CENTRAL UNIT PROCESSING (CPU)GRADE 10 Computer ScienceSaad ShahWhat is a CPU?

THE CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)• The CPU is central to all modern computer systems.• It is very
often installed as an integrated circuit on a single microchip.• The CPU has the responsibility for the
execution or processing of all the instructions and data in a computer application.

INTRODUCING THE VON NEWMANN ARCHITECTURE• Early computers were fed data while the machines
were actually running; it wasn’t possible to store programs or data, which meant they couldn’t operate
without considerable human intervention. • In the mid-1940s, John von Neumann developed the
concept of the ‘stored program computer’, which has been the basis of computer architecture ever
since. • The von Neumann architecture had the following main novel features the concept of a central
processing unit (CPU or processor) • The CPU was able to access the memory directly • Computer
memories could store programs as well as data • Stored programs were made up of instructions which
could be executed in sequential order.

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit

(RAM)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUSkeyboards, touch screens and
microphonesprinters, monitors and loudspeakers

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)CONTROL BUSDATA

BUSADDRESS BUSkeyboards, touch screens and microphonesprinters, monitors and loudspeakers

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)ALUCONTROL BUSDATA

BUSADDRESS BUSkeyboards, touch screens and microphonesprinters, monitors and loudspeakers

132Enables processor to carry out mathematical operationson data (adding, subtracting, multiplying and
dividing)Enables logical operations to be carried outARITHMETIC & LOGIC UNIT(ALU)ALUInput 1Input
2OutputIt is possible for a computer to have more than one ALU to carry out specific function.
Multiplication and division are carried out by a sequence of addition, subtraction and left or right logical
shift operations

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)ALUCONTROL BUSDATA

BUSADDRESS BUSkeyboards, touch screens and microphonesprinters, monitors and
loudspeakersMemory Unit (RAM)
132The memory unit (RAM) of the CPU stores instructionsand processes that the computer needs
regularly whenprocessing data.Read and Write operations carried out using the RAM are considerably
faster than read/write operations to a hard disk drive.The CPU takes data and programs held in a hard
diskdrive and puts them into RAM temperorily.RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (BRIEF)MEMORY UNIT4RAM
is a type of volatile memory, in that it does not retain its contents when the computer is powered off.

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit

(RAM)ALUCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUSkeyboards, touch screens and microphonesprinters,
monitors and loudspeakersMARPCMDRCIRACC

132Current Instruction RegisterREGISTERSThere are 5 of them (Special purpose registers)One of the

most fundamental components of the von Neumann architecture.AccumulatorMemory Address
Register45Memory Data (Buffer) RegisterProgram CounterFUNCTIONS This register stores the current
instruction being decoded and executedThis register is used when carrying out ALU calculations; it
stores data temporarily during the calculations This register stores the address of the memory location
currently being read from or written to This register stores data which has just been read from memory
or data which is about to be written to memory This register stores the address where the next
instruction to be read can be found MARPCMDRCIRACC

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit

(RAM)ALUCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUSkeyboards, touch screens and microphonesprinters,
monitors and loudspeakersMARPCMDRCIRACCCU

132Reads an instruction (from input device) from memory.The address of the location where the
instruction can befound is stored in the program counter.During that process, signals are generated
along the control bus to tell the other components in the computer what to do. This instruction is then
interpreted during the Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle.CONTROL UNITCoordinatorThe Control Unit (CU) is
responsible for making sure all these components follow the instructions it has processed from the
input.

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit

(RAM)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUS

132Address BusSYSTEM BUSESSeveral buses, otherwise known as connections, carry data around a
computer.Data BusControl BusCarries the address between the memory unit andCPUCarries the data
between the memory unit and CPUand to and from from input/output devices.It carries signals from the
control unit (CU) to all theother computer components.*width of the address bus and data bus is
important.The wider the bus, the larger the word length that canbe transported.
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit
(RAM)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUS

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CPU (2)Saad ShahY E A R 1 0 C O M P U T E R S C I E N C EFETCH-DECODE-EXECUTE CYCLE

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE RECAPInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit

(RAM)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUS

Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle• All modern computers with the Von Neumann Architecture use a method
of processing data known as the fetch-decode-execute cycle. • This cycle happens in a matter of
milliseconds and enables a computer to logically process the data it receives in the correct order for the
user's requirement. • All the components of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) are used to make the
cycle work.

Fetch-Decode-Execute CycleBoth data and instruction can be stored in MDR. In the Fetch–Decode–
Execute cycle, the next instruction is fetched from the memory address currently stored in the MAR and
the instruction is stored in the MDR. The contents of the MDR are then copied to the Current Instruction
Register (CIR). The PC is then incremented (increased by 1) so that the next instruction can be then be
processed.The instruction is then decoded so that it can be interpreted in the next part of the cycle.The
CPU passes the decoded instruction as a set of control signals to the appropriate components within the
computer system. This allows each instruction to be carried out in its logical sequence.

• The program counter stores the address location of the next instruction to be carried out. This location
number is copied into the memory address register.• The program counter is incremented by one and
this register now stores the next instruction to be processed.• The control unit (CU) makes a request to
the RAM for the instruction and obtains the address of the instruction from the MAR by sending a signal
along the address bus. • The data that is being held in the RAM in the correct address is carried along
the data bus to the memory register (MDR).• Once the instruction arrives at the MDR, it is copied into
the current instruction register (CIR).• The instruction is then decoded in the CIR using the arithmetic
logic unit (ALU) and then carried out. The result of this processing is stored in the accumulator.Fetch-
Decode-Execute Step by Step

Z = X + Y Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory

Address RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add
11Store 12

Z = X + Y Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory

Address RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add
11Store 12All of these (value and address) will be stored using machine code (0 and 1)

• The program counter stores the address location of the next instruction to be carried out. This location
number is copied into the memory address register.• The program counter is incremented by one and
this register now stores the next instruction to be processed.• The control unit (CU) makes a request to
the RAM for the instruction and obtains the address of the instruction from the MAR by sending a signal
along the address bus. • The data that is being held in the RAM in the correct address is carried along
the data bus to the memory register (MDR).• Once the instruction arrives at the MDR, it is copied into
the current instruction register (CIR).• The instruction is then decoded in the CIR using the arithmetic
logic unit (ALU) and then carried out. The result of this processing is stored in the accumulator.Fetch-
Decode-Execute Step by Step

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
121.The program counter stores the address location of the next instruction to be carried out. This
location number is copied into the memory address register.

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
121.The program counter stores the address location of the next instruction to be carried out. This
location number is copied into the memory address register.101101

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
122. The program counter is incremented by one and this register now stores the next instruction to be
processed.102101

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
123. The control unit (CU) makes a request to the RAM for the instruction and obtains the address of the
instruction from the MAR by sending a signal along the address bus.102101Address bus

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
124. The data that is being held in the RAM in the correct address is carried along the data bus to the
memory register (MDR).102101Address busLoad 10

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
125.Once the instruction arrives at the MDR, it is copied into the current instruction register
(CIR).102101Address busLoad 10Load 10

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
126.The instruction is then decoded in the CIR using the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and then carried out.
The result of this processing is stored in the accumulator.102101Address busLoad 10Load 10Load 10

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
126.The instruction is then decoded in the CIR using the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and then carried out.
The result of this processing is stored in the accumulator.10210Address bus2Load 10Load 10

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
126.The instruction is then decoded in the CIR using the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and then carried out.
The result of this processing is stored in the accumulator.10210Address bus2Load 10Load 102

FIRST INSTRUCTION DONE!

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address
RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
121.The program counter stores the address location of the next instruction to be carried out. This
location number is copied into the memory address register.102102Address bus2Load 10Load 102

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
122. The program counter is incremented by one and this register now stores the next instruction to be
processed.103102Address bus2Load 10Load 102

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
123. The control unit (CU) makes a request to the RAM for the instruction and obtains the address of the
instruction from the MAR by sending a signal along the address bus. 103102Address bus2Load 10Load
102

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
124. The data that is being held in the RAM in the correct address is carried along the data bus to the
memory register (MDR).103102Address busLoad 10Load 102Add 11

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
125. Once the instruction arrives at the MDR, it is copied into the current instruction register
(CIR).103102Address busLoad 102Add 11Add 11

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
126. The instruction is then decoded in the CIR using the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and then carried
out. The result of this processing is stored in the accumulator.103102Address bus2Add 11Add 11Add 11

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
126. The instruction is then decoded in the CIR using the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and then carried
out. The result of this processing is stored in the accumulator.10311Address bus23Add 11Add 112 + 3
Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address
RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
126. The instruction is then decoded in the CIR using the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and then carried
out. The result of this processing is stored in the accumulator.10211Address bus53Add 11Add 112 + 3

2ND INSTRUCTION DONE!

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
121.The program counter stores the address location of the next instruction to be carried out. This
location number is copied into the memory address register.103103Address bus53Add 11Add 112 + 3

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
122. The program counter is incremented by one and this register now stores the next instruction to be
processed.104102Address bus53Add 11Add 112 + 3

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
123. The control unit (CU) makes a request to the RAM for the instruction and obtains the address of the
instruction from the MAR by sending a signal along the address bus. 104103Address bus53Add 11Add
112 + 3

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
124. The data that is being held in the RAM in the correct address is carried along the data bus to the
memory register (MDR).104103Address bus5Add 11Add 112 + 3Store 12

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
125. Once the instruction arrives at the MDR, it is copied into the current instruction register
(CIR).104103Address bus5Add 112 + 3Store 12Store 12

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store
126. The instruction is then decoded in the CIR using the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and then carried
out. The result of this processing is stored in the accumulator.104103Address bus52 + 3Store 12Store
12Store 12

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300235000Load 10Add 11Store
126. The instruction is then decoded in the CIR using the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and then carried
out. The result of this processing is stored in the accumulator.104103Address bus52 + 3Store 12Store
12Store 12

3RD INSTRUCTION DONE!FINISH Z = X + Y

• Other components make up part of the CPU and can make a significant difference to the overall
operating speed of a computer. • While the CPU processes instructions and data extremely quickly,
other factors can affect a computer's performance.Clock Speed, Cache Memory and Cores

• Clock speed is an important measure in terms of CPU performance capabilities. This refers to the
number of electrical pulses that the clock inside the CPU can produce every second. This measurement
is made in hertz, and modern clock speeds are usually measured in gigahertz.• By increasing clock
speed, the processing speed of the computer is also increased (a typical current value is 3.5GHz – which
means 3.5 billion clock cycles (Fetch-Decode-Execute a second) • Overclocking - using a clock speed
higher than the computer was designed for. Problems:• Lead to seriously unsynchronised operations
(i.e. an instruction is unable to complete in time before the next one is due to be executed) – the
computer would frequently crash and become unstable • Serious overheating of the CPU leading to
unreliable performance. Clock Speed

• The use of a different number of cores can improve computer performance. One core is made up of an
ALU, a control unit and the registers. Many computers are dual core (the CPU is made up of two cores)
or quad core (the CPU is made up of four cores). • The idea of using more cores alleviates the need to
continually increase clock speeds. Cores

One CoreCentral Processing Unit (CPU)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACC

Dual CoreCentral Processing Unit (CPU)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCHowever, doubling the number of

cores doesn’t necessarily double the computer’s performance since we have to take into account the
need for the CPU to communicate with each core; this will reduce overall performance. Central
Processing Unit (CPU)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACC
Multi Core - 8 coresCentral Processing Unit (CPU)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCentral Processing Unit
(CPU)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCentral Processing Unit (CPU)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCentral
Processing Unit (CPU)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCentral Processing Unit
(CPU)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCentral Processing Unit (CPU)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCentral
Processing Unit (CPU)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCentral Processing Unit (CPU)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACC

• The use of cache memories can also improve CPU performance. • Unlike RAM, cache memory is
located within the CPU itself, which means it has much faster data access times than RAM. • Cache
memory stores frequently used instructions and data that need to be accessed faster, which improves
CPU performance. • When a CPU wishes to read memory, it will first check out the cache and then move
on to main memory/RAM if the required data isn’t there. • The larger the cache memory size the better
the CPU performance. Cache

Control UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent Instruction RegisterMemory Address

RegisterMemory Data Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300235000Load 10Add 11Store
12103102Address bus52 + 3Store 12Store 12Store 12Cache

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INSTRUCTION SET AND EMBEDDED SYSTEMSSaad Shah0100 01101011

Instruction Set• A set of common instructions have been developed by processor manufacturers so that
CPUs operate as efficiently as possible.• This instruction set is all the commands that can be processes
by a CPU.• The instructions are the most basic types of command a computer can respond to and
execute, and these are referred to as operations. • These operations ensure that the control unit and
arithmetic logic unit can carry out their respective jobs easily.

Instruction SetOperations are made up of opcodes and operands.LoadAdd Store101112

Fetch-Decode-Execute RecapControl UnitAccumulatorALUControl busProgram CounterCurrent

Instruction RegisterMemory Address RegisterMemory Data
Register...Memory89101112139910010110210300230000Load 10Add 11Store 12100100
Instruction SetOperations are made up of opcodes and operands.LoadAdd Store101112Opcode: -
Operational Code- Gives the CPU a precise job job that is required to happenThe opcode are stored on a
computer's hard disk and would usually be copied into the main memory RAM when the computer is
powered on. The most regularly used opcodes would then be moved from the RAM to the cache
memory.

Instruction SetOperations are made up of opcodes and operands.LoadAdd Store101112An operand is

the data that is required for the specific job as detailed by the opcode. The operand may be a piece of
data itself, or it may be an address location within the main RAM or register.

Instruction Set• Example : X86 Instruction Set • 1503• Used by Intel Pentium and AMD Athlon CPU •
Instruction Set is not programming code. Instruction sets are the low-level language instructions that
instruct the CPU how to carry out an operation • Example: •Python Code -> Instruction Set -> Computer

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Processors and Computer System• Traditionally, we would think of computers as desktop and laptop
computers. • They are referred to as general purpose computers, capable of providing a wide range of
different activities.Discussion: Where could we find a processor, besides a computer or a laptop.

Embedded System• A type of computer system that carry out rather more specific tasks and jobs.• With
an embedded system. a device would use a small built-in computer to carry out its functions in a more
effective way. In other words, it's a combination of hardware and software which is designed to carry
out a specific set of functions.• The computer system usually has a very specific job, and only carries out
that job when required.

General Idea of an Embedded SystemAnalogue or digital inputSome form of OutputUser

InterfaceSoftware and hardware on an embedded systemSensors, actuators

Vending MachineInputs to this system come from the keypad (item selection) and from sensors (used to
count the coins inserted by the customer, the temperature inside the machine and a ‘tilt sensor’ for
security purposes).The outputs are:- Signals to operate the cooling system if the temperature is too
high- Item description and any change due shown on an LCD display panel- Data sent back to the
vending machine company so that they can remotelycheck sales activity (which could include
instructions to refill the machine) without the need to visit each machine.
Lightning SystemAn embedded system can automatically control the lighting using a number of inputs
(such as light sensors) and key data stored in memory The time of day or day of the week is important
data in an office environment since energy is saved if the system switches to low lighting levels when
unoccupied.Some lighting systems use Bluetooth light bulbs. This allows the embedded system to
control each bulb independently. Many of the bulbs available today use LEDs and many come in a
number of colours to change the mood.

Embedded System• Embedded system tends to be low power devices.• Calculator uses battery•
Depending on the device, embedded systems are either programmable or non- programmable. Non-
programmable devices need, in general, to be replaced if they require a software upgrade.
Programmable devices permit upgrading by two methods: • connecting the device to a computer and
allowing the download of updates to the software (for example, this is used to update the maps on a
GPS system used in a vehicle) • automatic updates via a Wi-Fi, satellite or cellular (mobile phone
network) link (for example, many modern cars allow updates to engine management systems and other
components via satellite link).

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Input Devices

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE RECAPInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit

(RAM)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUS

MARMDRVON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE RECAPInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit

(RAM)ALUCUPCCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUSOur Focus this week!

KeyboardsWhat it has What it does How to useIt has a selection of keys that all perform different
tasks.Entering and typing letters and numbers. Used to given data and instruction to the
computer.Connected to the computer using either a universal serial bus port or wirelessly using a
Bluetooth connection.

Other types of keyboards

How does it work?01101000InputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit
(RAM)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACC

Optical MouseWhat it has What it does How to useIt has a left and right button, and a jog wheel in
between button for easy scrollingConnected to the computer using a USB port or a Bluetooth
connectionIt is used as a pointing device

• A red LED is used in the base of the mouse and the red light is bounced off the surface and the
reflection is picked up by a complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS). • The CMOS generates
electric pulses to represent the reflected red light and these pulses are sent to a digital signal processor
(DSP). • The processor can now work out the coordinates of the mouse based on the changing image
patterns as it is moved about on the surface.• The computer can then move the on-screen cursor to the
coordinates sent by the mouse.How does it work?

Other types of pointing deviceTouch padStylusGaming Controller

Before proceeding to the next hardware, let's revisit this epic presentation!

Touch ScreensWhat it has What it does 3 types of touch screensA touch screen is made of glass and
reacts to a finger press.They allow the user to carry out the same functions as they would with a
pointing device, such as mouse. •Capacitive touch screens•Resistive touch screens• Infrared touch
screens

Capacitive touch screens• Capacitive touch screens are composed of a layer of glass (protective layer), a
transparent electrode (conductive) layer and a glass substrate. • Since human skin is a conductor of
electricity, when bare fingers touch the screen, the electrostatic field of the conductive layer is changed.
• The installed microcontroller is able to calculate where this change took place and hence determine
the coordinates of the point of touching. AdvantageBetter image clarity than resistive screens,
MultitouchDisadvantageMore expensive to manufacture

Resistive touch screens• The name resistive relates to resistance - the amount of downward pressure
made on the screen by the user.• The pressure causes a change in the resistance, or an increase in
voltage.• The layers of the screen detects the voltage change and calculates the coordinates of where
the pressure change has happened. • This then enables the processor to react to the pressure and
display the item the user requires.AdvantageCan be used in bare fingers, stylus and gloved
handDisadvantageLow touch sensitivity, No multitouch

Infrared touch screens• They emit a constant grid of lights underneath the top surface layer.• The
technology works when this light grid is interrupted, and a touch on the infra-red screen causes a
disturbance.• The disturbance is then located by the processor and translated into co-
ordinatesAdvantageVery sensibleDisadvantageSusceptible to false touch

ScannerWhat it has What it does Scanner are used to convert text or images on paper into digital
information.• A paper document is placed on the scanner and a beam of light is shone onto the paper.•
This light reflects onto a sensor, which determines the colour of the text or image on the paper.• The
information is used by the computer, as an input, to create a digital copy of the document

Optical character recognitionComputers equipped with optical character recognition (OCR) software
allow the scanned text from the document to be converted into a text file format. This means the
scanned image can now be edited and manipulated by importing it into a word processor. If the original
document was a photograph or image, then the scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG.

3D ScannerScanners can also work in three dimensions and use reflected laser light to build up a 3D
model of a scanned object. These images can then be used with a 3D printer to create a model.

Application of 2D and 3D Scanner2D scanners are used at airports to read passports They make use of
OCR technology to produce digital images which represent the passport pages. Because of the OCR
technology, these digital images can be manipulated in a number of ways. For example, the OCR
software is able to review these images, select the text part, and then automatically put the text into the
correct fields of an existing database Computed tomographic (CT) scanners are used to create a 3D
image of a solid object. This is based on tomography technology, which basically builds up an image of
the solid object through a series of very thin ‘slices’. Each of these 2D ‘slices’ make up a representation
of the 3D solid object.

Barcode ReaderWhat it has What it does The Barcode uses infra-red light to read the bars in the code. It
accesses information about a product within the store.

The Barcode• The barcode holds information such as the product identification number, country of
origin and manufacturer. It does not store the price of products, which is held in a database..• During
the purchase process the computer scans the barcode information and matches the data to the
database to check the most up-to-date price.
How does the Barcode Reader work?• The Barcode uses infra-red light to read the bars in the code.•
The light is reflected back to the device and is converted into digital data.

Quick Response ScannerWhat it has What it does BenefitsIt allows characters, digits and also internet
addresses to be encoded.Consists of a block of small squares (light and dark) known as pixelsAvoid the
user from having to remember long telephone numbers and website addresses, because the QR Reader
will quickly convert the QR code into the information

QR CodeBarcodeThey can hold much more information QR codes are easier to read; they don’t need
expensive laser or LEDIt is also possible to encrypt QR codes which gives them greater protectionthan
traditional barcodes.More than one QR format is availableQR codes can be used to transmit malicious
codes

Digital Camera (Webcam)What it does It takes a digital image of the view in front of its lens. If the
camera set images one after the other at a high enough frame rate, this can be viewed on a computer
screen as a video feed.

How does it work? The image is captured when light passes through the lens on to a light-sensitive cell;
this cell is made up of millions of tiny sensors which are acting as photodiodes (i.e. charge couple
devices (CCD) which convert light into electricity)Each of the sensors are often referred to as pixels
(picture elements) since they are tiny components that make up the imageThe image is converted into
tiny electric charges which are then passed through an analogue to digital converter (ADC) to form a
digital image array

MicrophonesDescriptionWhat it does It converts sound analogue signals into digital information. It is

mainly used with webcams for video-conferencing. The digital signal are sent to another computer user
and can be heard as a sound. Either built into the computer or are external devices connected through
the USB port or using Bluetooth connectivity.

Hut1000 00011100 01010100 1001Digital information

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Output Devices

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE RECAPInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit

(RAM)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUS

MARMDRVON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE RECAPInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit

(RAM)ALUCUPCCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUSOur Focus this week!

Output Devices• Output devices are the hardware a computer uses to display or send out the data that
has been processed.• Input devices that provide the computer with the instructions are linked to the
output devices, so the user can see or hear the results of those instructions. • The choice of output
device depends on the most appropriate use of the data that has been processed.

Output Devices• Monitor • Touch Screens• Projector ⚬DLP Projector ⚬LCD Projector • Printer⚬Laser
Printer ⚬Inkjet Printer ⚬3D Printer • Speaker• Actuator

Output Devices• Monitor • Touch Screens• Projector ⚬DLP Projector ⚬LCD Projector • Printer⚬Laser
Printer ⚬Inkjet Printer ⚬3D Printer • Speaker• Actuator

MonitorSize in inch• Monitor can display a certain number of pixels depending on the quality - more
pixels mean a better quality of picture output.• The larger the monitor the more expensive they tend to
be.• Modern monitors connect to a computer using high-definition multimedia interface (HTML)
connector) ⚬Display high definition image and sound using one cable.⚬HDMI is a standard connection
port for audio/visual devices in computers.
Monitor - LED vs LCDLCD - Liquid Crystal DisplayLED - Liquid Emitting Diode- made up of tiny liquid
crystals- These tiny crystals make up an array of pixels that are affected by changes in applied electric
fields - Because LCD’s don’t produce any light, LCD screens are back-lit using light-emitting diode (LED)
technology - made up of tiny light-emitting diodes- each LED is either red, blue and green - By varying
the electric current sent to each LED, its brightness can be controlled, producing a vast range of colours.

Monitor - OLEDOLED - Organic Liquid Emitting Diode- These use organic materials (made up of carbon
compounds) to create semi-conductors that are very flexible - The important aspect of OLED technology
is how thin this makes the screen. It is possible, using OLED technology, to bend screens to any shape

Some benefits of OLED

Output Devices• Monitor • Touch Screens• Projector ⚬DLP Projector ⚬LCD Projector • Printer⚬Laser
Printer ⚬Inkjet Printer ⚬3D Printer • Speaker• Actuator

Touch Screen• A touch screen can be used as an input device and an output device.• Touch screens are
used on smartphones and tablets.• Once the user has made a selection with a finger press, the screen
reacts by displaying a different screen.

Output Devices• Monitor • Touch Screens• Projector ⚬DLP Projector ⚬LCD Projector • Printer⚬Laser
Printer ⚬Inkjet Printer ⚬3D Printer • Speaker• Actuator

• A digital light processing (DLP) projector is a device that connects to a computer and a monitor to
project the video output from the computer onto a wall or a whiteboard. The video can be viewed at a
much larger size when projected.• They are often used in school classrooms or home cinemas for
showing video or presentations.• They are connected to a computer with a HDMI connector.• DLPs can
be large and use powerful bulbs to project the image.Digital Lightning Processing (DLP) Projector

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Projector• A LCD projector works in a similar way to a DLP projector. •
However, the key difference is that red, green and blue lights are shone through three prisms, then
brought together, or converged, through a second prism to produce the image. • LCD projectors tend to
display more vivid images than DLP projectors, however they are often larger and heavier.
DLP Projector vs LCD Projector- Higher reliability/longevity- Quieter than LCD- High contrast ratio- Less
efficient in their use of energy (generate more heat- Better colour saturation- Poorer longevity - More
efficient in their use of energy

Output Devices• Monitor • Touch Screens• Projector ⚬DLP Projector ⚬LCD Projector • Printer⚬Laser
Printer ⚬Inkjet Printer ⚬3D Printer • Speaker• Actuator

• A laser printer produces a printed output by transferring powdered toner onto paper using heat.• The
printer connects to a computer using a universal serial bus (USB) interface, or wirelessly across a
network. • It prints quickly and produces good quality results.• The quality of output and the low noise
levels make laser printers popular choices for workplaces.Laser Printer

• Inkjet printers are the cheapest type of printer. • They work by spraying ink directly onto paper as it is
heated by the printer. The ink follows from a cartridge through tiny holes and when the paper is fed out
from the printer the ink is still slightly wet. • Inkjet printers can produce either black and white or colour
output and are popular choices for use at home and for printing photographs.• The printer connects to a
computer using a universal serial bus interface, or wirelessly across a network.Inkjet Printer

3D printer• Three dimensional or 3D printers are output devices that can create objects rather than
printed piece of paper.• 3D printers often use heated liquid such as plastic or metal. The type of liquid
used depends on the item being produced. This liquid is given instructions by the computer to create a
surface and then it solidifies. The printer uses several layers of this liquid material to create the shape. •
3D printers are used mainly by designers to create prototypes of objects and have been used in car
manufacturing for many years.

Output Devices• Monitor • Touch Screens• Projector ⚬DLP Projector ⚬LCD Projector • Printer⚬Laser
Printer ⚬Inkjet Printer ⚬3D Printer • Speaker• Actuator

Speaker• Speakers are used to output music, sound and video soundtracks for a high quality multimedia
experience.• The sound quality of the speaker depends on the type of speaker used.• The internal
speakers supplied as standard within a computer tend to produce lower quality sound, but externally
powered speakers connected to a computer's sound card through an audio port produce better quality
output. • Sound card: An internal device of a computer that provides a method of input and output of
audio signals for use with multimedia applications.

Output Devices• Monitor • Touch Screens• Projector ⚬DLP Projector ⚬LCD Projector • Printer⚬Laser
Printer ⚬Inkjet Printer ⚬3D Printer • Speaker• Actuator
Actuator• An actuator is a mechanical motor that carries out an action when a computer gives it an
instruction. • For example, a digital camera has an actuator built into the lens and the motor moves the
lens in and out depending on the level of zoom required. It is the actuator that control this movement.•
Actuator can be small, as in the case of a camera, or can be large, such as those that control duty
computer-controlled drills.

PAST YEAR QUESTION

PAST YEAR QUESTION

PAST YEAR QUESTION

PAST YEAR QUESTION

Sensor

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit

(RAM)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUS

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURESensor (Automatic Input)OutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory

Unit (RAM)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUS

Function of a sensorRead and measure physical properties from their surrounding.

Function of a sensorRead and measure physical properties from their

surrounding.TemperaturePressureAcidityLevelLength

Analogue to Digital Converter (ADC)Computer cannot make sense of physical quantities (pH, celcius,
etc)Reason ADC is neededFunction of an ADCConvert physical quantities to a digital format. It convert
physical values (analogue data) into digital data.Extra: Digital to Analogue Converter (DAC)
FeedbackSensor readings may cause microprocessor to alter a valve or motor that will then change the
next reading taken by the sensor. So the output from the microprocessor will impact on the next input
received as it attempts to bring the system within the desired parameters.

FeedbackInputSensor40 celciusADC00101000MicroprocessorOuput: Release cold air

Ouput: Release cold airThis will run constantly!InputSensorADCMicroprocessor

BrainstormingWhat are the types of sensors available?

BrainstormingWhat are the applications of these sensors?

Common SensorsTEMPERAT U R EMeasures temperatureof the surrounding by sending

signal.SENSORFUNCTIONAPPLICATION• control of a central heating system• control/monitor a chemical
process• control/monitor temperature in a greenhouseMOISTUR EMeasures water levels in, for
example, soil• control/monitor moisture levels in soil in a greenhouse • monitor the moisture levels in a
food processing factory

Common SensorsHUMIDIT YThis is slightly different to moisture; this measures the amount of water
vapour in, for example, a sample of air. SENSORFUNCTIONAPPLICATION• monitor humidity levels in a
factory manufacturing microchips • monitor/control humidity levels in the air in a greenhouse
LIGHTThese use photoelectric cells that produce an output (in the form of an electric current) depending
on the brightness of the light • switching street lights on or off depending on light levels • switch on car
headlights automatically when it gets dark

Common SensorsINFRA R EDThese use an invisible beam of infrared radiation picked up by a detector; if
the beam is broken, then there will be a change in the amount of infrared radiation reaching the
detector.SENSORFUNCTIONAPPLICATION• turn on car windscreen wipers automatically when it detects
rain on the windscreen • security alarm system (intruder breaks the infra- red beam) PRESS UR E A
pressure sensor is a transducer and generates different electric currents depending on the pressure
applied • weighing of lorries at a weighing station• measure the gas pressure in a nuclear reactor

Common SensorsSOUNDThese are basically microphones that convert detected sound into electric
signals/pulses SENSORFUNCTIONAPPLICATION• pick up the noise of footsteps in a security system•
detect the sound of liquids dripping at a faulty pipe joint GASMost common ones are oxygen or carbon
dioxide sensors; they use various methods to detect the gas being monitored and produce outputs that
vary with the oxygen or carbon dioxide levels present • monitor oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in a
greenhouse

Common SensorsP HThese measure acidity through changes in voltages in, for example, soil
SENSORFUNCTIONAPPLICATION• monitor/control acidity levels in the soil in a greenhouse • control
acidity levels in a chemical processMAGNETIC FIELDThese sensors measure changes in magnetic fields –
the signal output will depend on how the magnetic field changes • Detect magnetic field changes (for
example, in mobile phones and CD players)

Common SensorsACCELERO MET ERThese are sensors that measure acceleration and motion of an
application, i.e. the change in velocity.SENSORFUNCTIONAPPLICATION• Used in cars to measure rapid
deceleration and apply air bags in a crash • Used by mobile phones to change between portrait and
landscape mode PROXIMI T YThese sensors detect the presence of a nearby object .• Detect when a
face is close to a mobile phone screen and switches off screen when held to the ear

Common SensorsFLOWThese sensors measure the flow rate of a moving liquid or gas and produce an
output based on the amount of liquid or gas passing over the sensor. SENSORFUNCTIONAPPLICATION•
Used in respiratory devices and inhalers in hospitals • Measure gas flows in pipes (for example, natural
gas) LEVELThese sensors use ultrasonics (to detect changing liquid levels in, for example, a tank) or
capacitance/ conductivity • Monitor levels in a petrol tank in a car • Leak detection in refrigerant (air
conditioning)

Monitoring ApplicationSENSORS ARE USED IN BOTH MONITORING AND CONTROL

APPLICATIONS.Controlling Application1. Security System2. Monitoring of patients in a hospital 1. Control
of Street Lighting 2. Anti-lock braking system3. Control Heating Systems 4. Chemical Process Control 5.
Greenhouse Environmental Control

FLOWCHART OF HOW MONITORING AND CONTROL APPLICATION WORK

MONITORINGAPPLICATION- JUST SEND WARNING

• Sensors• The infrared sensor will pick up the movement of an intruder in the building • The acoustic
sensor will pick up sounds such as footsteps or breaking glass • The pressure sensor will pick up the
weight of an intruder coming through a door or through a window • The sensor data is passed through
an ADC if it is in an analogue form to produce digital data.• The computer/microprocessor will sample
the digital data coming from these sensors at a given frequency.• The data is compared with the stored
values by the computer/microprocessor • If any of the incoming data values are outside the acceptable
range, then the computer sends a signal • Siren to sound alarm• Light to start flashing6. A DAC is used if
devices need analogue values to operate them.Monitoring system (1) - Security System7. The alarm
continues to sound/lights continue to flash until the system is reset with a password.

• Sensors• Sensors are attached tto the patient to measure temperature, heart rate, breathing rate, etc.
• These sensors are all attached to a computer system. It constantly send data back to the computer
system. The sensor data is passed through an ADC if it is in an analogue form to produce digital data.•
The computer samples the data at frequent intervals. • The range of acceptable values for each
parameter is keyed into the computer. • The data is compared with the keyed in values by the
computer/microprocessor. • If any of the incoming data values are outside the acceptable range, then
the computer sends a signal • To sound an alram• If data from the sensors is within range, the values
are shown in either graphical form on a screen and/or a digital read out.• Monitoring continues until the
sensors are disconnected from the patient. Monitoring system (2) - Monitoring of patients in a hospital

MONITORINGAPPLICATION- JUST SEND WARNING

CONTROLLINGAPPLICATION- DO SOMETHING

Controlling system (1) - Control of Street Lighting • The light sensor sends data to the ADC interface. This
changes the data into digital form and sends it to the microprocessor.• The microprocessor samples the
data every minute/5 minutes.• If the data from the sensor < value stored in memory • a signal is sent
from the microprocessor to the street lamp.• and the lamp is switched on • The lamp stays switched on
for 30 minutes before the sensor readings are sampled again • If the data from the sensor >= value
stored in memory • a signal is sent from the microprocessor to the street lamp• the lamp is switched off
• The lamp stays switched off for 30 minutes before sensor readings are sampled again.

Controlling system (2) - Anti-lock braking (ABS) systems • Anti-lock braking systems (ABS) on cars use
magnetic field sensors to stop the wheels locking up on the car if the brakes have been applied too
sharp.• One of the car wheels rotates too slowly (i.e. it is locking up), a magnetic field sensor sends data
to a microprocessor. • The microprocessor checks the rotation speed of the other three wheels. If they
are different (i.e. rotating faster), the microprocessor sends a signal to the braking system. • The braking
pressure to the affected wheel is reduced. • The wheel’s rotational speed is then increased to match the
other wheels. • The checking of the rotational speed using these magnetic field sensors is done several
times a second. • The braking pressure to all the wheels can be constantly changing to prevent any of
the wheels locking up under heavy braking.
• The required temperature is keyed in and this is stored in the microprocessor memory (this is called
the pre-set value). • The temperature sensor is constantly sending data readings to the microprocessor.
• The sensor data is first sent to an ADC to convert the analogue data into digital data. • The digital data
is sent to the microprocessor. • The microprocessor compares this data with the pre-set value. • If the
temperature reading >= pre-set value then no action is taken. • If the temperature reading < pre-set
value, then a signal is sent • To an actuator (via a DAC) to open the gas valve to the heater • To an
actuator (via a DAC) to turn on the water pump • The process continues until the central heating is
switched off. Controlling system (3) - Central Heating Systems

Requirement: A certain chemical process only works if the temperature is above 70°C andthe pH
(acidity) level is less than 3.5. Sensors are used as part of the control system. A heater is used to heat the
reactor and valves are used to add acid when necessary to maintain the acidity.Controlling system (4) -
Chemical process control • Temperature and pH sensors read data from the chemical process.• This
data is converted to digital using an ADC and is then sent to the computer • The computer compares the
incoming data with pre-set values stored in memory • Temperature:• If the temperature < 70°C, a signal
is sent to switch on the heater.• If the temperature >= 70°C, a signal is sent to switch off the heaters •
PH• If the pH > 3.5, then a signal is sent to open a valve and acid is added • If the pH <= 3.5, then a signal
is sent to close this valve • The computer signals will be changed into analogue signals using a DAC so
that it can control the heaters and valves • This continues as long as the computer system is activated.
Steps:

Controlling system (5) - Greenhouse environment control

EXAM QUESTION

EXAM QUESTION

EXAM QUESTION

EXAM QUESTION

YEAR 10 CSData Storage....01010100101011010101010010101001010.

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit

(RAM)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUS
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit
(RAM)ALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUSSecondary Storage(HDD, SSD,
Removable Disk, CD)Load executable code when needed

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputCentral Processing Unit (CPU)Memory Unit (RAM) /

ROMALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUSSecondary Storage(HDD, SSD,
Removable Disk, CD)Load executable code when neededOUR FOCUS THIS WEEK!!!

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputMemory Unit (RAM) / ROMCONTROL BUSDATA

BUSADDRESS BUSSecondary Storage(HDD, SSD, Removable Disk, CD)Load executable code when
neededPrimary Memory: Internal devices used to store data that the computer can access
directlySecondary Storage: Allow users to store applications, data and files.

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputMemory Unit (RAM) / ROMCONTROL BUSDATA

BUSADDRESS BUSSecondary Storage(HDD, SSD, Removable Disk, CD)Load executable code when
neededPrimary Memory: Internal devices used to store data that the computer can access
directlySecondary Storage: Allow users to store applications, data and files.

Memory Unit (RAM) / ROMSecondary Storage(HDD, SSD, Removable Disk, CD)Primary

MemorySecondary StorageCompareand ContrastStore data that is key to running the computer
(program executable code, bootup code)Store applications, data and filesDirectly addressable by the
CPU(High retrieval speed)Not directly addressable by the CPU(Low retrieval speed)RAM is volatileROM
is non volatileAll secondary storage devices are non volatileBuilt internally into the computerCan be
external or internal to the computerExample: RAM, ROM and cache memoryExample: HDD, SSD, DVD,
memory stick,Blu-ray disc

Memory Unit (RAM) / ROMSecondary Storage(HDD, SSD, Removable Disk, CD)Primary

MemorySecondary StorageCompareand ContrastStore data that is key to running the computer
(program executable code, bootup code)Store applications, data and filesDirectly addressable by the
CPU(High retrieval speed)Not directly addressable by the CPU(Low retrieval speed)RAM is volatileROM
is non volatileAll secondary storage devices are non volatileBuilt internally into the computerCan be
external or internal to the computerExample: RAM, ROM and cache memoryExample: HDD, SSD, DVD,
memory stick,Blu-ray disc

Memory Unit (RAM) / ROMSecondary Storage(HDD, SSD, Removable Disk, CD)Primary

MemorySecondary StorageCompareand ContrastStore data that is key to running the computer
(program executable code, bootup code)Store applications, data and filesDirectly addressable by the
CPU(High retrieval speed)Not directly addressable by the CPU(Low retrieval speed)RAM is volatileROM
is non volatileAll secondary storage devices are non volatileBuilt internally into the computerCan be
external or internal to the computerExample: RAM, ROM and cache memoryExample: HDD, SSD, DVD,
memory stick,Blu-ray disc

Memory Unit (RAM) / ROMSecondary Storage(HDD, SSD, Removable Disk, CD)Primary

MemorySecondary StorageCompareand ContrastStore data that is key to running the computer
(program executable code, bootup code)Store applications, data and filesDirectly addressable by the
CPU(High retrieval speed)Not directly addressable by the CPU(Low retrieval speed)RAM is volatileROM
is non volatileAll secondary storage devices are non volatileBuilt internally into the computerCan be
external or internal to the computerExample: RAM, ROM and cache memoryExample: HDD, SSD, DVD,
memory stick,Blu-ray disc

Memory Unit (RAM) / ROMSecondary Storage(HDD, SSD, Removable Disk, CD)Primary

MemorySecondary StorageCompareand ContrastStore data that is key to running the computer
(program executable code, bootup code)Store applications, data and filesDirectly addressable by the
CPU(High retrieval speed)Not directly addressable by the CPU(Low retrieval speed)RAM is volatileROM
is non volatileAll secondary storage devices are non volatileBuilt internally into the computerCan be
external or internal to the computerExample: RAM, ROM and cache memoryExample: HDD, SSD, DVD,
memory stick,Blu-ray disc

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputMemory Unit (RAM) / ROMCONTROL BUSDATA

BUSADDRESS BUSSecondary Storage(HDD, SSD, Removable Disk, CD)Load executable code when
neededPrimary Memory: Internal devices used to store data that the computer can access
directlySecondary Storage: Allow users to store applications, data and files.

RAMRANDOM ACCESS MEMORYFULL TERM1.MEANING2.Memory8910111213002300any memory

location in RAM can be accessed independent of which memory location was last usedWhen you run an
application or program, data is retrieved from secondary storage and placed temporarily into RAM
APPLICATION3.

Features of RAMMemory8910111213002300• Can be written to or read from, and the data can be
changed by the user or the computer• Used to store data, files, part of an application or part of the
operating system currently in use• It is volatile, which means memory contents are lost when powering
off the computer• Larger the size of RAM, faster the computer will operate.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)There are 2 types of RAM technologiesStatic RAM (SRAM)Needs to be refreshed
(The capacitor needs to be re-charged every 15 microseconds) otherwise it would lose its value.Make
use of flip flops which hold each bit of memory Advantages: • Much less expensive than SRAM•
Consume less power than SRAM• Higher memory capacity than SRAMConsists of many chips. Each ship
contain millions of transistor (switch) and capacitor (holds the bits of information). Doesn’t need to be
constantly refreshedAdvantages:• Faster data accessCommon types of RAMUsed in memory cache

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)There are 2 types of RAM technologiesStatic RAM (SRAM)Needs to be refreshed
(The capacitor needs to be re-charged every 15 microseconds) otherwise it would lose its value.Make
use of flip flops which hold each bit of memory Advantages: • Much less expensive than SRAM•
Consume less power than SRAM• Higher memory capacity than SRAMConsists of many chips. Each ship
contain millions of transistor (switch) and capacitor (holds the bits of information). Doesn’t need to be
constantly refreshedAdvantages:• Faster data accessCommon types of RAMUsed in memory cache

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)There are 2 types of RAM technologiesStatic RAM (SRAM)Needs to be refreshed
(The capacitor needs to be re-charged every 15 microseconds) otherwise it would lose its value.Make
use of flip flops which hold each bit of memory Advantages: • Much less expensive than SRAM•
Consume less power than SRAM• Higher memory capacity than SRAMConsists of many chips. Each ship
contain millions of transistor (switch) and capacitor (holds the bits of information). Doesn’t need to be
constantly refreshedAdvantages:• Faster data accessCommon types of RAMUsed in memory cache

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputCentral Processing Unit

(CPU)SRAMALUCUMARPCMDRCIRACCCONTROL BUSDATA BUSADDRESS BUSSecondary Storage(HDD,
SSD, Removable Disk, CD)Load executable code when neededDRAM

ROMRead-only MEMORYFULL TERM1.MEANING2.it cannot be changed or written to. they are non-
volatile (the contents are not lost after powering off the computer) FEATURES3.they are permanent
memoriesthe contents can only be read they are often used to store data that the computer needs to
access whenpowering up for the first time. these are known as the start-up instructions

RAMCompare and ContrastROMTemperory memory deviceUsed to store BIOS and other data needed at
start up Permanent memory deviceVolatile memoryNon-volatile memory Can be written to and read
from Data stored cannot be alteredUsed to store data, files, programs, part of OS currently in use

RAMCompare and ContrastROMTemperory memory deviceUsed to store BIOS and other data needed at
start up Permanent memory deviceVolatile memoryNon-volatile memory Can be written to and read
from Data stored cannot be alteredUsed to store data, files, programs, part of OS currently in use
RAMCompare and ContrastROMTemperory memory deviceUsed to store BIOS and other data needed at
start up Permanent memory deviceVolatile memoryNon-volatile memory Can be written to and read
from Data stored cannot be alteredUsed to store data, files, programs, part of OS currently in use

RAMCompare and ContrastROMTemperory memory deviceUsed to store BIOS and other data needed at
start up Permanent memory deviceVolatile memoryNon-volatile memory Can be written to and read
from Data stored cannot be alteredUsed to store data, files, programs, part of OS currently in use

VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTUREInputOutputMemory Unit (RAM) / ROMCONTROL BUSDATA

BUSADDRESS BUSSecondary Storage(HDD, SSD, Optical Disk)Load executable code when neededPrimary
Memory: Internal devices used to store data that the computer can access directlySecondary Storage:
Allow users to store applications, data and files.Non volatile.Slower access time by the CPU

HDDHard Disk DrivesFULL TERM1.COMPONENTSPLATTERELECTROMAGNET HEADSTRACK AND

SECTORUsed to store data. Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surfaces of the disks. The
platters can spin about 7000 times a second. Consist of electromagnets that are used to read data from
or write data to the platters. A number of read-write heads can access all of the surfaces which can be
used to store data. moves 50 times a secondA sector on a given track will contain a fixed number of
bytes.

WHY IS HDD SLOW?Unfortunately, hard disk drives have very slow data access when compared to, for
example, RAM. Many applications require the read-write heads to constantly look for the correct blocks
of data; this means a large number of head movements. The effects of latency then become very
significant. Latency is defined as the time it takes for a specific block of data on a data track to rotate
around to the read-write head.

FRAGMENTATION OF HDDWhen a file or data is stored on a HDD, the required number of sectors
needed to store the data will be allocated. However, the sectors allocated may not be adjacent to
eachother. Through time, the HDD will undergo numerous deletions and editing which leads to sectors
becoming increasingly fragmented resulting in a gradual deterioration of the HDD performance (in other
words, it takes longer and longer to access data). Defragmentation software can improve on this
situation by ‘tidying up’ the disk sectors.

REMOVABLE HDDRemovable hard disk drives are essentially HDDs external to the computer that can be
connected to the computer using one of the USB ports. In this way, they can be used as a back-up device
or another way of transferring files between computers.
SSDsolid state driveFULL TERM1.flash storage2.ALSO KNOWN AS3.DESCRIPTIONThey have no moving
parts and all data is retrieved at the same rate

HOW DOES SSD STORE DATA• The data is stored as 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors• Store data
by controlling the movement of electrons within through logic (NAND and NOR) gates• The electric
current reaches the control gates and flows through to the floating gates to be stored• A dielectric
coating separates the two transistors, which allows the floating gate transistor to retain its charge
(which is why the memory is non-volatile)

ADVANTAGES OF SSD OVER HDDAs they have no moving parts, SSD is : • Lighter (LET)• More Reliable
(ME)• Thinner (TAKE) • Faster in data access (FRIED)• Cooler (CHICKEN)DISADVANTAGES OF SSD OVER
HDD• Poor longevity - is still not used in all servers*memory sticks/flash memories use solid state
technology

red laserCDDVDBlu-rayOptical Mediared laserblue laser

CD and dvdpitlandbinary = 1binary = 0laser• As with a HDD, a CD/DVD is divided into sectors allowing
direct access to data.• The data is stored in ‘pits’ and ‘lands’ on the spiral track. • A red laser is used to
read and write the data • When a disk spins, the optical head moves to the point where the laser beam
‘contacts’ the disk surface and follows the spiral track from the centre outwards.

Difference between cd and dvd• DVD has more storage capacity than CD. • DVD can be dual layered:•
Reading and writing of the second layer is done by a red laser focusing at a fraction of a millimetre
difference compared to the first layer. • Single layer DVDs still have a larger storage capacity than CDs.
This is due to the smaller ‘pit’ size and track width.

Blu-Ray disk• A blue laser, rather than a red laser, is used to carry out read and write operations; the
wavelength of blue light is only 405nanometres (red laser is of 650 - 780 nm).• The shorter the
wavelength of the laser light, the greater the storage capacity of the medium.• Blu-ray disks
automatically come with a secure encryption system that helps to prevent piracy and copyright
infringement.• The data transfer rate for a DVD is 10Mbps and for a Blu-ray disc it is 36Mbps (this
equates to 1.5hours to transfer 25GiB of data). • Single layer and Double layer

CDDVDBlu-rayDISK SIZE CAPACITY700MB4.7 GB27 GB (Single Layer) 50 GB (Dual Layer)

VirtualMemoryPart of the memory in HDD or SSD when we need more memory - RAM When do we
need virtual memoryWhen processes run out of memory. If the amount of available RAM is exceeded
due to multiple programs running, it is likely to cause a system crash. This can be solved by utilising the
hard disk drive (or SSD) if we need more memory.

an example showing the importance of virtual memoryImagine we want to run 5 instructions, but we
only have 4 available slot in the ram ... (sad)

an example showing the importance of virtual memoryTo solve this problem, we store the extra
instruction into the hdd/ssd temperorily (waiting state)

an example showing the importance of virtual memoryTo solve this problem, we store the extra
instruction into the hdd/ssd temperorily (waiting state)

an example showing the importance of virtual memoryVirtual memory now moves the oldest data out
of RAM into the HDD/SSD to allow program 4 to gain access to RAM. The 32-bit ‘map’ is now updated to
reflect this new situation

an example showing the importance of virtual memory• All of this will continue to occur until RAM is no
longer being over-utilised by the competing programs running in memory. • Virtual memory gives the
illusion of unlimited memory being available. Even though RAM is full, data can be moved in and out of
the HDD/SSD to give the illusion that there is still memory available.• In computer operating systems,
paging is used by memory management to store and retrieve data from HDD/SSD and copy it into RAM.
• However, accessing data in virtual memory is slower so, as mentioned earlier on in this chapter, the
larger the RAM the faster the CPU can operate. This is one of the benefits of increasing RAM size as far
as possible.

disk threshingWhen using HDD for virtual memory the main drawback is Disk Threshing. As main
memory fills, more and more data needs to be swapped in and out of virtual memory leading to a very
high rate of hard disk read/write head movements; this is known as disk thrashing. If more and more
time is spent on moving data in and out of memory than actually doing any processing, then the
processing speedof the computer will be considerably reduced. A point can be reached when the
execution of a process comes to a halt since the system is so busy moving data in and out of memory
rather than doing any actual execution – this is known as the thrash point. Due to large numbers of head
movements, this can also leadto premature failure of a hard disk drive. Thrashing can be reduced by
installing more RAM, reducing the number of programs running at a time or reducing the size of the
swap file. Another way of reducing this problem is to make use of a solid state drive (SSD) rather than
using HDD.

Cloud StorageA method of data storage where data is stored on remote servers. Instead of saving data
on a local hard disk or other storage device, a user can save their data ‘in the cloud’.

AdvantagesClient files stored on the cloud can be accessed at any time from any device anywhere in the
world provided internet access is available DisadvantagesIf the customer/client has a slow or unstable
internet connection, they would have many problems accessing or downloading their data/filesThere is
no need for a customer/client to carry an external storage device with them, or even use the same
computer to store and retrieve informationCosts can be high if large storage capacity is requiredThe
cloud provides the user with remote back-up of data with obvious benefits to alleviate data loss/disaster
recoveryThe potential failure of the cloud storage company is always possible – this poses a risk of loss
of all back-up data

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NETWORK HARDWAREIGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC)Needed to allow a device to connect to a network (such as the
internet) WIRELESS NETWORK INTERFACE CARD (NIC)They use wireless connectivity utilising an antenna
to communicate with networks via microwaves

INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP) ADDRESS

WHEN A ROUTER CONNECTS TO THE INTERNET IT IS GIVEN A UNIQUE PUBLIC IP

ADDRESS254.25.28.77254.26.38.77254.16.48.102

WHEN A DEVICE CONNECTS TO A PRIVATE NETWORK, A ROUTER ASSIGNS A PRIVATE IP ADDRESS TO IT.
THAT IP ADDRESS IS UNIQUE ON THAT NETWORK, BUT MIGHT BE THE SAME AS AN IP ADDRESS ON A
SEPARATE NETWORK. 254.25.28.1254.25.28.12254.25.28.6254.25.28.13SUPPLIED BY ISP

ALL THE DEVICES CONNECTED TO THAT ROUTER HAVE THE SAME PUBLIC IP ADDRESS AS THE ROUTER
BUT EACH HAVE THEIR OWN DIFFERENT PRIVATE IP ADDRESSES ON THAT NETWORK. ON MY IPHONEON
MY MACCONNECTED TO THE SAME WIFI

DD.DD.DD.DDIP ADDRESS FORMAT - IPV4 • EACH DIGIT RANGE FROM 0-255• EACH DIGIT = 8 BITS •
EACH DIGIT IS SEPARATED BY DOT• 4.3 BILLIONS COMBINATIONEG252.25.28.77CAN BE REPRESENTED
IN HEXA TOO..

HHHH:HHHH:HHHH:HHHH:HHHH:HHHH:HHHH:HHHHIP ADDRESS FORMAT - IPV6 • EACH DIGIT RANGE

FROM 0-65536 / 0000 - FFFF (HEXA)• EACH DIGIT = 16 BITS • EACH DIGIT IS SEPARATED BY COLON•
COMBINATIONS? 65535 POWER OF 8 (DON'T COUNT)EGA8FB:7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA
WHY IS IPV6 NEEDED?

EGSOME POSSIBLE ANSWERS• REMOVES THE RISK OF IP ADDRESS COLLISIONS• HAS BUILT-IN
AUTHENTICATION CHECKS (STORES ADDITIONAL VALUE IN THE HEADER USING THE PAYLOAD)• IPV6
HAS BEEN DESIGNED TO ALLOW THE INTERNET TO GROW IN TERMS OF THE NUMBER OF HOSTS AND
POTENTIAL INCREASE IN THE AMOUNT OF DATA TRAFFIC

Static vs Dynamic IP AddressStatic IP AddressSTATIC IP ADDRESSES ARE PERMANENTLY ASSIGNED TO A

DEVICE BY THE INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP); THEY DON’T CHANGE EACH TIME A DEVICE LOGS
ONTO THE INTERNET. USED BY 1.REMOTE SERVERS WHICH ARE HOSTING A WEBSITE2. AN ONLINE
DATABASEADVANTAGE:ALLOW FOR FASTER UPLOAD AND DOWNLOAD SPEEDS

Static vs Dynamic IP AddressStatic IP AddressDynamic IP AddressSTATIC IP ADDRESSES ARE

PERMANENTLY ASSIGNED TO A DEVICE BY THE INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP); THEY DON’T CHANGE
EACH TIME A DEVICE LOGS ONTO THE INTERNET. USED BY 1.REMOTE SERVERS WHICH ARE HOSTING A
WEBSITE2. AN ONLINE DATABASEADVANTAGE:ALLOW FOR FASTER UPLOAD AND DOWNLOAD SPEEDS
DYNAMIC IP ADDRESSES ARE ASSIGNED BY THE ISP EACH TIME A DEVICE LOGS ONTO THE
INTERNET.DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL (DHCP) I USED BY THE ISP TO AUTOMATICALLY
ASSIGN AN IP ADDRESS TO A DEVICEADVANTAGE:GREATER PRIVACY SINCE THEY CHANGE EACH TIME A
USER LOGS ON

THEN, HOW TO UNIQUELY IDENTIFY A DEVICE ON A LAN?

Media Access Control (MAC) AddressUniquely identify a computer on a Local Area Network
(LAN)FunctionNN - NN - NN - DD - DD - DD FormatManufacturer CodeSerial NumberEach digit is
represented in HexadecimalIf the NIC card is replaced, the MAC address will also changeEg. 00 - 1C - B3 -
4F - 25 - FF

• Most common type of MAC address • Set by manufacturer at the factory• Rare for a user to change
this address Universally Administered MAC Address (UAA)Types of MAC address Locally Administered
MAC Address (LAA)• Useful when a user or organisation wishes to change their MAC adderss• Cause big
problem if changed address isn't unique • Useful when certain software used on mainframe systems
need all the MAC addresses of devices to fall into a strict format.
ROUTER254.25.28.77254.26.38.77254.16.48.102FUNCTION 1: ENABLE DATA PACKETS TO BE ROUTED
BETWEEN DIFFERENT NETWORKS

ROUTER254.25.28.77254.26.38.77FUNCTION 2: TAKES DATA TRANSMITTED IN ONE FORMAT FROM A

NETWORK (WHICH IS USING A PARTICULAR PROTOCOL) AND CONVERTS THE DATA TO A PROTOCOL
AND FORMAT UNDERSTOOD BY ANOTHER NETWORK, THEREBY ALLOWING THEM TO COMMUNICATE.

ROUTER254.25.28.77SINCE EVERY COMPUTER ON THE SAME NETWORK HAS THE SAME PART OF AN
INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP) ADDRESS, THE ROUTER IS ABLE TO SEND THE DATA PACKET TO THE
APPROPRIATE SWITCH, AND THE DATA WILL THEN BE DELIVERED TO THE CORRECT DEVICE USING THE
MAC DESTINATION ADDRESS DESTINATION: 254.25.28.7700 - 1C - B3 - 4F - 25 - FF00 - 1C - B3 - 4F - 26 -
FF

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