.SupervisorSsn = S.EmpSsn)
SELECT *
FROM SUP_EMP;
● The above query starts with an empty SUP_EMP and successively
builds SUP_EMP table by computing immediate supervisees first,
then second level supervisees, etc. until a fixed point is reached
and no more supervisees can be added

The above query starts with an empty SUP_EMP and successively builds
SUP_EMP table by computing immediate supervisees first, then second
level supervisees, etc. until a fixed point is reached and no more
supervisees can be added
THANK YOU

Dr.Vinodha & Dr.Geetha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Dr.Vinodha ,Dr.Geetha. Prof.Shanthala
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of
Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri, Shamkant B
Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

Dr.Vinodha & Dr.Geetha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
1. Unit 3 : Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE

1. SQL datatypes and advanced Blob and clob datatypes

2. Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL
3. Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries
4. Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
5. Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
6. Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE
7. CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
8. Specifying General Constraints as Assertions and Triggers
9. Views and view implementation
10. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
11. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
12. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP

R1 : CHAPTER 5.6

CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP

Online Analytical Processing (OLAP)

Interactive analysis of data, allowing data to be summarized and viewed in
different ways in an online fashion (with negligible delay)
Data that can be modeled as dimension attributes and measure attributes
are called multidimensional data.
Measure attributes
measure some value
can be aggregated upon
e.g. the attribute number of the sales relation
Dimension attributes
define the dimensions on which measure attributes (or aggregates thereof)
are viewed
e.g. the attributes item_name, color, and size of the sales relation
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP

Consider an application where a shop

wants to find out what kinds of clothes are
popular. Let us suppose that clothes are
characterized by their item name, color,
and size, and that we have a relation sales
with the schema.
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
Cross Tabulation of sales by item-name and color

The table above is an example of a cross-tabulation (cross-tab), also referred to as a

pivot-table.
Values for one of the dimension attributes form the row headers
Values for another dimension attribute form the column headers
Other dimension attributes are listed on top
Values in individual cells are (aggregates of) the values of the
dimension attributes that specify the cell.
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP Data Cube

 A data cube is a multidimensional generalization of a cross-tab

 Can have n dimensions; we show 3 below
 Cross-tabs can be used as views on a data cube
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP

Online Analytical Processing

• Pivoting: changing the dimensions used in a cross-tab is called

• Slicing: creating a cross-tab for fixed values only
• Sometimes called dicing, particularly when values for multiple
dimensions are fixed.
• Rollup: moving from finer-granularity data to a coarser
granularity
• Drill down: The opposite operation - that of moving from
coarser-granularity data to finer-granularity data
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP Hierarchies on Dimensions

 Hierarchy on dimension attributes: lets dimensions to be viewed at different levels of detail

 E.g. the dimension DateTime can be used to aggregate by hour of day, date, day of week, month,
quarter or year
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP Cross Tabulation With Hierarchy

 Cross-tabs can be easily extended to deal with hierarchies

 Can drill down or roll up on a hierarchy
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP

Relational Representation of Cross-tabs

 Cross-tabs can be represented

as relations
 We use the value all is used to
represent aggregates
 The SQL:1999 standard
actually uses null values in
place of all despite confusion
with regular null values
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP

OLAP Implementation
• The earliest OLAP systems used multidimensional arrays in memory to store data
cubes, and are referred to as multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP) systems.

• OLAP implementations using only relational database features are called

relational OLAP (ROLAP) systems

• Hybrid systems, which store some summaries in memory and store the base
data and other summaries in a relational database, are called hybrid OLAP
(HOLAP) systems.
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP OLAP Implementation (Cont.)

• Early OLAP systems precomputed all possible aggregates in order to

provide online response
• Space and time requirements for doing so can be very high
• 2n combinations of group by
• It suffices to precompute some aggregates, and compute others on demand
from one of the precomputed aggregates
• Can compute aggregate on (item-name, color) from an aggregate on (item-name, color, size)
• For all but a few “non-decomposable” aggregates such as median
• is cheaper than computing it from scratch
• Several optimizations available for computing multiple aggregates
• Can compute aggregate on (item-name, color) from an aggregate on
(item-name, color, size)
• Can compute aggregates on (item-name, color, size),
(item-name, color) and (item-name) using a single sorting
of the base data
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP OLAP Implementation (Cont.)
OLAP in SQL

Given the sales relation, the query

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP

The data in a data cube cannot be generated by a single SQL query, using
the basic group by constructs, since aggregates are computed for several
different groupings of the dimension attributes.
For this reason, SQL includes functions to form the grouping needed for
OLAP.
SQL supports generalizations of the group by construct to perform the cube
and rollup operations. The cube and rollup constructs in the group by
clause
allow multiple group by queries to be run in a single query with the result
returned as a single relation
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP OLAP Implementation (Cont.)

Consider again our retail shop example and the relation:

sales (item name, color, clothes size, quantity)
We can find the number of items sold in each item name by writing a
simple
group by query:
select item name, sum(quantity)
from sales
group by item name;
The result of this query is

Query result
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP OLAP Implementation (Cont.)

Similarly, we can find the number of items sold in

each color, etc.
By using multiple attributes in the group by clause,
we can find how many items were sold with a
certain set of properties. For example, we can find
a breakdown of sales by item-name and color by
writing:
select item name, color, sum(quantity)
from sales
group by item name, color;
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP OLAP Implementation (Cont.)

we want to generate the entire data cube using this approach, we

would have to write a separate query for each of the following sets
of attributes:
{ (item name, color, clothes size), (item name, color), (item name,
clothes size), (color, clothes size), (item name), (color), (clothes
size), () }

where () denotes an empty group by list.

The cube construct allows us to accomplish this in one query:
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP

• The cube operation computes union of group by’s on every subset

of the specified attributes
• E.g. consider the query
select item-name, color, size, sum(number)
from sales
group by cube(item-name, color, size)
This computes the union of eight different groupings of the sales
relation:
{ (item-name, color, size), (item-name, color),
(item-name, size), (color, size),
(item-name), (color),
(size), ()}
where ( ) denotes an empty group by list.
• For each grouping, the result contains the null value
for attributes not present in the grouping.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP Extended Aggregation (Cont.)

• Relational representation of cross-tab that we saw earlier, but with null in place of
all, can be computed by
select item-name, color, sum(number)
from sales
group by cube(item-name, color)
• The function grouping() can be applied on an attribute
• Returns 1 if the value is a null value representing all, and returns 0 in all other cases.
select item-name, color, size, sum(number),
grouping(item-name) as item-name-flag,
grouping(color) as color-flag,
grouping(size) as size-flag,
from sales
group by cube(item-name, color, size)
• Can use the function decode() in the select clause to replace
such nulls by a value such as all
• E.g. replace item-name in first query by
decode( grouping(item-name), 1, ‘all’, item-name)
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP: Extended Aggregation (Cont.)

• The rollup construct generates union on every prefix of specified list of attributes
• E.g.
select item-name, color, size, sum(number)
from sales
group by rollup(item-name, color, size)
Generates union of four groupings:
{ (item-name, color, size), (item-name, color), (item-name), ( ) }
• Rollup can be used to generate aggregates at multiple levels of a
hierarchy.
• E.g., suppose table itemcategory(item-name, category) gives the category of each
item. Then
select category, item-name, sum(number)
from sales, itemcategory
where sales.item-name = itemcategory.item-name
group by rollup(category, item-name)
would give a hierarchical summary by item-name and by category.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP Extended Aggregation (Cont.)
• Multiple rollups and cubes can be used in a single group by clause
• Each generates set of group by lists, cross product of sets gives overall set of
group by lists
• E.g.,
select item-name, color, size, sum(number)
from sales
group by rollup(item-name), rollup(color, size)
generates the groupings
{item-name, ()} X {(color, size), (color), ()}
= { (item-name, color, size), (item-name, color), (item-name),
(color, size), (color), ( ) }
THANK YOU

Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[email protected]
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Dr.Geetha , Dr.Vinodha, Prof. Shanthala
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Specifying Constraints as Assertions and Actions as Triggers

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of
Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri, Shamkant B
Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 3 : Specifying Constraints as Assertions and Actions as Triggers

1. SQL datatypes and advanced Blob and clob datatypes

2. Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL
3. Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries
4. Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
5. Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
6. Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE
7. CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
8. Specifying General Constraints as Assertions and Triggers
9. Views and view implementation
10. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
11. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
12. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Specifying Constraints as Assertions and Actions as Triggers

T1 : CHAPTER 7.2

• Specifying Constraints as Assertions and

Actions as Triggers
Database Management Systems
Specifying Constraints as Assertions and Actions as Triggers

■ Semantic Constraints: The following are beyond the scope of the EER
and relational model
■ CREATE ASSERTION
■ Specify additional types of constraints outside scope of built-in
relational model constraints
■ CREATE TRIGGER
■ Specify automatic actions that database system will perform when
certain events and conditions occur
Database Management Systems
Specifying General Constraints as Assertions in SQL

■ CREATE ASSERTION
■ Specify a query that selects any tuples that violate the desired
condition
■ Use only in cases where it goes beyond a simple CHECK which
applies to individual attributes and domains
Database Management Systems
Introduction to Triggers in SQL
■ CREATE TRIGGER statement
■ Used to monitor the database
■ Typical trigger has three components which make it a rule for an
“active database “
Event(s)
Condition
Action
Database Management Systems
USE OF TRIGGERS
■ AN EXAMPLE with standard Syntax.(Note : other SQL
implementations like PostgreSQL use a different syntax.)

R5:
CREATE TRIGGER SALARY_VIOLATION
BEFORE INSERT OR UPDATE OF Salary, Supervisor_ssn ON EMPLOYEE

FOR EACH ROW

WHEN (NEW.SALARY > ( SELECT Salary FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Ssn = NEW. Supervisor_Ssn))
INFORM_SUPERVISOR (NEW.Supervisor.Ssn, New.Ssn)
THANK YOU

Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Dr.Geetha, Dr.Vinodha, Prof.Shanthala
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Views and view implementation

Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of

Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri, Shamkant B Navathe,
Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Views and view implementation

T1 : CHAPTER 7.3

Views and view implementation

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 3 : Views and view implementation

1. SQL datatypes and advanced Blob and clob datatypes

2. Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL
3. Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries
4. Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
5. Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
6. Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE
7. CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
8. Specifying General Constraints as Assertions and Triggers
9. Views and view implementation
10. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
11. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
12. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
Database Management Systems
Views (Virtual Tables) in SQL

■ Concept of a view in SQL

■ Single table derived from other tables called the defining tables
■ A view does not necessarily exists in physical form, in contrast to base tables
whose tuples are actually stored in database.
■ This limits the possible update operations that can be applied to views but it
does not provide any limitations on querying a view.
Database Management Systems
Specification of Views in SQL

■ CREATE VIEW command

■ Give table name, list of attribute names, and a query to specify the
contents of the view
■ In V1, attributes retain the names from base tables. In V2, attributes are
assigned names
 Database Management Systems
Specification of Views in SQL (cont’d.)

■ Once a View is defined, SQL queries can use the View relation in
the FROM clause
■ View is always up-to-date
■ Responsibility of the DBMS and not the user
■ DROP VIEW command
■ Dispose of a view
 Database Management Systems
View Implementation, View Update, and Inline Views

■ The problem of efficiently implementing a view for querying is complex. Two main
approaches are suggested :
■ Strategy1: Query modification approach
■ This approach involves modifying the view query into query on underlying base
tables.
■ Disadvantage: inefficient for views defined via complex queries that are time-
consuming to execute
Strategy1: Query modification approach
Database Management Systems
View Materialization

■ Strategy 2: View materialization

■ Physically create a temporary view table when the view is first queried
■ Keep that table on the assumption that other queries on the view will follow
■ Requires efficient strategy for automatically updating the view table when the
base tables are updated
■ Incremental update strategy for materialized views
■ DBMS determines what new tuples must be inserted, deleted, or modified in a
materialized view table
Database Management Systems
View Materialization (contd.)

■ Multiple ways to handle materialization:

■ immediate update strategy updates a view as soon as the base tables are
changed
■ lazy update strategy updates the view when needed by a view query
■ periodic update strategy updates the view periodically (in the latter strategy, a
view query may get a result that is not up-to-date). This is commonly used in
Banks, Retail store operations, etc.
Database Management Systems
Views as authorization mechanism

■ SQL query authorization statements (GRANT and REVOKE) are described

in detail in Chapter 30
■ Views can be used to hide certain attributes or tuples from
unauthorized users
■ E.g., For a user who is only allowed to see employee information for
those who work for department 5, he may only access the view
DEPT5EMP:
CREATE VIEW DEPT5EMP AS
SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Dno = 5;
Database Management Systems
Table 7.2 Summary of SQL Syntax
Database Management Systems
Table 7.2 (continued) Summary of SQL Syntax
Database Management Systems
Summary
■ Complex SQL:
■ Nested queries, joined tables (in the FROM clause), outer joins, aggregate
functions, grouping
■ Handling semantic constraints with CREATE ASSERTION and CREATE TRIGGER
■ CREATE VIEW statement and materialization strategies
■ Schema Modification for the DBAs using ALTER TABLE , ADD and DROP COLUMN,
ALTER CONSTRAINT etc.
THANK YOU

Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Dr.Vinodha & Dr.Geetha
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Programming Techniques
Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 3 : Database Programming - functions,

1. SQL datatypes and advanced Blob and clob datatypes

2. Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL
3. Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries
4. Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
5. Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
6. Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE
7. CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
8. Specifying General Constraints as Assertions and Triggers
9. Views and view implementation
10. Database Programming - functions
11. Database Programming - stored procedures
12. Database Programming - cursors
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Database Programming - functions

In MYSQL we use the CREATE FUNCTION statement to create a new function that will be stored and this function can be further
called by supplying any number of parameters and returning the required value.
Syntax:
The following is the syntax of CREATE FUNCTION statement –

• DELIMITER $$
CREATE FUNCTION name_of_function(
parameter1,
parameter2,…
)
RETURNS datatype
[NOT] DETERMINISTIC
BEGIN
-- code of statements to be executed
END $$
DELIMITER ;

4
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Database Programming - functions

• name_of_ function – It is the name of the function that needs to be created in MySQL.
• parameter1, parameter2,… – We can pass the optional parameters to the functions that need to be declared
while creating it in the () brackets. A function can contain none, one or more than one parameter. These
parameters can belong to either of the three types –
• IN – These types of parameters are assigned the values while calling the function and the value cannot be
modified or overwritten inside the function but only referenced and used by the function.
• OUT – These are the parameters that can be assigned the values and overridden in the function but cannot be
referenced by it.
• IN OUT – These types of parameters are assigned the values while calling the function and the value can be
modified or overwritten inside the function as well as referenced and used by the function.
• BEGIN and END – BEGIN keyword marks the beginning of the function while END marks the completion of
function in MYSQL.

5
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Database Programming - functions

• RETURN Datatype – We can return any type of value from the execution of the function. The type of value
that will be returned needs to be specified after the RETURN clause. Once, MySQL finds the RETURN statement
while execution of the function, execution of the function is terminated and the value is returned.

• DETERMINISTIC – The function can be either deterministic or non-deterministic which needs to be specified
here. When the function returns the same value for the same values of parameter then it is called
deterministic. However, if the function returns a different value for the same values of functions then we can
call that function to be nondeterministic. When none of the types of function is mentioned, then MySQL will
consider function to be NON-DETERMINISTIC by default.

6
;

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Database Programming - functions

• Example of MySQL Create Function

• DELIMITER $$
CREATE FUNCTION isEligible(
age INTEGER
)
RETURNS VARCHAR(20)
DETERMINISTIC
BEGIN
IF age > 18 THEN
RETURN ("yes");
ELSE
RETURN ("No");
END IF;
END$$
DELIMITER

7
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Database Programming - functions

To check the eligibility for a 20-year-old guy call the function in the following way –

SELECT isEligible(20); SELECT is eligible(10);

that results in the following output –

8
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Database Programming - functions

Example that involves returning the number of months between the current date and the supplied date

DELIMITER $$
CREATE FUNCTION getMonths(sampledate date) RETURNS int DETERMINISTIC
BEGIN
DECLARE currentDate DATE;
Select current_date()into currentDate;
RETURN (12 * (YEAR(currentDate)
- YEAR(sampledate))
+ (MONTH(currentDate)
- MONTH(sampledate)));
END
$$
DELIMITER ;

9
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Database Programming - functions

Consider the following Developer Table

10
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Database Programming - functions
To retrieve the name of the developer and total months that he/she has worked in the company
the following query statement is used in which a call to getMonths() function is invoked as follows–

SELECT name, getMonths(joining_date) as NumberOfMonths FROM developers;

11
THANK YOU

Dr.Vinodha & Dr. Geetha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Programming Techniques
Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 3 : Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors

1. SQL datatypes and advanced Blob and Clob datatypes

2. Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL
3. Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries
4. Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
5. Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
6. Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE
7. CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
8. Specifying General Constraints as Assertions and Triggers
9. Views and view implementation
10. Database Programming - Functions
11. Database Programming - Stored procedures
12. Database Programming - Cursors
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
MySQL - STORED PROCEDURE

A procedure (often called a stored procedure) is a collection of pre-compiled SQL statements stored inside the
database. It is a subroutine or a subprogram in the regular computing language. A procedure always contains a
name, parameter lists, and SQL statements. We can invoke the procedures by using triggers, other procedures and

applications such as Java , Python , PHP , etc. The following syntax is used for creating a stored procedure in
MySQL.
DELIMITER &&
CREATE PROCEDURE procedure_name [[IN | OUT | INOUT] parameter_name datatype [, parameter datatype]) ]
BEGIN
Declaration_section
Executable_section
END &&
4
DELIMITER ;
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

MySQL - STORED PROCEDURE

Modes of Procedure Parameters:

IN parameter

It is the default mode. It takes a parameter as input, such as an attribute. When we define it, the calling program has to pass an
argument to the stored procedure. This parameter's value is always protected.

OUT parameters

It is used to pass a parameter as output. Its value can be changed inside the stored procedure, and the changed (new) value is
passed back to the calling program. It is noted that a procedure cannot access the OUT parameter's initial value when it starts.

INOUT parameters

It is a combination of IN and OUT parameters. It means the calling program can pass the argument, and the procedure can
modify the INOUT parameter, and then passes the new value back to the calling program.

How to call a stored procedure?

5
Syntax: CALL procedure_name ( parameter(s))
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Consider a table named student_info that contains the following data:

6
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Procedure without Parameter:

To display all records of this table whose marks are greater than 70 and count all the table rows. The following code
creates a procedure named get_merit_students:
DELIMITER &&
CREATE PROCEDURE get_merit_student ()
BEGIN
SELECT * FROM student_info WHERE marks > 70;
SELECT COUNT(stud_code) AS Total_Student FROM student_info;
END &&
DELIMITER ;
Let us call the procedure to verify the output:
mysql> CALL get_merit_student();
7
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

It will give the output as follows:

8
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Procedures with IN Parameter:

DELIMITER &&
CREATE PROCEDURE get_student (IN var1 INT)
BEGIN
SELECT * FROM student_info LIMIT var1;
SELECT COUNT(stud_code) AS Total_Student FROM student_info;
END &&
DELIMITER ;

mysql> CALL get_student(4);

9
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Procedures with OUT Parameter:

DELIMITER &&
CREATE PROCEDURE display_max_mark (OUT highestmark INT)
BEGIN
SELECT MAX(marks) INTO highestmark FROM student_info;
END &&
DELIMITER ;

mysql> CALL display_max_mark(@M);

mysql> SELECT @M;

10
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Procedures with INOUT Parameter:

DELIMITER &&
CREATE PROCEDURE display_marks (INOUT var1 INT)
BEGIN
SELECT marks INTO var1 FROM student_info WHERE stud_id = var1;
END &&
DELIMITER ;

mysql> SET @M = '3';

mysql> CALL display_marks(@M);
mysql> SELECT @M;

11
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

How to delete/drop stored procedures in MySQL?

MySQL also allows a command to drop the procedure. When the procedure is dropped, it is removed from the
database server also. The following statement is used to drop a stored procedure in MySQL:
DROP PROCEDURE [ IF EXISTS ] procedure_name;
Ex: mysql> DROP PROCEDURE display_marks;

We can verify it by listing the procedure in the specified database using the SHOW PROCEDURE STATUS
command.
SHOW PROCEDURE STATUS [LIKE 'pattern' | WHERE search_condition]
Ex: mysql> SHOW PROCEDURE STATUS WHERE db = 'mystudentdb';
12
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
STORED PROCEDURE Vs FUNCTION

13
THANK YOU

Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Dr.Vinodha K & Dr.Geetha
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

9/1/2021 1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Programming Techniques
Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

2
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 3 : Views and view implementation

1. SQL datatypes and advanced Blob and clob datatypes

2. Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL
3. Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries
4. Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
5. Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
6. Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE
7. CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
8. Specifying General Constraints as Assertions and Triggers
9. Views and view implementation
10. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
11. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
12. Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Cursors in MySQL

A database cursor is a mechanism that enables traversal over the records in a database. Cursors
facilitate subsequent processing in conjunction with the traversal, such as retrieval, addition and
removal of database records.
A cursor in SQL is a temporary work area created in system memory when a SQL statement is
executed. A SQL cursor is a set of rows together with a pointer that identifies a current row. It is a
database object to retrieve data from a result set one row at a time. It is useful when we want to
manipulate the record of a table in a singleton method, in other words, one row at a time. In other
words, a cursor can hold more than one row but can process only one row at a time. The set of rows
the cursor holds is called the active set.

4
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Cursors in MySQL

1. Implicit Cursors
Auto-created by Oracle when SQL is executed if there is no explicit cursor used.
Users or programmers cannot control the information or programs in it
Associated with INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE types of DML operation statements
Attributes: SQL%FOUND, SQL%NOTFOUND, %ISOPEN, %ROWCOUNT
2. Explicit Cursors
User-defined cursors which help to gain more control over the context part.
It is defined in the declaration area of the SQL block.
Created on SELECT statements that returns multiple records.
Attributes: SQL%FOUND, SQL%NOTFOUND, %ISOPEN, %ROWCOUNT.

5
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Cursors
Properties:
•READ ONLY − Using these cursors you cannot update any table.
•Non-Scrollable − Using these cursors you can retrieve records from a table in one
direction i.e., from top to bottom.
•Asensitive − These cursors are insensitive to the changes that are made in the table i.e.
the modifications done in the table are not reflected in the cursor, i.e. if we have created a
cursor holding all the records in a table and, meanwhile if we add some more records to
the table, these recent changes will not be reflected in the cursor we previously obtained.

6
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Cursors

The following diagram illustrates how to use a cursor in MySQL:

7
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Cursors

 First, declare a cursor.

 Next, open the cursor.
 Then, fetch rows from the result set into a target.
 After that, check if there is more row left to fetch. If yes,
go to step 3, otherwise, go to step 5.
 Finally, close the cursor.

8
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Cursors

Syntax
DECLARE cursor_name CURSOR FOR select_statement
OPEN cursor_name
FETCH [[NEXT] FROM] cursor_name INTO var_name [, var_name] ...
CLOSE cursor_name

9
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Cursors
When the FETCH statement is called, the next row is read in the result set each time.
But a time comes when it reaches to the end of the set and no data is found there, so to
handle this condition with MYSQL cursor we need to use a NOT FOUND handler.

Syntax:
DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR NOT FOUND SET variable_name = 1;

Attribute Description
It will return TRUE in case an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement affects one or
%FOUND more rows or a SELECT INTO statement returns one or more rows. In other cases, it will
return FALSE.
It is technically the opposite of %FOUND attribute. It returns TRUE in case an INSERT,
%NOTFOUND UPDATE, or DELETE statement doesn’t affect any rows or a SELECT INTO statement
returns no rows. Else it returns just FALSE.
This attribute will always return FALSE for implicit cursors as the SQL cursor is
%ISOPEN
automatically closed immediately after the associated SQL statement is executed.
It returns the total number of affected rows by an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
%ROWCOUNT
statement, or the rows returned by a SELECT INTO statement.
10
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Cursors
Example: Consider the following Tutorials table

11
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Cursors

create another table to back up the data −

CREATE TABLE backup (
ID INT, TITLE VARCHAR(100),
AUTHOR VARCHAR(40),
DATE VARCHAR(40)
);

Write procedure that backups the contents of the tutorials table to the
backup table using cursors −

12
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Cursors
DELIMITER //
CREATE PROCEDURE ExampleProc()
BEGIN
DECLARE done INT DEFAULT 0;
DECLARE tutorialID INTEGER;
DECLARE tutorialTitle, tutorialAuthor, tutorialDate VARCHAR(20);
DECLARE cur CURSOR FOR SELECT * FROM tutorials;
DECLARE CONTINUE HANDLER FOR NOT FOUND SET done = 1;
OPEN cur;
label: LOOP
FETCH cur INTO tutorialID, tutorialTitle, tutorialAuthor, tutorialDate;
INSERT INTO backup VALUES(tutorialID, tutorialTitle, tutorialAuthor, tutorialDate);
IF done = 1 THEN LEAVE label;
END IF;
END LOOP;
CLOSE cur;
END//
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DELIMITER ;
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Cursors
call the above procedure as shown below −

Mysql> CALL ExampleProc;

Query OK, 1 row affected (0.78 sec)

Next, verify the contents of the backup table −

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Cursors
Consider the following table of employees. Using the stored procedure and cursors concatenate name and salary of the employees

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 THANK YOU
Dr.Vinodha K & Dr.Geetha
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha K
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

1
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Programming Techniques
Slides adapted from Author Slides of Fundamentals of Database Systems”, Ramez Elamsri,
Shamkant B Navathe, Pearson, 7th Edition, 2017.

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Unit 3 : Database Programming - functions, stored procedures, cursors

1. SQL datatypes and advanced Blob and Clob datatypes

2. Constraints and SQL Commands, schema changes in SQL
3. Advanced SQL Queries, Nested Queries
4. Sub- queries, Correlated sub-queries
5. Outer join, Aggregation function and group, having clause
6. Other SQL Constructs: WITH, CASE
7. CUBE, PIVOT, ROLLUP
8. Specifying General Constraints as Assertions and Triggers
9. Views and view implementation
10. Database Programming - Functions
11. Database Programming - Stored procedures
12. Database Programming - Cursors
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Python with MySQL Database Connection

Steps to connect a python application to database:

• Import mysql.connector module
• Create the connection object.
• Create the cursor object
• Execute the query

How to Connect to MySQL Database in Python

1. Install MySQL connector module

Use the pip command to install MySQL connector Python.
pip install mysql-connector-python
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Python with MySQL Database Connection

2. Import MySQL connector module

Import using a import mysql.connector statement so you can use this module’s methods to communicate with
the MySQL database.

3. Use the connect() method

Use the connect() method of the MySQL Connector class with the required arguments to connect MySQL. It
would return a MySQLConnection object if the connection established successfully

4. Use the cursor() method

Use the cursor() method of a MySQLConnection object to create a cursor object to perform various SQL
operations.

5. Use the execute() method

The execute() methods run the SQL query and return the result.

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Python with MySQL Database Connection

6. Extract result using fetchall()

Use cursor.fetchall() or fetchone() or fetchmany() to read query result.

7. Close cursor and connection objects

Use cursor.clsoe() and connection.clsoe() method to close open connections after your work completes

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 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Python with MySQL Database Connection
Example to connect to MySQL Database in Python

import mysql.connector
from mysql.connector import Error

try:
conn = mysql.connector.connect(host='localhost’,
database='Electronics',
user=‘root',
password='')
if conn.is_connected():
cursor=conn.cursor()
cursor.execute("drop table if exists empdetails");
cursor.execute("create table empdetails(empno int,empname varchar(20))")
print"**Table created**"
cursor.execute("insert into empdetails values(1,'Reena')")
cursor.execute("insert into empdetails values(2,'Reetta')")
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cursor.execute("insert into empdetails values(3,'Rekha')")
 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Python with MySQL Database Connection

print"**3 Records Inserted**"

cursor.execute("select * from empdetails");
print"***Records Retrieved**" Output:
while(1):
row=cursor.fetchone() **table created**
if row==None: **3 records inserted**
break *** records retrieved***
print"%s %s"%(row[0],row[1]) 1 Reena
print"The number of rows returned %d"%cursor.rowcount 2 Reeta
except Error as e: 3 Rekha
print("Error while connecting to MySQL", e) The number of rows returned 3
finally:
if conn.is_connected():
cursor.close()
conn.close()
print("MySQL connection is closed")
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THANK YOU

Dr.Geetha & Dr.Vinodha K

Department of Computer Science and Engineering