Physics 630: Fluid Mechanics

Jessica He
Fall term 2020-2021

Table of Contents

1 Continuum hypothesis and definition of Fluids 1

1.1 Fluid definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Dimensional Analysis and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Velocity Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Math Interlude 1: Gradient and directional derivative 2

2.1 Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Directional Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Conceptual Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Pressure Forces and Hydrostatic Pressure Distribution 4

3.1 Pressure and Pressure Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Equilibrium of a fluid element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3 Hydrostatic Pressure Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces 7

4.1 Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2 Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.3 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

5 Pressure Distribution in Rigid-Body Motion 9

5.1 Rigid-Body Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.2 Uniform Linear Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.3 Rigid-Body Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

§1 Continuum hypothesis and definition of Fluids

Notes taken 9/16/2020

§1.1 Fluid definitions

Definition 1.1. A fluid is defined as a continuum medium that cannot support shear
stress while stationary. This generally includes liquids(incompressible)and gases (com-
pressible).
Definition 1.2. Fluid density is defined as:
δm
ρ= lim
δV →δV ∗ δV
Here, δV = given volume; δm = molecular mass.

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Jessica He (Fall term 2020-2021) Physics 630: Fluid Mechanics

Definition 1.3. δV ∗ is defined as the limiting volume, which balances minimizing

molecular variations and aggregate variations, so it is the best for calculating density.

Generally, δV ∗ = 10−9 mm3 , which corresponds to roughly 107 particles, for liquids
and gases at atmospheric pressure.
However, density is usually treated as a point function when dealing with volumes
larger than δV ∗ . Such fluids are continuum, indicating their smoothness is suitable for
applying differential calculus.

§1.2 Dimensional Analysis and Measurement

Remember to do BG to SI conversions and use prefixes accordingly. See chart online or
in textbook.
Fluid Mechanics uses 4 primary dimensions:

1. Mass: {M }
2. Length: {L}
3. Time: {T }
4. Temperature: {Θ}

Dimensions must remain dimensionally homogenous within additive terms.

Definition 1.4. Eulerian method: finding flow properties by following the time and
evolution of the respective fields.

Definition 1.5. Langrangian method: following individual particles

§1.3 Velocity Field

The velocity field is a vector function of position and time and can be described as

V (x, y, z, t) = iu(x, y, z, t) + jv(x, y, z, t) + kw(x, y, z, t)

Here, x, y, z, t represent the 3d coordinates and time. u, v, and w are scalar functions.
i, j, k represent the unit vectors.
The acceleration vector follows:
dV dV dV dV dV
a(x, y, z, t) = = +u +j +k
dt dt dx dy dz

§2 Math Interlude 1: Gradient and directional derivative

Notes taken 9/20/2020

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§2.1 Gradient
The nabla or del operator is defined as:

~ = x̂ ∂ + ŷ ∂ + ẑ ∂
∇
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
=( , , )
∂x ∂y ∂z
Gradient is a vector derivative of a scalar function, which means it takes a scalar field
and returns a vector field. More precisely, it is a nabla operation. For example, with
scalar function φ, we have

~
gradφ(x, y, z) = ∇φ(x, y, z)
∂ ∂ ∂
= (x̂ + ŷ + ẑ )φ(x, y, z)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
= x̂ + ŷ + ẑ (1)
∂x ∂y ∂z

§2.2 Directional Derivatives

Now, we use this to derive the expression for a directional derivative, which is defined
as the rate in which a function changes at a certain point in a certain direction. First we
have,
dφ = φ(x + dx, y + dy, z + dz) − φ(x, y, z)
∂ ∂ ∂
= dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
Now, for the sake of simplicity, define the following:
~ = dxx̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ
dr
p
ds = |dr| = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2
~
dr
n̂ =
ds

Here, ~r is the vector that describes which direction we are finding our directional derivative
with respect to. n̂ essentially describes the infinitesimally small portion of the unit vector
in the direction of ~r.
We are looking for dφ ds because that would describe the change of function φ with
respect to an infinitesimal length in the desired direction at desired point. Thus,

dφ ∂φ dx ∂φ dy ∂φ dz
= + +
ds ∂x ds ∂y ds ∂z ds
~ ~ ~ z nz
= (∇φ)x nx + (∇φ)y ny + (∇φ)
dφ ~ · n̂
= (∇φ) (2)
ds
This is the directional derivative. Here, be aware that the · operator in between
represents dot product, so the directional derivative is a scalar.

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§2.3 Conceptual Summary

Conceptually, gradient (also known as a derivative) is a vector that points in the direction
in which a multi-variable, scalar function φ has the greatest increase. At a local minimum
or maximum, it would be zero (duh). This also means that gradient is perpendicular to
level surfaces, where φ(x, y, z) is the same.
For more visualization, view the contour map below:

At the red point, the gradient points up towards the peak.

For directional derivatives, imagine the gradient being multiplied by the vector direction.
Then find the sum of the lengths of the components. That’s basically it.

§3 Pressure Forces and Hydrostatic Pressure Distribution

Notes taken 9/22/2020

§3.1 Pressure and Pressure Gradient

Definition 3.1. Pressure if defined as stress in the antinormal direction:
f orce N
[stress] = [pressure] = = 2
area m
The SI units for pressure is a pascal= mN2 .

The following relationships between pressure force, pressure, and the surface normal
vector is true:
~ p = −pdA
dF ~

dA is defined as the magnitude of the area in the normal direction. The negative sign is
there because pressure force is always anti-normal. For example, on the inner liquid, the
surface normal vector is outward, so the pressure force would point inward.
Thus,
ZZ
~
Fp = ~
−pdA

This is a double integral because area is 2-D and dA must be integrated twice.

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Consider the cube above, with infinitesimally small edge length of dx, dy and dz. Define
p(x, y, z) as the function for pressure in terms of the x, y, z coordinates. For the right
surface, we have
~ = dydz x̂
dA
~ p = −p(x + dx, y + dy , z + dz )dA
dF ~
2 2
Notice that we are choosing the center of the surface for y, z values and the x value is
constant. Further simplifying,

~ p = −(p(x, y, z) + ∂p dx + ∂p ∂dy + ∂p dz )dydz x̂

dF (3)
∂x ∂y 2 ∂z 2
The left surface is the same as the right surface except for the x-parameter:

~ p = −p(x + dx, y + dy , z + dz )dA

dF ~
2 2
∂p ∂dy ∂p dz
= −(p(x, y, z) + + )dydz x̂ (4)
∂y 2 ∂z 2

Subtracting (4) from (3),

∂p
Fpx = − dxdydz
∂x

Repeat the same for all three dimensions to get

∂p ∂p ∂p
F~p = − dxdydz x̂ − dxdydz ŷ − ~
dxdydz ẑ = ∇pdxdydz (5)
∂x ∂y ∂z

§3.2 Equilibrium of a fluid element

For stable elements, the net force must be 0.
~
F~net = Fgravity + F~p = 0

~
m~g − ∇pdxdydz =0
~
ρdV ~g − ∇pdxdydz =0
~
ρdxdydz~g − ∇pdxdydz =0
~
ρ~g = ∇p (6)

This is known as the hydrostatic condition for fluids.

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Definition 3.2. The hydrostatic condition states:

1. pressure varies only with vertical distance and has nothing to do with the shape of
the container

2. pressure is the same for all points in a horizontal plane

3. pressure increases with depth

In colloquial terms, a fluid must support its own weight.

Definition 3.3. Gage Pressure is the positive difference of the pressure being measured
and the pressure in the local atmosphere:

p(gage) = p − p0

Definition 3.4. Vaccuum Pressure is the negative difference of the pressure being
measured and the pressure in the local atmosphere:

p(vaccuum) = p0 − p

§3.3 Hydrostatic Pressure Distributions

For incompresssible fluids,
∂p
=0
∂x
∂p
=0
∂y
∂p
= −ρg (7)
∂z

Thus,
Z p(z) Z z
dp = −ρgdz
p=p0 z=0
p = p0 − ρgz

For ideal gases,

∂p
=0
∂x
∂p
=0
∂y
∂p
= −ρg
∂z
And,

pv = nRT
p = ρRT

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Jessica He (Fall term 2020-2021) Physics 630: Fluid Mechanics

The first is the Ideal Gas Law from physical chemistry and the second is another version
of it using ρ instead of molar mass. Note that the R in the second equation is different
p
from the one in the first. Plugging in RT for ρ into 7
dp p
=− g
dz RT
The LHS may use d because pressure doesn’t vary across x and y. Separating and solving
the differential equation,
dp g
=− dz
p RT
Z p(z) Z z
g
= − dz
p0 z=0 RT
gz
ln(p(z) − p0 ) = −
RT
gz
p(z) = p0 + e− RT
However, when dealing with larger height differences, the temperature of gas in the
Earth’s atmosphere may vary. For the cases in which temperature varies linearly with
height,

T = T0 − Bz
Here, B is the lapse rate and T0 is the temperature at sea level. Thus, from Ideal
Gas Law,
dp −pg
= −ρg =
dz R(T0 − bz)
Z p(z) Z z
−pg
= − dz
p=p0 z=0 R(T0 − bz)
T0
p g −z
ln( )= = ln( B T0 )
p0 RB B
Bz g
p = p0 (1 − ) RB
T0

§4 Hydrostatic Forces on Curved Surfaces

Notes taken 10/01/2020

§4.1 Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces

As noted in previous sections, we have
Z
F~p = ~
−pdA
surf
Z
~p =
M ~
−p~r × dA
surf

Here, Fp is the net pressure force and Mp is the net torque around a chosen reference
point. However, there is an easier simplification which may be used.
Consider the following free-body diagram, which shows a curved surface and the column
of water and air above it.

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The forces F1 on either side of the rectangular water column and the forces FH cancel
each other out because of the hydrostatic condition, so ignore them.

Remark 4.1. For future reference, these forces are equal to the pressure force on a
projection of the curved surface onto a vertical plane. This is quite intuitive though.

Summing the vertical forces,

Fv = W1 + W2 + Wair (8)

Here, W represent weight, not work (don’t get confused!). This leads us to another
conclusion (this is not a theorem but I like the formatting so bear with me):

Theorem 4.2
The vertical component of the pressure force on a curved surface is equal in both
magnitude and direction to the weight of the entire column of fluid (including air
and liquid) above the curved surface.

This is quite intuitive as well.

Once the free-body diagram is drawn, it only remains to calculate the Weights, which
hopefully aren’t too hard.

§4.2 Buoyancy
Archimedes’ 2 laws of Buoyancy:

1. A body immersed in fluid experiences a buoyancy force equal to the weight of fluid
it displaced

2. A floating body displaces its own weight in the fluid it floats in

Again, this is pretty intuitive.

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Using the above diagram to calculate Fb ,

Z
Fb = (p2 − p1 )dAH
body
Z
= −ρg (z2 − z1 )dAH

= ρg(V olume)

Definition 4.3. The point through which FB acts is known as the Center of Buoyancy.

If density is uniform, the center of buoyancy equals the center of mass. Otherwise,
this is not true. For floating objects, note that buoyancy force and weight are always
collinear- otherwise there would be torque, breaking the condition for static equilibrium.

§4.3 Stability
Full description is a bit complex, so I will neglect it. See the diagram below:

Essentially, the idea of stability relies of on the question of whether or not the object
will restore to equilibrium position given a small disturbance.

§5 Pressure Distribution in Rigid-Body Motion

Notes taken 10/05/2020

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Jessica He (Fall term 2020-2021) Physics 630: Fluid Mechanics

§5.1 Rigid-Body Motion

Definition 5.1. In rigid-body motion, there is no relative motion between particles.
This means that all particles are in combined translation and rotation and there are no
strains or strain rates.

Thus,
∇p ~ a)
~ = ρ(g − (9)
The pressure gradient acts in direction g − a. Fluids rarely move in rigid-body motion
unless constrained for a long time.

§5.2 Uniform Linear Acceleration

Now, see the example below, where the water is supposedly rigidly accelerating.

Here, we have
ax
θ = arctan
g + az
The rate of increase in pressure in the g-a direction is given by
dp
= ρG
ds p
= ρ a2x + (g + az )2

This should make sense intuitively as it is essentially tilting the axis to correspond with
the net acceleration.

§5.3 Rigid-Body Rotation

Consider the fluid rotating constantly at ω about the z axis without any translation in
the figure below:

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By centripetal acceleration, we have

v2
~a = − r̂ = −ω 2 rr̂
r
Thus,

~ f = g − a = −gẑ + ω 2 rr̂
gef

Then, by plugging into 9,

~ a)
~ = ρ(g −
∇p
∂p
= −ρg
∂z
∂p
= −ρω 2 r
∂r

If we integrate the last two equations, which are both first-order differential equations,
while keeping the other variable constant we get

p = p0 − ρgz + f1 (r)
1
p = p0 + ρω 2 r2 + f2 (z)
2

Now, observe that the following must be true:

1
f1 (r) = ρω 2 r2
2
f2 (z) = −ρgz

Thus, we have
1
p = p0 − ρgz + ρω 2 r2 (10)
2

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