Sampling Techniques

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 CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION
2. WHY SAMPLING?
3. IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
4. PROCESS OF SAMPLING
5. SAMPLING METHODS

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 INTRODUCTION
• Sampling is a process of choosing a section of the
population for observation and study.
• Research studies involve - observation - sample from
- predefined population.
• Ex...Epidemiological studies,
e.i sample of people is observed for
exposure to various riskfactors, health outcomes and
other related variables.
• Conclusions drawn - study - often based on
generalizing - results observed - sample to the entire
population from which the sample was drawn.
• Accuracy -> conclusions will depend on how well
the samples have been collected
• How representative the sample is of the population. 3
• Reasons why samples are chosen for study, rather than the entire
population.
1. Researcher wants to minimize the costs (financial and as well as time) of
- Collecting the information
- Processing this information
- Reporting on the results.
2. If reasonable picture - population - obtained - observing only a section of it - researcher
economizes by choosing such a section of the population.
3. The total information will be less - compared - entire population.
4. Available resources - better spent in - Refining the measuring instruments and methods so
that the information collected is accurate (valid and reliable).
5. When it’s impossible to study the whole population

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• Before a sample is drawn, the population has to be clearly defined.
• Population survey, this requires having a list (sampling frame) of all the individuals in the
population.
• Probabilistic methods can then be developed to draw a sample in such a way that we can
assure the representativeness of the various characteristics in which we are interested.
• In experiments (such as clinical trials) this list may not be explicit, and may evolve as the
sampling progresses.
• For example, a list of inclusion and exclusion criteria would be specified at the beginning
of the trial, defining the general framework for the population.
• Then, as patients are identified, they will be selected for study, and allocated to various
experimental groups using probabilistic methods.

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SAMPLING METHODS

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Probability sampling: (Random)
►Researcher sets a selection of a few criteria
and chooses members of a population
randomly.
►Probability samples are the gold standard
in sampling methodology and also for
ensuring generalisibility of the study results
to the target population.
►All the members have an equal opportunity
to be a part of the sample with this selection
parameter.

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Non-probability sampling: (Non-Random)
►Defined as a sampling technique in which
the researcher selects samples based on the
subjective judgment of the researcher rather
than random selection..
►This sampling method is not a fixed or
predefined selection process.
►This makes it difficult for all elements of a
population to have equal opportunities to be
included in a sample.
►Non-probability samples are those in which
the probability that a subject is selected is
unknown and results in selection bias in the
study.
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 Probability sampling methods: (Random)

1. Simple random sampling:

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Advantages
1. minimal knowledge of the population is required, the internal as well as external validity is
high and it is easy to analyse data.
2. Easy to administer, is representative of the population in the long run, and the analysis of
data using such a sampling scheme is straight forward.

Disadvantage
1. Cost is high, a sampling frame is required.
2. They tend to have large sampling errors and less precision than stratified samples of the
same size
3. Selected sample may not be truly representative of the population, especially if the sample
size is small.

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• Simple random sampling formula
• Consider a hospital has 1000 staff members, and they need to allocate a night shift to 100
members. All their names will be put in a bucket to be randomly selected. Since each
person has an equal chance of being selected, and since we know the population size (N)
and sample size (n), the calculation can be as follows:

P=1- N-1/N.N-2/N-1….N-n/N-(n-1)
• Cancelling=1-N-n/N

=n/N

=100/1000

=10% 11
Example- Let us say there are 200 participants
in a conference and we would like to select 50
participants by simple random sampling. The
list of all the 200 participants would be
available which constitutes the sampling
frame. The 50 participants can now be selected
by either using random number table or by
lottery method. Once a participant has been
selected, that particular number is struck off
from the random number table. This method
is known as sampling without replacement.
In this way 50 participants are selected.

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2. Systematic sampling:
*In systematic sampling, the selection of the first subject is done randomly and then the
subsequent subjects are selected by a periodic process.
*A systematic sample is one in which every kth item is selected; k is determined by dividing
the number of items in the sampling frame by the desired sample size.
*An initial starting point is selected by a random process, and then every kth number on the list
is selected.

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Advantages
* The advantages of this sampling is that it has moderate usage, moderate cost,internal and
external validity is high, it is simple to draw and easy to verify.

Disadvantage
*The disadvantage is that technically only the selection of the first subject is a probability
selection since for subsequent selections there would be subjects who will have zero
chance of selection.

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Example- If we take the same example as
above, N=200 and n=50, therefore, k = N/n,
i.e. 4, which becomes the sampling interval.
Now we select a random number between 1
to 4. Suppose it is “3”, so number “3”
participant is our first subject. Then we go on
adding “4” to this number. Our subsequent
subjects would be 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, 31
and so on, till we complete the requisite
sample size of 50.

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3. Stratified random sampling:
*Data is divided into various sub-groups (strata) sharing common characteristics like age, sex,
race, income, education, and ethnicity.
*A random sample is taken from each strata.

Advantages
*It assures representation of all groups in the population needed.
*The characteristics of each stratum can be estimated and comparisons can be made.
*It also reduces variability from systematic sampling.

Disadvantages
*The limitations are that it requires accurate information on proportions of each stratum; also
stratified lists are expensive to prepare.

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 Non-probability sampling:
1. Convenience(accidental sampling or grab sampling):
*This is the most commonly used sampling method.
*The sample is chosen on the basis of the convenience of the investigator.
*Often the respondents are selected because they are at the right place at the right time.
*Convenience sampling is most commonly used in clinical research where patients who meet
the inclusion criteria are recruited in the study.

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Advantages
*The advantages are that they are most commonly used, less expensive and there is no need for
a list of all the population elements.
Disadvantages
*However, they are not without limitations; the foremost being variability and bias cannot be
measured or controlled.
*Secondly, results from the data cannot be generalised beyond the sample.

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Example- Patients coming to the out-patient
department of a hospital and meeting the
inclusion criteria, school students, members of a
social organisation, etc.

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• 2. Quota sampling:
* Quota sampling is defined as a non-probability sampling method in which researchers
create a sample involving individuals that represent a population.
* Researchers choose these individuals according to specific traits or qualities.
* They decide and create quotas so that the market research samples can be useful in
collecting data.
* These samples can be generalized to the entire population.
* The final subset will be decided only according to the interviewer’s or researcher’s
knowledge of the population.
* For example, a cigarette company wants to find out what age group prefers what brand of
cigarettes in a particular city. He/she applies quotas on the age groups of 21-30, 31-40, 41-
50, and 51+. From this information, the researcher gauges the smoking trend among the
population of the city.

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Types of quota sampling:
1. Controlled quota sampling:
• Controlled quota sampling imposes restrictions on the researcher’s choice of samples. Here,
the researcher is limited to the selection of samples.
2. Uncontrolled quota sampling:
• Uncontrolled quota sampling does not impose any restrictions on the researcher’s choice of
samples. Here, the researcher chooses sample members at will.

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example :A researcher wants to survey individuals about what smartphone brand they prefer
to use. He/she considers a sample size of 500 respondents. Here’s how the researcher can
divide the population by quotas:
Gender: 250 males and 250 females
Age: 100 respondents each between the ages of 16-20, 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, and 51+
Employment status: 350 employed and 150 unemployed people.
Location: 50 responses per state
Depending on the type of research, the researcher can apply quotas based on the sampling
frame. It is not necessary for the researcher to divide the quotas equally. He/she divides the
quotas as per his/her need (as shown in the example where the researcher interviews 350
employed and only 150 unemployed individuals). Random sampling can be conducted to
reach out to the respondents.

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3. Snow-ball sampling:
* Snowball sampling or chain-referral sampling is defined as a non-probability sampling
technique in which the samples have traits that are rare to find.
* This is a sampling technique, in which existing subjects provide referrals to recruit samples
required for a research study.
* This sampling method involves a primary data source nominating other potential data
sources that will be able to participate in the research studies.
* Snowball sampling method is purely based on referrals and that is how a researcher is able
to generate a sample.
* Therefore this method is also called the chain-referral sampling method.
* This sampling technique can go on and on, just like a snowball increasing in size (in this
case the sample size) till the time a researcher has enough data to analyze.

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Advantages
- It’s quicker to find samples
- Cost effective
- Sample hesitant subjects
Disadvantages
- Include bias because sampling units are not independent and projecting data beyond
sample is not justified.

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Example- In a study on a sample engaging in
high risk behaviour or substance abuse, a person
who is engaging in a high-risk behaviour may
name other persons involved in similar high-risk
behaviour practices, and this continues further
till adequate number of respondents are
completed. The advantages are its low cost,
usefulness in specific circumstances and for
locating rare populations.

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4. Judgmental Sampling:
* Judgmental sampling, also called purposive sampling or authoritative sampling, is a non-
probability sampling technique in which the sample members are chosen only on the basis
of the researcher’s knowledge and judgment.
* As the researcher’s knowledge is instrumental in creating a sample in this sampling
technique, there are chances that the results obtained will be highly accurate with a
minimum margin of error.
* The process of selecting a sample using judgmental sampling involves the researchers
carefully picking and choosing each individual to be a part of the sample.
* The researcher’s knowledge is primary in this sampling process as the members of the
sample are not randomly chosen.
* Judgmental sampling is most effective in situations where there are only a restricted
number of people in a population who own qualities that a researcher expects from the
target population.

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• Advantages

• Consumes minimum time for execution.

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Example-Researchers who plan to study the
culture of Southeast Asian countries, it is advised
that they select strata using judgmental sampling
as religious beliefs are considered to be highly
sensitive in this part of the world. Due to the
sensitivity of the topic, if samples of those who
have appropriate knowledge are created and
research is conducted with those samples, results
will be highly accurate.

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 SAMPLING ERROR

• A sampling error occurs when the sample used in the study is not representative of the whole
population.
• In statistics, a Type I error is a false positive conclusion, and Type II error is a false negative
conclusion.
• The prevalence of sampling errors can be reduced by increasing the sample size

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