METROPOLITAN INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY

INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY
COMPUTER LITERACY

Nuwamara
6/13/2022

INTRODUCTION

Today, almost all of us in the world make use of computers in one way or the other. It finds
applications in various fields of engineering, medicine, commercial, research and others. Not only
in these sophisticated areas, but also in our daily lives, computers have become indispensable.
They are present everywhere, in all the dev ices that we use daily like cars, games, washing
machines, microwaves etc. and in day to day computations like banking, reservations, electronic
mails, internet and many more.

The word computer is derived from the word compute. Compute means to calculate. The
computer was originally defined as a super-fast calculator. It had the capacity to solve complex
arithmetic and scientific problems at very high speed. But nowadays in addition to handling
complex arithmetic computations, computers perform many other tasks like accepting, sorting,
selecting, moving, comparing various types of information. They also perform arithmetic and
logical operations on alphabetic, numeric and other types of information. This information
provided by the user to the computer is data. The information in one form which is presented to
the computer is the input information or input data

Information in another form is presented by the computer after performing a process on it. This
information is the output information or output data. The set of instructions given to the computer
to perform various operations is called as the computer program. The process of converting the
input data into the required output form with the help of the computer program is called as data
processing. The computers are therefore also referred to as data processors Therefore a
computer can now be defined as a fast and accurate data processing system that accepts data,
performs various operations on the data, has the capability to store the data and produce the results
on the basis of detailed step by step instructions given to it.

Evolution of Computers

At the end of this Section you should know that Computers: -

 Have developed relatively recently
 Become faster, more reliable and cheaper every year
 Are being used widely in business and Education

 From Earliest times people used tools and techniques to help them count more reliably,
measure more accurately, record more indelibly, transmit more clearly, and they used
 Abacuses
 Measuring tapes
 Slide rules
 Weighing scales
 Clocks
  A Computer is simply the latest in this line of calculating and recording machines  The
First Electronic Computers were produced in the 1940‟s.
 These computers used vacuum tubes, which were so big; they were eventually replaced
with transistors and then later replaced by integrated circuits on silicon board.

 In the 1960‟s a commercial computer occupied a large room, it needed a team

of specialists to operate it; it consumed vast amounts of electricity and it
frequently broke down
 Today‟s computers are typically much smaller and faster; what previously
took up a small room fits into a small box.

 They can store more information, they consume less power and they have become much
faster
 Since the Second World War, a series of radical breakthroughs in electronics have
occurred.
 With each major breakthrough, the computers based upon the old forms of electronics have
been replaced

There has been advance in

• Speed - Measurement Hz
• Memory - Byte
• Size
• Storage capacity (hard disks)
Therefore this involved a series of stages in the development and each stage was having different
characteristics which therefore were termed as computer generations.

Computer Generation
A computer generation refers to the period when computers changed from simple technology to
advanced technology.
There are a number of generations where computers have changed these include
Each generation is defined by a significant technological development that changes fundamentally
how computers operate – leading to more compact, less expensive, but more powerful, efficient
and robust machines.

FIRST GENERATION COMPUTERS (1945 and 1959)

Vacuum tube based.
Characteristics
 They were large in size and could fill a very big room.
 They used large quantities of Electricity and could give off a lot of heat.
 They used vacuum tubes as their primary electronic component
 They used punched cards to input and out put data
 They were very expensive
 They Solved one problem at a time
 They could store little information because they had limited memory.
 They used machine language.
Examples of First Generation computers include:
• ENIAC – Electronic numerical integrator and computer(1946)
• EDSAC - Electronic delay storage automatic calculator (1949)
• EDVAC – Electronic discrete variable automatic computer(1950)
• UNIVAC I - Universal Automatic Computer (1951)

Second Generation Computers (1959 and 1964) Transistors and Batch Filing
Characteristics
 They were smaller than first Generation computers.
 They used less quantities of Electricity than in the first Generation computers.
 They used transistors as their primary electronic component.
 They used magnetic tapes to input and output data
 They were slightly cheaper and faster than the first generation computers
 They were programmed in High level Languages such as FORTRAN (FORmaula
TRAnslation) COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language)
 They generated heat though a little less than those of first generation.
Examples of Second Generation computers include: o Supper computers such as IBM 730 and
LARC (Liver More Atomic Research Computer) IBM-7000, CDC 3000 series, MARK III,
Honeywell 400

Third Generation Computers (1964 and 1972) Integrated Circuits and Multi-
Programming

Characteristics

 They were smaller than their predecessors in terms of size.  There was introduction of
Operating System such as MULTICS  Output was visualized on the monitors.
 They used motherboards, data was input using a keyboard.
 There was introduction of Integrated Circuit (ICs), a device that brings together many
electronic components onto a single package. Electronic components are normally
transistors.
 They stored information on Magnetic devices called Metal Oxide Semi-conductors (MOS)
 They were programmed in simple languages such as BASIC (Beginners all Purpose
Symbolic Instruction Code)
Examples of 3rd generation include: Micro- computers which used Micro-processors. IBM-360,
Personal Data Processor (PDP), IBM-370

Fourth Generation Computers (1972 up to present) The Microprocessor, OS and

GUI

 They were very fast.

 They use CPUs which contain thousands of transistors.
 They store information on Complimentary Metal Oxide Semi-conductor (CMOS) and
other storage devices
 Introduction of Portable Computers such as Laptops  These computers are able to connect
to the Internet.
 They have GUI(graphical user interface)
Fifth Generation of Computers
the Present and the Future

 The fifth generation computers will use super large scale integrated chips.

 They will have artificial intelligence.

 They will be able to recognize image and graphics fifth generation computer aims to be

able to solve highly complex problem including decision making, logical reasoning.  They

will be able to use more than one CPU for faster processing speed

 They are intended to work with natural languages.

 Recognize human speech

 Smart cars e.g. Tesla's autopilot cars and Google's self-driving cars.
 Computer Aided Diagnosis for detection of cancer.

Definition of a Computer

 A Computer is general purpose, programmable electric device capable of calculating and

storing data

o OR
 A Computer is a general purpose electric machine which can receive, store, manipulate and
output information.
  A computer is an electronic device capable of accepting in put of data, processing it,
outputting information and storing it for later use.

Taking into consideration the definition above, all computers regardless of their differences in size,
capacity, speed, cost and number of users, have to perform four basic functions. These are:

 acceptance of data/ inputting

 processing of data

 giving out processed information/ outputting and

 Storing information.

Why Do We Study Computer

 To get general knowledge and skills in the use of computer and related technologies
 To use the knowledge acquired (got) from the computer studies to improve learning in
other or related subjects.
 To be able to work with and in our present day science based society
  To show the best computer skills required for employment
 For communication purposes
 For entertainment and leisure

Areas where computers are used/ uses of computers

 Health sector (hospitals); For keeping patients‟ records and other related information,
medical research, medical examination e.g. x ray, telemedicine i.e. consultation between
medical workers over computer networks.
 Modern business; for recording sales and any other business related information that to be
kept for record keeping purposes, e-business, MIS which helps business managers in
activities of controlling business e.g. EIS, provide on-line shopping, advertising,
auctioning, travel, sales etc.
 Electronic banking; To record the information about clients in their big databases. ATM
are widely used by people to ease access to money any time anywhere. On-line banking,
Electronic funds transfer(EFT).
 Communication and transport; We use internet to communicate with our family and
friends. They enable video conferencing, e-mail sending and receiving, skyping.
Automated cars, use of Google maps.
 Research; Students and lecturers can now solve their academic problems with the help of
internet and computers. Used at weather stations, space research, remote sensing, artificial
intelligence, robotics, speech recognition, biotechnology.
 Entertainment and recreation; playing computer games, music watching music and
movies. More leisure as people get shorter working hours, they need something that will
kill boredom.

 Security and military purposes; Computers are used to track down criminals by use of
surveillance cameras (CCTV), computerized alarm systems, biometric identity like finger
print, security lights that only go on after detecting movement of persons. Security of data
and information, advent of smart weapons like cruise missiles, unmanned aerial
vehicles(UAVs/ drones), smart bombs.
  Education sector (Academics); E-learning, computer aided learning(CAL), computer
based training(CBT), people can use computers for study purposes like studying online,
and presenting their research findings to their lecturers who are upcountry.
 Governance; used to record national statistics e.g demographic data, management of
democratic electoral exercises by use of biometric voter identification, social service
records and statistics regarding education, health, social security, security systems.
 Manufacturing; control systems in a factory, use of robots in factory operations like
welding, assemblage, lifting which could be challenging to humans, Computer Aided
Design(CAD)

X-tics of computers
 Speed
 Accuracy
 Storage
 Diligence (does not complain)
 Artificial Intelligence (Programmable)
 Automation

COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer system is the combination of hardware, software, user and data with referring to
communication and procedure involved in between them.
These include;
1. Hardware; is the electronic and other devices which form a computer system. These
are physical parts, which you can see and touch such as mouse, keyboard, monitor,
printer, flash disk, e.t.c
2. Software; refers to the instructions or programs that tell the hardware what to do. It
is an interface between a hardware and its user. Its also referred to as the translator
which performs the communication between the user and hardware e.g system and
application software.
 3. Human resource(user); this refers to the skilled personnel available to perform the
operation on the computer, such as you the user, secretaries, network administrators,
programmers, e.t.c
4. Procedures; these refer to documentation materials which contain the guide for using
the hardware and software.
5. Communication; refers to the digital transfer of data from one place to another
computer communication allows sharing of hardware, software, data and human ware
among computer networks like the internet.

Looking After the Computer

 Computer Room should be let to breathe, this keeps the Electronic Components Cool
 Keep the Computer Dry
 Avoid Putting Books, Clothes to Block the Vents of the Computer
 Don‟t spill Eats or Drinks on your computer
 Do Keep your Computer free of Dust
 Don‟t Expose it to Extreme Temperatures

Data/Information Processing Cycle

 Data , which is a collection of raw facts, figures and symbols, such as numbers, words,
images, video and sound, given to the computer during the input phase.

Information

 This is a collection of organized data that has been processed and is meaningful 

Data is transformed into information by processing

DATA INFORMATION

Alphabetical letters ( a, b, c… z ) Form words e.g college, symbols,

Numbers & symbols Form mathematical

Musical notes Form a piece of music, songs

Examination scores Form comments, grades

INFORMATION PROCESSING CYCLE

So for a computer to work there must be there basic things i.e. Human ware, hardware and
software.

The data processing cycle starts with the human ware that generates the input facts. 
Inputting

The computer user enters raw facts into the computer using any of the input devices e.g. by the
use of a keyboard, mouse, touch pad, microphone etc.

Data to be input has to be collected from their sources and recording it onto some media e.g.
using paper, questioners, voice or video recording. 
Processing

The central processing unit (CPU) is responsible for processing the data. These facts will then go
to the logical control unit processing and it will forward it to the Arithmetic Unit to calculate the
number of bits and bytes in order to determine the size of the data being worked on. 
Outputting
Information is then presented on the Visual Display Unit (monitor).
It can also be printed or output through other output devices such as speakers. 
Storing
The formation in is then sent to the RAM for temporary storage (Primary Storage) or saved on
other storage devices such as hard drives or CD ROMs

Classification of computers
Computers represent and process data the same way but there are different classifications of
computers. These include; 1. Classification by process
2. Classification by size
3. Classification by purpose/use
4. Classification by processor power

CLASSIFICATION BY PROCESS
This is a classification according to how data is processed and presented. This classification is
further sub divided into 3 classes and these are;

 Digital Computers

 Analog Computers

 Hybrid Computers

a) Digital Computers

These are computers that process data in a form of discrete values e.g.1, 2, 3 etc. They perform
arithmetic and logical operations and examples include digital watches, petrol stations, digital
cameras etc.
b) Analog Computers

These are computers that process data in a continuous form or measurable quantities/units which
can only be measured by comparing them with other specific units. Examples include these
temperature measures, pressure pumps, speed like thermometer, voltmeter etc

c) Hybrid Computers

These are computers that have the combined features of both the digital and analog computers.

CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE/USE
This is a classification according to the work the computer is intend to perform/ designed for and
these include;

• Special purpose computers

• General purpose computers

a) Special Purpose Computers

These are computers that are designed to handle only a particular task. Examples include digital
watches, calculators, lifts in tall buildings, petrol pumps, missiles etc.

b) General Purpose Computers

These are computers that are designed to perform a wide range of tasks. A typical computer of this
nature can perform calculations, keep data, tell time, word process a document, etc.

CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE
This is a classification according to the size of the machine and it depends on the user capacity that
it accommodates. It is also further divided into three sub classes and these include;

• Micro computers

• Mini computers

• Main frame computers

a) Micro computers

These are types of computers that can perform/designed to handle less tasks with minimal
processing, input and output capabilities.

In terms of user capacity, they are single user where one person can use the keyboard, the monitor
and CPU at a time. They are used in small scale organizations like office and examples range from
palmtops to desktops e.g. IBM, DELL, APPLE, TOSHIBA computers. b) Mini computers

• These can support user capacity of 50 to 500 users at a time. They are mainly used in big
organizations, hospitals, insurance companies and banks.

• Examples include DECs, VAX range, IBM etc

c) Main frame computers

• These are large general purpose computers with extensive processing, storage, input and
output capabilities.

• They would accommodate 500 to 1000 users at ago, where by each user works separately
with a separate keyboard and monitor. They were mainly used by large multinational
companies, software houses, airline industry or central governments.

CLASSIFICATION BY PROCESSOR POWER

Processor power is the ability to process data at very high speed. The higher the processing powers
the higher the speed of the computer, therefore , the classification by processor power is more of
a hierarchy arrangement beginning with the earlier least powerful processors to the latest extremely
fast CPU‟s.

• Companies that produce processors include; Intel Corporation(Intel Processors), Advanced

Micro Devices(AMD processors), IBM, and several other companies.

• It is now more accurate to identify the processor power in terms of clock cycle i.e. MHz or
GHz
LAPTOP

It is a computer that is portable and suitable for use while travelling. It can also be referred to as a
notebook.
Personal Computer

Robots
A robot: Is a computer-controlled device that can move and react to feedback from the outside
world
 programmable computer machine some time designed in human shape like to perform
work ordinarily done by a human beings
 usually have computer controlled arms (remote controls) and artificial vision inside that
enables it to manipulate and recognize different objects Robots are best used for jobs that
require;
 Doing repetitive actions and jobs
 Lifting heavy equipment in factories and industries.
 Used to find objects under water and to explore other planets.
 They are now used in medicine, for military tactics.
 Robotic technology has helped people who have lost arms and legs.

The terms hardware and software are almost always used in connection with the
computer.

Computer Hardware
The hardware is the machinery itself. It is made up of the physical parts or devices of the computer
system like the electronic Integrated Circuits (ICs), magnetic storage media and other mechanical
devices like input devices, output devices etc. All these various hardware are linked together to
form an effective functional unit. The various types of hardware used in the computers, has evolved
from vacuum tubes of the first generation to Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuits of the present
generation.

INPUT DEVICES

Input device is any hardware component used to enter data or instructions into a computer system
Input devices include

 Keyboard

 Mouse

 Light pen
 Touch screen

 Modem

 Microphone

 Bar code reader

 Digital camera

 Digitising devices

 Scanners

OUTPUT DEVICES

Output device is any hardware component that can convey information to user. Data that has been
processed into a useful form, is called information. Output devices make the information resulting
from the processing available for use. The two output devices more commonly used are the printer
and the computer Monitor/ screen.

Examples

 Monitors

 Projectors

 Printers
 Speakers

 Plotters

 Visual display unit

DATA STORAGE DEVICES

Storage medium is a physical material used for storage of data, instructions, and information for
now and future use. They are sub divided into two types i.e. primary and secondary
Memory devices

Originally Memory was formed from Vacuum tubes. Today Memory is found on SemiConductor
Silicon Chips. During processing, data is loaded and accessed from internal Memory.
Memory is measured in Form of Bytes
Micro Computer have two basic types of Computer Memory
ROM (Read Only Memory) RAM (Random Access Memory)
1 bit = (0 or 1)
1 byte = 8 bits
1 Kb = 1000 Bytes
1 MB = 1,000,000 Bytes
1 GB = 1,000,000,000 Bytes

Processing devices
The CPU is the brains of a Computer. It is in the CPU that most calculations take place, and the
CPU speed largely determines the Speed of the Computer. Processor Speed is the Time the
Computer takes to process instructions
 Computer Software
The computer hardware itself is not capable of doing anything on its own. It has to be given explicit
instructions to perform the specific task. The computer program is the one which controls the
processing activities of the computer. The computer thus functions according to the instructions
written in the program. Software mainly consists of these computer programs, procedures and
other documentation used in the operation of a computer system. Software is a collection of
programs which utilize and enhance the capability of the hardware

 Is the Intangible Component, the programs that tell /give instructions Computer how to
behave.
 Software refers to a set of instructions provided to the computer to carry out the job required
by user.
 Software means a set of logical instructions installed in the hardware to tell it what to do.
 Program: A set of instructions that command a computer to do a specific task.

NB.Without software the computer hardware is like a dead machine

Therefore, the set of instructions or collection of programs that cause the Computer system to
behave in a certain way.

Software is divided into two SYSTEM SOFTWARE &APPLICATION

 System software
These are programs which contribute to the control and performance of the computer system
(computer‟s self-operations)

Examples of Systems software include: Firmware, Operating systems, Programming languages,

Compilers, assemblers, Interpreter or language translators, system Utilities.

Application software
Application - Software consists of programs that tell a computer how to produce information.[ for
the end-user to perform tasks on the computer].

Examples of Application software include

1. General Purpose also called off-the shelf packages:

These include: Word processors, spreadsheets, Databases, Desktop Publishers (DTP)

2. Special purpose: also called Tailor-made or customized packages has examples such as:
Library Mgt system, Accounts Mgt System (for banks), Automated Teller systems,
Housing/Estate management programs. I.e. they are made basing on the need and specifications
of the customer/user

OFF SHELF SOFTWARE

A type of software developed and sold on open market to customers. For example; database
programs, word processors, spreadsheet programs, presentation programs, graphics packages,
etc.

Advantages off shelf software

 It is likely to be available immediately

 A ready-made package will almost certainly be cheaper because it is mass-produced.
 The software manufacturers will continually update a successful package.
 Some standard packages can be customized to the user‟s specific needs.
 Enable quick decision-making.
 Other users will have used the package already, and a well-established package should be
relatively free of bugs.
 They are usually provided together with a documentation explaining how to use them 
It is made error free
Disadvantages of Off Shelf package

 The organization is purchasing a standard solution. A standard solution may not be well
suited to the organization‟s particular needs.
 There is a high risk during implementation if the software fails to work.
 Competitors may well use the same the same package, removing any chance of using IS/IT
for competitive advantage

CUSTOMIZED PACKAGE
Is a type of software specifically and specially designed to customers on order. Examples are
School Management Systems, Business transaction processing system etc.
Advantages of customized package
 It is made to meet the needs of the particular user.
 Change is possible with customized software.
 It allows the user to perform special tasks related to their needs.
Disadvantages of customized software
 It may prove costly than expected, because new versions of the standard package will also
have to be customized.
 Customization may delay delivery of the software.
 Customization may introduce bugs that do not exist in the standard version  If done in
house, the in house team may have to learn new skills.
 If done by the original manufacturer disadvantages such as those for the off- the-shelf
packages may rise.
 OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)
This is a software that manages and controls computer hardware and software.
 Operating systems are programs developed to manage the basic hardware systems or
resources and provide a more hospitable interface to users and their programs
 It can also be defined as a program (software) that manages all the computer systems that
is to say Hardware, Software, and Human ware.
NOTE; An Interface is a Place (platform) where the hardware, Human ware, and other programs
(software) interact with one another. Examples
• Microsoft windows XP, Vista, 7, 8, Linux, UNIX, Macintosh (Mac)
• Windows XP Professional, Windows 95
• Windows 98, Windows NT workstation
• Windows 2000 professional etc.
• DOS
• Palm OS for PDAs
• Solaries for e- commerce application
• Pocket PC 2002

Functions of an Operating System

 Memory Management
The operating system knows which part of the memory is in use and that one which is free. Storage
space is therefore provided for data and information in the memory by the Operating system.
 Processor Management
A multi-user or multi-tasking computer system can be accessed by many users or many programs
at the same time but the CPU (processor) can only run one program at a time or one user at a time.
Therefore, the number of tasks or programs entering into the CPU for processing must be
controlled or monitored; this is done by the operating system.
 Input / Output Management
Programs required in the use of Input / Output devices and in a Multi-tasking system may cause a
conflict on who is to use which device, at what time and for how long. The operating system
solves this by monitoring the state of each Input an Output devices and sends a signal if any faults
are detected and to indicate which device can be used at that time
File Management

The operating system monitors data and information, where it‟s located in the memory. It‟s status, use late date
of recording and storage, etc. these are facilities called the file system. File systems deals with the logical
organization of the information and provide a way of sorting and sharing it through the operating system. The
operating system can also provide protection of files by use of passwords secret codes to limit access of users to
the files.
 Management of computer resources.
For instance, the operating system supervises activities of the CPU and other components  Providing
User Interface
A user Interface refers to the way in which the computer presents itself to the user.

UTILITY PROGRAM
These are programs that perform additional tasks to those done by the operating system. Utility programs as any
application or program allows the user to do cleaning or management on the computer system.
Examples of Utility programs / software
• Disk defragmenter (joins pieces)
This is a small but essential program that allows a user gather up all the pieces of files that have been stored in a
scattered array on the hard drive and joins them together in one efficient piece.
• Disk clean up (debugger)
This is a small but critical program that allows a user to quickly determine which file / files that: are corrupted,
no longer in use and not correctly saved on a hard disk so that they can be eliminated to create a more efficiently
operating hard drive
• Backup program.
This is a program which makes a copy of the whole computer system. This is done in security of the hard drive
crash.
• Restore program
This is a program that restores data files or may be able to return data files or a computer to its original state.
• Drive space
This is used to compress and decompress disc drives and hard disks. This increases the storage capacity from
50% to 100% more free space.
Note: this Utility should be used with care, since it could damage or destroy the contents of the compressed
drives.
• Scan disk
This is used to check files and folders for physical errors.
• Inbox repair
This is used to repair damaged files.

COMPUTER VIRUS
 A program that enters a computer (usually without the knowledge of the operator) and causes harm
 An insidious piece of computer code written to damage computer systems
 A program designed to infect & potentially damage files on a computer that receives it.
 A program /code that copies it‟s self &infect a computer without the knowledge of the user
 A program designed to affect the normal performance as the entire computer systems
 A harmful program that attaches itself to the computer system and destroys or corrupts data.

Types of viruses
 Boot sector virus: this destroys the booting information and causes boot failure
 File virus: these attach themselves on computer files and corrupt or delete them

 Hoax viruses: These are internet based illusion/lies that are malicious

 Trojan/Trojan horse: this is a program code that hides its identify in legitimate software

 Worms: these are programs that stick in a computer memory and replicate to fill it up

 Backdoor: these are programs that allow hidden access to a computer system Droppers:
these are programs that have been written to perform useful tasks but end up introducing virus in the
process of performing their functions

 Failed viruses: these are viruses that have failed to meet their
goals Packagers: these hide the existence of a virus from virus guard by masking
them Test virus: these are virus written to test anti-virus software.

 Time bomb: this is a virus activated on predetermined days. e.g. idi, x-mas

 Joke: this is harmless program that does funny things. Your computer is about to explode please run
away..!!

 A bug: is an error in a computer system which causes undesirable result

Disasters caused by virus

 Damage program
  Deleting files, data on storage devices
 Reformatting the hard disk
 Preparing a storage drives (devices) by deleting all the data that has been saved on it(formatting)
 Booting failure
 Taking up computer memory & this may cause system crushes
 Degrading efficiencies /performance of the computer

Source of virus
 Fake games
 Infected storage devices /contaminated systems
 Update of legitimate software
 Free ware & share ware
 Pirated software

Common ways of spreading viruses

 Opening an infected file
 Starting up the computer with an infected floppy diskette
 Through opening e-mail attachments that are form un trusted site
 Through some down load from the internet
 Running an infected program
 Use of infected disk Symptoms of viruses
 Un familiar graphics/quizzical message appearing on screens
 Programs taking longer to load
 Computer may freeze
 Failure to do print job
 An usual error message occurring more frequently
 Less memory available than usual
 Program and files disappearing mysteriously
 Computer indicating that the storage devices are full
 Adding garbage to file
 Computer switching itself off & on
 Hard disk crash
Control measure /precaution to guard against virus
 Ensure that there is a policy on the usage of computer e.g. avoids use of external storage device unless
they are first scanned
 Avoid running unchecked/scanned file
 Avoid running files with attachment from unknown source on the internet  Backup the important files
regularly.
 Ensure that the e-mail are from trusted source before opening or executing any email
 Install an anti-virus utility and update its virus definition for detecting and removing viruses
 Never starts a PC with a floppy diskette in the drives
 Scan all floppy diskettes and file for possible virus infection before operating them
 Write protect the recovery disk before using it
ANTI-VIRUS SOFTWARE
Is a program that prevents, detects and remove virus from a computer memory or storage devices
Scanning software
A vast F-secure
Raising anti vast Eset node 32
Mac fee- Kaspersky
AVG Norton antivirus
Thunder byte Webscan
Dr. Solomon SMADAV
What is to back up?
A process of creating a duplicate of a file program or a disk that can be used if the original is lost/damaged
Functions of an antivirus in relation to controlling viruses
 It cleans files/hardware e.g. flash discs that are infected
 It deletes files that are infected
 It blocks that installation of certain files whose software certificate is not trusted
 It scans and detects computer viruses
 It isolates files that are infected with a computer virus
 It notifies the user in case of expiry of the software that the user easily perform on update or renew the
program
DESKTOP
The first screen you get after loading windows.
WHAT DOES A DESKTOP CONTAIN?
 Icons - Small pictures/shortcuts representing programs, files or folders
 Start Button - to different programs
 Taskbar - Shows the currently running tasks. The taskbar is divided into three parts that is; start menu,
system tray and task manager

Functions of some of the Desktop Components

 Start Button – to Different programs
 Task Bar – Shows currently open programs or windows
 My Computer – Browse through your computer
 My Network Places – Setup network parameters
 Recycle Bin – Holds deleted files
 A WINDOW
 A window is known as a rectangular area on the screen defined by specific borders called window
borders. A window will always appear on the background called desktop.
 Defn: A window is an area containing certain tasks that you are executing.

How to open a Window

 Double click on an Icon, like “My Computer” on the desktop,

or invoke a program from the “start” button under “All programs”  Note 1: The
four sided figure you get is a window.
 Note 2: A Window has Properties. File management
 System that an operating system or program uses to organize and keep track of files
 Most windows operating systems use a hierarchical file system and it is one that uses directories to store
files in a tree like structure inside of folders or directories

 There is a root directories of the structure and then all the subdirectories are below that with
subdirectories within other subdirectories Recycle bin
Just like the name suggests it‟s a bin like a dust bin.
It holds all temporally deleted items both folder and files.
Screen saver File format
Is a standard way that information is encoded for storage in a computer file.
 zip-zipped file
 doc-ms word documents
 xls-ms pp presentation
 pub-ms publisher documents A folder:
 Is a directory that can contain other folders or files within it C:\Administrator\picture
\sunset.JPG
 C-Hard disk partition /location on which it is saved
 My pictures-is folder that contain the file sunset.JPG
 Administrator-profile of the person who created the file
 Sunset-file name
 JPG-File format

EXAMPLE OF A WINDOW
EXPLANATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF A WINDOW
 Title Bar: This is the uppermost part of a window. It has many uses: - o Maximize or Restore a window
(double click)

o Move a window from location to location (while the window is not maximized, position the
cursor on top of the status bar, press the left mouse button down and drag to a required
position and release).
 Menu Bar: This provides us with the available menu that we can use to run certain programs i.e. “File
Menu”.
 Tool Bar: Shows the shortcuts of the Menu Bar.
 Address Bar: This shows the address/path of the file that is currently open.
 Edge of a Window: This is used to resize a window, either vertically or horizontally.
 Close Button: Used to close a window.
 Maximize/Restore Button: This is used to maximize or Restore the size of a window i.e.
double click.
 Minimize Button: This is used to minimize a window on to the task bar.

Title Bar

Menu Bar Tool

Bar

Close button
Minimize button

Maximize/Rest
  Vertical Scroll Bar: Used to see the extra contents that have surpassed the current size of a window
vertically up or down-wards
 Window Contents: This shows the contents of a window.
 Dialog boxes: A dialog box is one which contains some or all options that may be used to provide
additional information in order to accomplish a particular task. E.g.
 Text boxes  List boxes  Check boxes  Dropdown lists boxes  Option buttons

FOLDER

This is a container that holds, files or other sub-folders i.e. a folder within a folder.

Note: A folder can be empty or can contain endless subfolders depending on the size of the storage device it is
created on.

 Folders: Help in organizing our data in a computer into groups that are easy to access or locate.

CREATING A FOLDER
 On The Desktop: Right click the desktop, choose new, then folder, type in the name of the folder and
Enter.
 ON the Hard Disk (C:\): Use “My Computer” Icon, or “Windows explorer”, to locate C:\, make sure C:\
is showing its contents, click on it, then choose the “File” menu, and then
“New”, Type in the name of the Folder and press the Enter key.

FILES
 Is a collection of related data given a unique name for ease of access and storage on a backing storage. A
unique name & an optional extension.
 The name & extension are separated by a period (.) eg.JUNET.DOC.In this case the file name is JUNE
& the extension is DOC.Extension are used to identify the type of file, for example:doc is a word
processor file.

 Note: File names consist of 3 parts o File Name o Period o Extension (one to three characters) Finding
Files and Folders Cont’d
 When you‟re looking for a particular folder or file, you can use the Find command instead of opening
numerous folders.
 The Find command lets you quickly search a specific drive or your entire computer.
 To find a file or folder:-
  Click the start button, point to search/find, and then click all files and folders. (the Find dialog box
appears)
 In “all or part of the file name”, type the file or folder name you want to find.
 Click the look in down arrow, or click browse to specify where to search.

 Click “search” or “find now”. Renaming Files and

Folders
 If you decide to change the name of a file or folder, you can quickly rename it.
 To rename a file or folder o In a window, select the file or folder you want to rename. o On the file
menu click rename.
o Type the name, and the press ENTER.

o DELETING FOLDERS & FILES

 Select the folders and files u want to delete and click the delete option from the Edit
Menu or just click the delete key and confirm

COMPUTER NETWORKS
 A network is a collection of computers and devices connected together

 Networking is the linking or interconnection of devices to intelligently share resources

Advantages of having a computer network
 Facilitates sharing of programs and data files ( resources)
 Facilitates the sharing of peripheral devices like printers and fax machines
 Better and enhanced communication and networking
 Reduces operational cost of doing business
 Better access to data bases and files for sharing through uploading and downloading files from server
computers.
 Offers more data security with centralised server control in a client/ server arrangement.

Factors to consider for a network choice

i. Size of the organisation
ii. Needs of the organisation e.g. hardware and software required
iii. Level of data security needed
iv. Amount of network traffic expected (band width)
v. Cost of the network configuration and installation
vi. Maintenance requirements
vii. Level of administrative support available
viii. Type of business or organisation

Types of Networks
Network – collection of computers and devices connected via communications media and devices such as cables,
telephone lines, modems users can share resources, such as hardware devices, software programs, data, and
information
 LAN or local area network – network that connects computers in a limited geographic area e.g. computer
lab, offices, groups of buildings
 WAN or wide area network – network that covers a large geographical area e.g. Districts offices of a
national corporation
 PAN Personal Area Network - interconnect devices within relatively small area.
Generally within person‟s reach. E.g. Bluetooth radio
 CAN Campus Area Network –spanning multiple LAN but smaller than MAN
 MAN Metropolitan Area Network-spanning a physical area larger than a LAN
What is a wide area network (WAN)?
Network that covers large geographic area using many types of media. Internet is
world‟s largest WAN

What is a peer-to-peer network?

A network arrangement where no particular computer is assigned the responsibility of administering over other
computers on a network.

Network topology
 Layout of devices in a network.
  A topology can either be logical or physical. A physical topology refers to the visible arrangement of
networked devices while a logical topology is the idea of how a network is arranged to exchange data.
 A device that connects to the network is called a network node. It can be any device like a P.C, laptop,
printer, fax machine that receives and sends data to other networked devices.
Popular topologies are bus, ring, and star

BUS TOPOLOGY

 A network arrangement where the network nodes by cable, connect to a central bus cable.

RING NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Cable forms closed ring, or loop, with all computers and devices arranged along ring. Data travels from device
to device around entire ring, in one direction
STAR NETWORK TOPOLOGY

All devices connect to a central device, called hub

All data transferred from one computer to another passes through hub

HIERARCHICAL OR TREE TOPOLOGY

Is arranged with the nodes connecting to hubs that also connect to other hubs to form levels of the connected
device. All devices are connected to hubs at varying levels
MESH TOPOLOGY

All nodes have connections to each other. Data is routed through various alternative routes from sender to
receiver. It is a combination of star and ring topologies on the one hand

HYBRID TOPOLOGIES
The above basic topologies however can be modified to form what are called hybrid topologies.
A hybrid topology is a combination of several topologies.

It can also be physically different from its logical function.

NETWORK EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES

These are devices or hardware components that allow the different communicating devices to access a network.
LAN devices include;

 Repeaters; as signals are transmitted along network media, they loose their strength over distances and
die out eventually. A repeater is a device installed on a network link to boost or regenerate signals
weakened over the distance of transmission along the channel.
 Hubs; a device on the network that centrally connects other devices on the network, through which signals
are broadcast to all other networked devices.
 Bridges; a networking device that is used to separate a large network into smaller portions called
segments. It separates data that is meant for each segment.
 Gateways; joins networks that are not similar. It converts different network data formats, protocols, or
transmission media so that data can cross from one network environment to another.
 Switches; directs data from sender to receiver among several networked devices. It has a similar
functionality as a bridge as it filters data meant for a given network segment.

 Routers; uses a routing protocol to establish the best path (route) over which data that goes across network
segments can take from sender to receiver device.
 Modems (Modulation demodulation); it converts digital signals to analog signals and analog signals back
to digital signals during communication.
CABLE MEDIA
A cable is an arrangement of a given length of a core of conducting material, concentrically surrounded by a
sheath of various materials that offer insulation, protect, aid transmission or grounding to the conductor. They
include; coaxial, twisted pair cables and optical fiber.

a) Coaxial cables; is a type of copper cable specially built with a metal shield and other components
engineered to block signal interference. It is primarily used by cable TV companies to connect their satellite
antenna facilities to customer homes and businesses. They are shielded, have a lot of signal noise, provide
minimum data strength, used on network antennas.

b) Twisted pair cables (Ethernet cables); are quite literally a pair of insulated wires that are twisted together
to help reduce noise from outside sources. They contain 4 pairs of twisted wire for transmission, twisting
eliminates signal noise or signal interference from sources, can be shielded twisted pair (STP) or unshielded pair
(UTP)
c) Fiber optic cable; cables of higher transmission capacity and carry signals for longer distances as
compared to the previously discussed copper cables. Carry a higher capacity (bandwidth) of data signals, carry
signals for much longer distances before they attenuate, not susceptible to electrical interference as they base on
light
WIRELESS MEDIA

Transmits signals through the atmosphere as electromagnetic waves e.g. radio waves, infra-red radiation,
microwave, satellite system, pagers.

WI-FI network

Is a wireless Ethernet network defined in the IEEE27 802.11 standards. It ranges from 11 Mbps to the fastest at
54 Mbps, are affected by various devices with which they use the same wave frequency.

Advantages of wireless network

 No buying cables and hiring professional cabling technicians

  Wireless media eliminate the congestion caused by the wiring

 No drilling and use of wire trunking

 A wireless access point includes a port to connect a cable network to work along with the wireless
network.

 Mobility within the network radius

Demerit of wireless networks is that P.C users have to buy a costly wireless adapter card to access the network.
Modern laptops are built with the network card, while older laptops required fitting a PCMCIA card.

Limits of wireless networks

 Network range does not exceed 300 ft indoor and 1500 ft outdoor radii

 Network speeds do not exceed 54 Mbps

 Affected by devices that share the same wave frequency with the wireless network like; security gadgets,
short range Bluetooth, microwave ovens, wireless speakers and some mobile phones.

COMPUTER SECURITY
Why are we concerned about Security?
 Today we are living with computer systems almost every where (and their usage is still on the
increase)
 Information system designers have focused more on functionality, speed and forgotten that:
 Exploitation of software bugs
 Unauthorized access to resources
 Masquerade as authorized user or end system
 E-mail forgery
 Malicious attacks Etc.

Some of the factors contributing to the security concerns

 Increased Internet Usage (over 3 billion users worldwide) (http://www.internetlivestats.com/internet-

users/ and
http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm) and Global internet penetration 2014 report
rd

(Uganda we are 133 at 16.2% (http://www.internetsociety.org/map/global-

internetreport/?gclid=CNqBkq_5lcMCFSIGwwodq1IA6g)
 Lack of awareness of threats and risks (Karsperskey 2012 report
http://www.kaspersky.com/about/news/virus/2012/Companies_Worldwide_Lack_Awaren
ess_of_Cyber_Threats)
 Wide-open network policies
 Unencrypted network traffic
 Complexity of security measurements and administration
 Software bugs
  Availability of cracking tools (INFOSEC Institute)
(http://resources.infosecinstitute.com/10-popular-password-cracking-tools/)

Main Security Objectives

In a traditional information theory, security is described through the accomplishment of some basic security
properties, namely Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability of information:

 Confidentiality is the property of protecting the content of information from all users other than
those intended by the legal owner of the information. The nonintended users are generally called
unauthorized users.

 Integrity is the property of protecting information from alteration by unauthorized users.

 Availability is the property of protecting information from non-authorized, temporary or

permanent withholding of information.

Also known to be the CIA

Military Example
 Confidentiality: target coordinates of a missile should not be improperly disclosed
 Integrity: target coordinates of missile should be correct
 Availability: missile should fire when proper command is issued

Commercial Example
 Confidentiality: patient‟s medical information should not be improperly disclosed
 Integrity: patient‟s medical information should be correct
 Availability: patient‟s medical information can be accessed when needed for treatment
Other basic security properties are the Authentication and the Non-repudiation . Authentication is divided into
peer-entity authentication and data-origin authentication.

 Peer-entity authentication is the property of ensuring the identity of an entity

(also known as „subject‟), which may be a human, a machine or another asset such as a software
program.

 Data-origin authentication is the property of ensuring the source of the information.

  Finally, non-repudiation is the property of ensuring that principals that have committed to an action
cannot deny that commitment at a later time.

Detailed treatment of security properties can be found in several security standards, such as the ISO/IEC 7498-2
and the ITU-T X.800 security recommendation.

In a practical information technology approach, security involves the protection of assets. Assets may be:

 Physical (e.g. computers, network infrastructure elements, buildings hosting equipment),

 Data (e.g. electronic files, databases) or
 Software (e.g. application software, configuration files)

However,
The information assets must be protected against security threats.
 A security threat is any event that may harm an asset.
 When a threat is realized, then, the IT system or network is under a security attack.
 The attacker or threat agent is any subject or entity that causes the attack.
 An example of a threat agent in a computer network is a malicious outsider (external user) who attempts
to bypass security measures and access the network.
 A threat which may be caused by such an attacker is unauthorized access to network resources.
 A security vulnerability is any characteristic in a system, which makes one or more assets vulnerable to
threats .
 In the above example of a threat, a security vulnerability which exposes the system to unauthorized access
is the lack or the misconfiguration of access controls.
 If access to the network is not properly controlled with well configured mechanisms, then it will be easier
for a possible attacker to gain unauthorized access into the system and the network is more vulnerable to
intrusion attacks.
 The impact of the threat measures the magnitude of the loss that would be caused to the asset or asset
owner if threats were realized against it. The magnitude of loss is closely related with the operational or
business value of the attacked asset.

 The combination of threats, vulnerabilities and assets provides a quantified and/or qualified measure of
the likelihood of threats being realized against assets, as well as the impact caused due to the realization
of a threat. This measure is known as the security risk.
  The protection of assets can be achieved through several security mechanisms.
 A security mechanism is any type of measure, (technical, procedural, legal etc) which may protect an
asset from security threats, reduce their vulnerability and more generally reduce the level of security risks.
 A security mechanism may be:
 Preventive, if its goal is to prevent the realization of a security attack. Such mechanisms mainly reduce
the threat level of security attacks.
 Detective, if its goal is to detect a security attack as fast as possible and thus restrict the consequences of
the attack. These mechanisms mainly reduce the vulnerability level of security attacks.
 Recovery, if its goal is to recover the system after a security attack in the shortest possible time. These
mechanisms mainly reduce the impact level of security attacks.

THE INTERNET
It is a global system of interconnected computer networks. It uses a combination of protocols known as
Transmission Control Protocol/ internet protocol (TCP/IP).

Services of the internet are listed here below;

 Electronic mail
 Online chat
 File transfer
 News groups
 On-line applications like games
 Remote computer control called TELNET
 Interlinked web pages and other documents of the world wide web(WWW)

Terms used in internet

 A wiki is a type of information website that lets anyone who can access it, create and change its pages.
 Search engines; web applications that are driven by keywords to search through large databases
maintained by the search engine that link to websites with the content being searched. Examples include;
Lycos, Alita, Vista, Yahoo! And Google.
  Gopher; a web program that links various web sites into a unified information service.
 A web page; is described as one of the linked documents on the world wide web. A collection of web
pages is what is referred to as a website
 A web browser; a software application that lets users navigate from one web page to another via
hyperlinks embedded in the documents and also download information from the internet. E.g. internet
explorer, Mozilla Firefox, opera, safari, Google chrome etc.
 URL (Uniform Resource Locator); is an internet address used to access particular content on the World
Wide Web. It points to a particular web page on the WWW.

 Domains; these divide WWW sites into categories based on the nature of their owner, and they form part
of a site‟s address, or the URL .

 Intranet; a network within an organisation that only allows internal users share resources. Organisations
use it to share information amongst employees and departments.

 Extranet; an intranet network that allows authorised extranal users to access its resource. Organisations
with such a network allow external stake holders use the network service, like customers and suppliers
with authority.

 IP (internet protocol); are sets of rules which determine how information is delivered between networked
devices. It is not responsible for data moving out of the network and does not guarantee data delivery.

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol); are sets of rules that provide connection oriented
communications. It guarantees delivery of data between the connections and is responsible for reporting
errors when data has not been transmitted successfully.

 Telnet; this is a protocol that allows a computer user to connect to other remote computers. Enables one
to log on to a remote computer/ machine and use it.

ELECTRONIC MAIL(E-MAIL)
Is a text message sent and received over the World Wide Web(WWW). In order for one to send and receive e-
mail he or she must have an e-mail account or address.
Elements that make up an e-mail account.
 Username
  Domain address
 @ sign between the username and domain address
 A password
 An extension e.g. .com, .uk, .ug, etc

Basic e-mail features;

 In box – lists the messages received
 Out box – lists the messages you have composed but not sent
 Sent – lists copies of all sent messages for reference purposes
 Send – sends the message you have composed
 Compose – activates the screen onto which a message to be sent is typeset
 Drafts – stores messages and other email data
 Attachment – helps you to attach other files and folders to accompany the directly composed message.
 To – its where you typeset the e-mail address of the receiver
 Subject – subject of the message
 CC (Carbon copy)– enables copies of the e-mail to be sent to a third party while acknowledging other
recipients
 BCC (Blind Carbon Copy)– enables copies of the e-mail to be sent to a third party without acknowledging
any other recipients

Advantages of electronic mails

 It is paperless
 A fast means of communication as e-mail takes a few seconds to deliver
 Provides immediate feedback of delivery
 They offer provision for attachment of multimedia
 E-mail is secured by passwords
 E-mails can be conveniently sent to multiple recipients
 E-mails can be managed by providing a list of senders and subjects where one can prioritize on which
messages to read first
  One can just list servers and news groups and receive updated information on a particular subject of
interest
 One can enjoy e-mail discussions through e-group
 A relatively cheap means of communication
 There is a possibility of multi media mails where they can be received as voice mails and read aloud
 Can easily go across many time zones(continents)
 An e-mail provides large data storage in the drafts with up to 1 GB memory
Disadvantages of electronic mails
 It is time consuming through sorting lots of messages
 E-mails are not indeed private since they can be tapped by other user
 Receiving unsolicited mail in form of spam can be a nuisance to email users by congesting the mail
cache.

Impact of the internet on society

Positive impact/effects
 Information resources; the internet offers research information to students and users with the help of
Numerous websites and search engines.
 Faster communication; it offers a speedy communication when using services such as e-mail, chat,
commerce.
 Entertainment; improves access to entertainment such as online games, musical downloads etc.
 E-commerce; online shopping is possible using numerous websites such as e Bay
 Social networking; using numerous sites such as facebook, twitter, myspace etc. people can find both
new and lost long friends, find jobs, business opportunities.
 Online services; one can access online services such as hotel reservations, pay for bills and taxes etc
 Formation of communities; the internet enables many forums involving debate and discussions

Negative impacts/effects
 Theft of personal information; when using an unsecure connection, there is a high possibility that your
personal details such as credit card number, bank account info, etc may be accessed by con artists
 Virus threat; computers on the internet are very prone to virus attacks, which may lead to crushing of
hard disk or data loss
 Spamming; unwanted/ unsolicited e-mail in bulk are very frustrating as they make the internet
connection very slow and unreliable
  Easy access to pornography; un restricted access to porn may have a bad influence on the mental
health especially in teens/ children. It may also play a havoc in marital and social lives of adults.
 Social disconnect; when many people are engulfed in a virtual world of socialization, this may lead to
drifting apart of friends and family members.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by the term internet?
2. Mention any five services provided by the internet.
3. What are the impacts/ effects of computers to the society.
4. With an example, describe the main parts of an e-mail address
5. State the functions of the following fields as used in e-mails
i. To
ii. Subject
iii. Carbon copy iv. Blind carbon copy
v. Attachment

Computer Abuse/Cyber crime

The term computer crime refers to;
1. Any crime in which computer-related technology is encountered.
2. The commission of illegal acts through the use of a computer or against a computer system

3. Computer crime is the “misuse” of computers and peripherals in a way that can cause destruction or
breakdown of the hardware and or software.

Computer Abuse
Computer abuse means wrongful use of computers and peripherals. Computer abuse may not necessarily lead to
a breakdown of the computer system.

Examples of computer Abuse

 Moonlighting; using the company‟s computer facilities to do other personal work especially after the
office hours.

 Surfing during company time this is using the company Internet facilities to surf and send personal
emails during the company time.
 Playing games. Using the computer facilities during the company hours to play games such as Pachisi,
Solitaire, Free cell etc.

 Viewing the computer files, facilities, and the internet during lecture time and constantly disturbing the
lecturer when the lecture is going on.

 Wrongful shutting down of computers. This is whereby a computer user turns off the computer without
shutting it down.

 Leaving the computer on for long hours. This is especially when the computer is not in use, for example
leaving the computer on over night.

 Hitting the computer. whereby a lot of force is used on the computer, for example on the keyboard.
This can also include intentional hitting of the computer.

 Spreading viruses; Transferring viruses from one computer to another using storage devices like
memory sticks and floppy disks.

 Downloading infected files Downloading file attachments that are infected with viruses from the Internet

Why Computer Crimes are difficult to deal with

 Geographic dislocation of offender

 Invisibility/Anonymity of offender

 Lack of victim awareness

 Unwillingness to report

 Intangibility of digital goods, evidence, value Etc