NAME:CHILEKWE PETER OBINNA

MATRIC NO:24/211SGI/081
DEPARTMENT: SURVEYING AND GEOINFORMATICS
FACULTY: ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

COS 101 ASSIGNMENT

1a.
(I) Ancient Era
1. Roman Abacus
2. Napier’s Bones
3. Slide Rule

II. Mechanical Era

1. Pascaline (Pascal’s Calculator)
2. Leibniz Calculator (Stepped Reckoner)
3. Jacquard Loom

III. Electro-Mechanical Era

1. Harvard Mark I
2. Zuse Z3
3. Complex Number Calculator (CNC)

1b.
Ancient Era Devices:
1. Roman Abacus:
The Roman Abacus was a counting device used for arithmetic operations, consisting of a
board with grooves and movable beads or stones.
Merchants and tax collectors commonly used it for calculations involving trade and
commerce.
It laid the foundation for later numerical systems and influenced the development of
mechanical calculators.

2. Napier’s Bones:
Invented by John Napier in 1617, this was a set of rods inscribed with multiplication tables
that allowed users to perform complex multiplication and division efficiently.
The device worked based on logarithms and could also be used for extracting square roots.
It simplified arithmetic calculations before the invention of mechanical calculators.

3. Slide Rule:
Developed in the early 17th century, the slide rule was an analog device used for
multiplication, division, and logarithmic calculations.
It consisted of sliding scales with logarithmic markings that allowed engineers and scientists
to make quick calculations.
The slide rule was widely used until electronic calculators became available in the 1970s.
Mechanical Era Devices:
1. Pascaline (Pascal’s Calculator):
Invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642, the Pascaline was one of the earliest mechanical
calculators.
It used a series of gears and dials to perform addition and subtraction.
Though limited in functionality, it paved the way for later mechanical computing devices.

2. Leibniz Calculator (Stepped Reckoner):

Designed by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the late 17th century, the Stepped Reckoner was
an improvement on Pascal’s Calculator.
It could perform multiplication, division, and even square root calculations using a stepped
drum mechanism.
Though difficult to manufacture, the principles behind the device were used in later
mechanical computers.

3. Jacquard Loom:
Invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard in 1804, this was a weaving loom that used punched
cards to control fabric patterns.
The punched card system allowed the loom to automate the weaving process, reducing
human error.
The concept of using punched cards influenced early computing systems, including Charles
Babbage’s Analytical Engine and early programming languages.

Electro-Mechanical Era Devices:

1. Harvard Mark I:
Developed in 1944 by Howard Aiken in collaboration with IBM, the Harvard Mark I was one
of the first electromechanical computers.
It used mechanical relays and electrical switches to perform calculations and was
programmed using punched paper tape.
The Mark I played a significant role in wartime calculations, including missile trajectory
predictions.

2. Zuse Z3:
Invented by Konrad Zuse in 1941, the Z3 was the world's first programmable digital
computer.
It used telephone relays for switching operations and could perform basic arithmetic and
floating-point calculations.
The Z3 demonstrated the concept of a stored-program computer, which influenced modern
computer architecture.

3. Complex Number Calculator (CNC):

Developed by George Stibitz in 1940, the CNC was an early relay-based calculator capable
of performing operations on complex numbers.
It was used for scientific calculations, particularly in electrical engineering and physics.
The CNC was a stepping stone in the development of digital computing and led to further
advancements in automated calculations.
1c.
1. BASIC – Beginner’s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code

2. COBOL – Common Business Oriented Language

3. FORTRAN – Formula Translation

4. ENIAC – Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer

5. EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer

6. CPU – Central Processing Unit

7. RAM – Random Access Memory

8. ROM – Read-Only Memory

9. AMD – Advanced Micro Devices

10. ABC – Atanasoff-Berry Computer

Q2a.
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was developed in 1945 by John
Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. It was the first general-purpose electronic digital
computer. However, it did not have a stored program; instead, it required manual rewiring for
each new task, making it difficult to reprogram. ENIAC used vacuum tubes for processing
and was designed primarily for ballistic calculations by the U.S. Army. It operated using
decimal (base 10) arithmetic and was slower compared to later designs.

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was developed in 1949 and
introduced stored-program architecture, which meant instructions could be stored in memory
and executed sequentially. Unlike ENIAC, which used decimal coding, EDVAC used a binary
system (base 2), which made it more efficient and faster. EDVAC was designed based on
the Von Neumann architecture, allowing it to be reprogrammed without rewiring. This was a
major improvement over ENIAC and influenced the development of modern computers.

In summary, ENIAC was the first electronic computer but lacked stored memory, while
EDVAC introduced stored programs and binary processing, making it a more advanced
system.

Q2b.
Contrast:
4th-generation computers are based on microprocessors, whereas 5th-generation
computers incorporate AI and advanced computing concepts.
5th-generation computers aim to mimic human intelligence using machine learning and
natural language processing, while 4th-generation computers rely mainly on traditional
programming.

Q2c.
i. Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC):
The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) was the first electronic digital computer, developed in
1937–1942 by John Atanasoff and Clifford Berry at Iowa State University.

It used binary representation and was designed to solve simultaneous linear equations.

Unlike later computers, it lacked a stored-program concept, meaning it could not be

reprogrammed easily.

The ABC was a crucial step in digital computing, influencing future computer designs.

ii. First Generation Computers:

First-generation computers were built between 1940 and 1956 and used vacuum tubes for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.

These computers were large, slow, and expensive, requiring huge cooling systems to
operate.

Programming was done using machine language (binary code), making them difficult to
reprogram.
Examples include ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC I.

iii. Abacus
The Abacus is one of the oldest counting tools, invented by the Sumerians around 2500
BCE and later refined by the Chinese.

It consists of a frame with rods and movable beads, allowing users to perform arithmetic
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

The Abacus played a crucial role in early mathematics and laid the foundation for modern
computing devices.

Q3a.
Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer that can be touched and seen.
These include the CPU (Central Processing Unit), RAM (Random Access Memory), hard
drive, motherboard, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. Hardware is essential for the functioning
of a computer, and without it, software cannot run.
Example of Hardware:
Processor (e.g., Intel Core i7)
Hard Drive (e.g., SSD, HDD)
Monitor (e.g., LED screen)
Software refers to the set of instructions or programs that tell the computer what to do. It is
intangible and exists in the form of code. Software can be categorized into system software
(such as operating systems like Windows, macOS, and Linux) and application software
(such as Microsoft Word, Google Chrome, and Photoshop).

Example of Software:
Operating System (e.g., Windows 11, macOS)
Word Processing Software (e.g., Microsoft Word)
Web Browser (e.g., Google Chrome)

Q3b.
1. Intel Corporation
Intel is one of the largest and most well-known CPU manufacturers, founded in 1968.
It produces Core (i3, i5, i7, i9), Xeon, and Pentium processors, widely used in personal
computers, laptops, and servers.
Intel’s processors are known for their high performance and power efficiency, and they are a
leading choice for gaming and professional workstations.

2. Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)

AMD is Intel’s main competitor, founded in 1969, and specializes in making
high-performance CPUs and GPUs.
It produces Ryzen processors for personal computers and EPYC processors for servers.
AMD’s Ryzen series is widely recognized for offering better multi-core performance at a
lower price than Intel, making it popular among gamers and content creators.

3. ARM Holdings
ARM does not manufacture CPUs directly but designs low-power processor architectures
used by companies like Apple, Qualcomm, and Samsung.
ARM-based processors are widely used in smartphones, tablets, and IoT (Internet of Things)
devices due to their energy efficiency.
Recently, Apple switched from Intel to ARM-based Apple Silicon (M1, M2, M3) for its Mac
computers.

4. Qualcomm
Qualcomm is a major manufacturer of mobile processors, especially for Android devices.
It produces Snapdragon processors, which power most high-end and mid-range Android
smartphones.
These processors are optimized for battery efficiency, AI processing, and 5G connectivity.

5. IBM (International Business Machines Corporation)

IBM is a pioneer in computing technology and has developed high-performance processors
mainly for supercomputers, servers, and mainframes.
It produces PowerPC and POWER processors, which are used in enterprise-level computing
and AI applications.
IBM also contributes to quantum computing, a technology expected to revolutionize
processing in the future.
Q3c.
1. Kernel
The kernel is the core component of an operating system that directly interacts with the
hardware.
It manages CPU scheduling, memory allocation, and device drivers to ensure efficient
system operation.
Example: The Linux kernel powers various distributions like Ubuntu and Fedora.

2. User Interface (UI)

This component allows users to interact with the computer, either through a Graphical User
Interface (GUI) (e.g., Windows and macOS) or a Command-Line Interface (CLI) (e.g., Linux
terminal, MS-DOS).
It provides essential functions like opening files, executing programs, and system settings
configuration.

Q3ci.

1. Microsoft Windows

2. macOS

3. Linux

4. Android

5. iOS

Q3cii.
1. Microsoft Windows
Developed by Microsoft, Windows is the most widely used desktop operating system.
It features a graphical user interface (GUI) and supports a wide range of applications.
Popular versions include Windows 10 and Windows 11.

2. macOS
Developed by Apple, macOS is the operating system for Mac computers.
It is known for smooth performance, high security, and integration with Apple’s ecosystem.
The latest versions include macOS Monterey and macOS Ventura.

3. Linux
Linux is an open-source operating system used in both personal and enterprise
environments.
It is highly customizable and comes in different distributions such as Ubuntu, Fedora, and
Debian.
It is widely used in servers, cloud computing, and cybersecurity.
4. Android
Developed by Google, Android is the most popular mobile operating system.
It powers smartphones, tablets, smart TVs, and IoT devices.
Android allows extensive customization and supports millions of apps through the Google
Play Store.

5. iOS
iOS is Apple’s mobile operating system designed for iPhones and iPads.
It offers a smooth and secure user experience with access to Apple-exclusive features like
Face ID, iMessage, and AirDrop.
The latest versions include iOS 16 and iOS 17.

Q4.
1. Both are software types:
System software and application software are both essential components of a computer
system.

2. Both require a computer to function:

Neither system software nor application software can work independently without computer
hardware.

3. Both interact with users indirectly:

System software operates in the background, while application software provides direct
services to users.

4. Both improve computer performance:

System software helps manage hardware resources, and application software allows users
to complete tasks efficiently.

5. Both need updates and maintenance:

Both system software (e.g., operating system updates) and application software (e.g.,
Microsoft Office updates) require periodic updates to improve performance and security.