21CV72 MODULE-4

MODULE-4
PILE CONSTRUCTION

A pile foundation is a deep foundation system used to transfer heavy structural

loads to deeper, stable soil layers or bedrock. It consists of long, slender columns made of
materials like concrete, steel, or timber, which are driven or drilled into the ground. Pile
foundations are ideal for structures built on weak or compressible soils where shallow
foundations are unsuitable. They are classified into types such as driven piles, bored piles,
and screw piles based on installation methods. Common applications include bridges, tall
buildings, and marine structures.

Single pile and a group piles (Bored and Driven) bored piles

Q1. Explain the differences between a single bored pile and a group of bored piles.
Discuss the construction process of bored piles and their advantages over driven
piles.

1. Single Bored Pile:

 Definition: A single bored pile is a deep foundation element constructed by drilling a

hole into the ground and then filling it with concrete.
 Use Cases:
o Used to transfer loads from a single column or light structure to deeper soil
layers.
o Suitable for structures with low to moderate loads or where space constraints
exist.
 Load Transfer Mechanism:
o Transfers load to the soil primarily through end bearing or friction along the
pile shaft.

2. Group of Bored Piles:

 Definition: A group of bored piles consists of multiple piles arranged in a defined

pattern (square, rectangular, or circular) to support heavy loads.
 Use Cases:
o Typically used for large structures, like bridges, tall buildings, and industrial
plants, where heavy loads need to be distributed.
 Load Transfer Mechanism:
o Combines the individual capacity of each pile, with load distribution
depending on pile arrangement and cap design.
o Requires a pile cap to distribute the load evenly across the group.

3. Construction Process of Bored Piles:

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1. Site Preparation:
o Marking the pile location using survey equipment.
2. Drilling:
o A rotary auger or drilling rig creates a hole to the required depth.
o Temporary casing may be used to support the borehole in loose or unstable
soil.
3. Cleaning the Borehole:
o Remove loose soil or debris from the bottom using air or water flushing
techniques.
4. Reinforcement Placement:
o Insert a prefabricated reinforcement cage into the borehole.
5. Concreting:
o Concrete is poured using a tremie pipe to prevent segregation, ensuring the
borehole remains filled and prevents collapse.

4. Comparison: Bored Piles vs. Driven Piles:

Aspect Bored Piles Driven Piles

Construction Prefabricated and driven into the
Drilled and concreted in place.
Method ground.
Noise and
Low noise and vibration. High noise and vibration.
Vibration

Soil Displacement Minimal soil displacement. Displaces significant soil.

Can be customized for specific load Depends on pile dimensions and

Load Capacity
needs. driving depth.
Ideal for urban areas with noise Suitable for dense soil and areas
Suitability
restrictions or loose soil. without noise restrictions.

5. Advantages of Bored Piles over Driven Piles:

1. Environmental Considerations:
o Lower noise and vibration levels make bored piles suitable for urban
construction.
2. Customizable Dimensions:
o Pile diameter and depth can be easily adjusted during construction.
3. Flexibility in Soil Types:
o Can be constructed in a variety of soil conditions, including loose or
collapsible soils.
4. Minimal Ground Disturbance:
o Causes less disturbance to surrounding structures due to the non-displacement
method.

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Working loads and ultimate loads on driven and cast- in-situ piles.

Q.2 Explain the concepts of working loads and ultimate loads in the context of
driven and cast-in-situ piles. Discuss how these loads are determined and their
importance in pile design.

1. Working Load (Service Load):

 Definition:
The working load is the load that a pile is designed to safely carry under normal operating
conditions, ensuring adequate performance and structural safety throughout its lifespan.
 Key Points:
o It includes the structure's self-weight, live loads, and other operational loads.
o A factor of safety (FOS) is applied to ensure the pile does not reach its failure point.
o Working load is often a fraction of the pile's ultimate load.
o Denoted as Wworking,

2. Ultimate Load:

 Definition:
The ultimate load is the maximum load a pile can carry before failure, either through
structural collapse or excessive settlement.
 Key Points:
o It includes the sum of the pile’s end-bearing resistance and shaft friction resistance.
o Determined through load tests, empirical formulas, or soil mechanics principles.
o Denoted as WultimateW_{\text{ultimate}}Wultimate, it represents the pile's
ultimate capacity.

3. Determining Loads for Piles:

For Driven Piles:

 Ultimate Load Determination:

o Calculated based on the bearing capacity of the soil at the pile tip and the friction
along the shaft.
o Verified using static or dynamic load tests.
 Working Load:
o Obtained by applying a factor of safety, typically ranging from 2 to 3, to the ultimate
load.

For Cast-in-Situ Piles:

 Ultimate Load Determination:

o Similar to driven piles, but soil disturbance during drilling and concreting may affect
the friction and end-bearing capacity.
o Load tests and borehole data are crucial for accurate assessment.
 Working Load:
o Computed similarly by applying a factor of safety to the ultimate load.

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4. Importance in Pile Design:

 Working Load:
o Ensures the pile can support expected operational loads without excessive
settlement or failure.
 Ultimate Load:
o Defines the pile's capacity limit, helping engineers design with an adequate safety
margin.
 Safety Factor:
o Balances uncertainties in soil properties, construction quality, and load variations.

5. Comparative Overview of Driven and Cast-in-Situ Piles:

Aspect Driven Piles Cast-in-Situ Piles

Load Carrying Depends on soil compaction around the Relies on concrete integrity and
Mechanism pile. borehole quality.

Higher due to soil densification during Slightly lower due to potential soil
Ultimate Load
driving. loosening.

Calculated with a higher margin due to Calculated considering borehole

Working Load
driving impacts. disturbances.

Piles in land and marine structures.

Q3. What are the main differences between piles used in land structures and
marine structures? Discuss their construction challenges and applications.

1. Piles in Land Structures:

 Purpose:
o Transfer structural loads from buildings, bridges, and towers to deeper, stable
soil layers.
o Provide stability in weak or compressible soils.
 Common Types of Piles:
o Driven Piles: Precast concrete, steel, or timber piles driven into the ground.
o Bored Piles: Cast-in-situ piles formed by drilling a hole and filling it with
concrete.
o Micropiles: Small-diameter piles used in restricted spaces.
 Construction Challenges:
o Variable soil conditions requiring extensive soil testing.
o Noise and vibration constraints in urban areas.
o Managing groundwater during bored pile installation.
 Applications:
o High-rise buildings, bridges, industrial plants, and retaining walls.

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2. Piles in Marine Structures:

 Purpose:
o Support marine facilities like jetties, wharves, offshore platforms, and coastal
defense structures.
o Resist lateral forces from waves, currents, and ship impacts.
 Common Types of Piles:
o Steel Piles: Preferred for their high strength and resistance to marine
conditions.
o Concrete Piles: Precast or cast-in-situ concrete piles reinforced for durability.
o Composite Piles: Combining materials like steel and concrete for enhanced
performance.
 Construction Challenges:
o Working in tidal zones with varying water levels.
o Corrosion due to saline water exposure.
o Installing piles through underwater soil layers with unknown characteristics.
o High equipment costs for marine pile driving and positioning.
 Applications:
o Ports, piers, oil platforms, floating docks, and breakwaters.

3. Key Differences:

Aspect Land Structures Marine Structures

Stable ground or soil-based Underwater or tidal zones with
Environment
environments. dynamic forces.
Combination of vertical, lateral, and
Load Conditions Primarily vertical loads.
impact loads.
Steel or composite piles with anti-
Materials Concrete, timber, or steel.
corrosion treatments.
Construction Soil testing and urban noise Underwater piling, corrosion, and
Challenges control. marine life disturbance.

Q4. Describe the construction process of piles for marine structures and the
methods used to protect them from corrosion.

1. Construction Process of Marine Piles:

1. Site Investigation:
o Detailed studies of seabed soil properties, tidal variations, and wave forces.
2. Pile Positioning:
o Using GPS and sonar systems for accurate placement of piles in marine
environments.
3. Pile Driving:
o Steel Piles: Driven using hydraulic hammers or vibratory hammers.

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o Concrete Piles: Precast piles are driven, or cast-in-situ piles are created using
tremie methods for underwater concreting.
4. Pile Cap Construction:
o Once piles are driven, pile caps are built above water level to distribute the
load from the superstructure evenly.

2. Corrosion Protection Methods:

 Material Selection:
o Use corrosion-resistant steel or add epoxy coatings to steel piles.
o Fiber-reinforced concrete for high durability.
 Cathodic Protection:
o Sacrificial Anodes: Attach sacrificial metals like zinc or aluminum to protect
steel piles.
o Impressed Current Systems: Use electrical currents to counteract corrosion.
 Protective Coatings:
o Apply anti-corrosion paints, bituminous coatings, or epoxy resins.
 Encasements:
o Use jackets or casings around piles to shield them from direct exposure to
seawater.
 Regular Maintenance:
o Periodic inspections and repairs to ensure the long-term durability of marine
piles.

Construction details of precast piles, pre stressed piles, steel piles and
friction piles.

Q5. Explain the construction details of precast concrete piles, including their
manufacturing, transportation, and installation process.

1. Precast Concrete Piles:

 Definition:
Precast piles are factory-manufactured concrete piles cast and cured before being
transported to the construction site.
 Construction Details:
1. Manufacturing:
 Concrete is poured into steel or wooden molds with embedded
reinforcement.
 Steam curing or air curing is performed to achieve desired strength and
durability.
 Pre-stressing may be applied if required (in case of pre-stressed piles).
2. Transportation:
 Piles are carefully lifted using cranes and transported to the site.
 Special care is taken to avoid cracks or damage during handling.
3. Installation:
 Piles are driven into the ground using hydraulic or diesel hammers.
 The driving process stops when the pile reaches the required depth or
refusal criteria.

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 Advantages:
o High quality due to controlled factory conditions.
o Immediate installation without curing delays on-site.
 Challenges:
o Transportation limitations due to pile length.
o Susceptible to cracking during handling.

Q6. What are pre-stressed concrete piles? Discuss their construction process and
advantages over regular precast piles.

1. Pre-stressed Concrete Piles:

 Definition:
Pre-stressed piles are precast piles reinforced with tensioned steel strands, which are
stretched before casting concrete.
 Construction Process:
1. Pre-Stressing Stage:
 High-strength steel strands are stretched in tensioned molds.
 The tension is maintained while concrete is poured around the strands.
2. Casting and Curing:
 Concrete is poured and allowed to cure, locking the tension in the steel
strands.
 The compression introduced in the concrete enhances its performance
under load.
3. Transportation and Installation:
 The piles are transported to the site and installed like regular precast
piles using pile drivers.
 Advantages:
o Higher load-carrying capacity than regular precast piles.
o Resistant to cracking and bending during handling or driving.
 Applications:
o Suitable for heavy loads and marine structures.

Q7. Describe the construction details and applications of steel piles.

1. Steel Piles:

 Definition:
Steel piles are structural elements made of steel, often used in deep foundations due to
their strength and adaptability.
 Types of Steel Piles:
o H-Piles: I-beam-shaped piles for penetrating hard soils or rock.
o Pipe Piles: Hollow cylindrical piles filled with concrete after installation.
o Sheet Piles: Interlocking steel sheets used for retaining walls and waterfront
structures.
 Construction Details:
1. Manufacturing:
 Rolled in factories using high-grade steel.
 Often coated or galvanized to resist corrosion.
2. Transportation:

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
Lightweight and easy to transport in longer sections compared to
concrete piles.
3. Installation:
 Installed using vibratory or impact hammers.
 For pipe piles, the hollow section may be filled with concrete after
installation to increase load capacity.
 Advantages:
o High strength and flexibility to handle dynamic loads.
o Can penetrate hard soil layers without breaking.
 Applications:
o Bridges, offshore platforms, and retaining structures.

Q8. What are friction piles? Explain their construction process and load transfer
mechanism.

1. Friction Piles:

 Definition:
Friction piles transfer loads to the surrounding soil through skin friction along their
length, rather than relying on end-bearing capacity.
 Load Transfer Mechanism:
o The surface area of the pile in contact with the soil determines the load-
carrying capacity.
o Suitable for soft or loose soils where end-bearing piles cannot reach a stable
stratum.
 Construction Process:
1. Design:
 The pile length and diameter are calculated based on the soil’s shear
strength and load requirements.
2. Installation:
 Can be driven, bored, or cast-in-situ, depending on site conditions.
 Ensure maximum contact between the pile surface and surrounding
soil.
3. Load Testing:
 Load tests are conducted to confirm the frictional resistance meets the
design criteria.
 Advantages:
o Effective in transferring loads in soft soils.
o No need to reach bedrock or hard soil layers.
 Applications:
o Low to moderate load structures on loose or soft soils.

Summary Table:
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Type of Pile Key Features Applications

Precast High-quality factory-made piles, ready Buildings, bridges, retaining
Concrete Piles for immediate use. walls.
Pre-stressed Enhanced strength with pre-stressed Heavy loads, marine structures,
Piles reinforcement. industrial plants.
Strong and flexible, easy to install in hard Bridges, offshore platforms,
Steel Piles
soils or marine environments. waterfront retaining walls.
Load transferred through skin friction; no Soft or loose soils under low to
Friction Piles
reliance on bedrock. moderate load structures.

Pile Capacity - Load test on piles initial and routine for vertical,
horizontal, uplift loads

Q9. What is the purpose of load tests on piles? Explain the procedure and significance of
initial and routine load tests for vertical, horizontal, and uplift loads.

1. Purpose of Load Tests on Piles:

Load tests are conducted to determine the load-carrying capacity, settlement characteristics,
and overall performance of piles under various loading conditions. They validate design
assumptions and ensure safe load transfer to the soil.

2. Types of Load Tests:

A. Initial Load Test:

 Conducted on test piles during the design phase or before actual construction.
 Purpose:
o Determine the ultimate load capacity of the pile.
o Validate the pile design and soil assumptions.

B. Routine Load Test:

 Performed on working piles after installation.

 Purpose:
o Verify that installed piles meet the design specifications.
o Assess workmanship and quality control.

3. Load Test Methods for Different Loads:

(i) Vertical Load Tests:

 Procedure:
1. A test pile is subjected to incremental vertical loads using a hydraulic jack.
2. Settlement is recorded after each load increment until failure or a specified limit is
reached.

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3. Loading may follow a maintained load method or cyclic loading method.

 Significance:
o Ensures the pile can carry vertical loads without excessive settlement.

(ii) Horizontal (Lateral) Load Tests:

 Procedure:
1. Horizontal loads are applied to the pile head using jacks or other equipment.
2. Lateral displacement is measured at each load increment.
 Significance:
o Checks the pile’s ability to resist lateral forces like wind, waves, or seismic loads.

(iii) Uplift (Tensile) Load Tests:

 Procedure:
1. Uplift forces are applied by pulling the pile head using hydraulic jacks.
2. The displacement of the pile head is recorded for each increment.
 Significance:
o Determines the pile’s resistance to upward forces from buoyancy or tension in the
structure.

4. Acceptance Criteria:

 Settlement or displacement should remain within the permissible limits specified by

standards like IS 2911.
 Ultimate capacity is determined when the pile shows significant deflection or failure.

Integrity test

Q10. Explain the integrity tests for piles and their importance in pile construction.

Answer:

1. Definition of Pile Integrity Test (PIT):

Pile integrity tests assess the structural soundness of piles by detecting defects like cracks,
voids, or reductions in cross-section.

2. Common Methods:

(i) Low-Strain Dynamic Test (Pulse Echo Test):

 A hammer or similar device is used to send stress waves into the pile.
 Reflected waves are analyzed to detect discontinuities or changes in material properties.

(ii) Cross-Hole Sonic Logging (CSL):

 Transmitters and receivers are placed in pre-installed tubes within the pile.
 Ultrasonic waves are sent and received; delays or disruptions indicate defects.

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(iii) Thermal Integrity Profiling (TIP):

 Measures the heat generated by curing concrete.

 Anomalies in temperature distribution reveal defects or improper curing.

3. Importance:

 Ensures quality and durability of piles.

 Detects defects early, preventing structural failures.
 Saves cost and time by avoiding pile replacement after construction.

Failure of piles and causes,

Q11. Discuss the failure of piles and the possible causes behind such failures.

1. Types of Pile Failures:

1. Structural Failure:
o The pile breaks or buckles due to inadequate design or material quality.
2. Geotechnical Failure:
o Excessive settlement or lateral movement occurs due to weak soil or overloading.
3. Installation-Related Failure:
o Pile damage during driving or improper alignment during installation.

2. Causes of Pile Failure:

1. Design Errors:
o Inaccurate soil data or inadequate safety factors in design.
2. Material Defects:
o Poor quality concrete, steel, or timber used in pile construction.
3. Improper Installation:
o Overdriving, incorrect alignment, or poor handling of precast piles.
4. Soil Issues:
o Unexpected soil layers, liquefaction, or erosion around the pile.
5. Environmental Factors:
o Corrosion, chemical attack, or fluctuating groundwater levels weakening the pile.

3. Mitigation Measures:

 Conduct thorough soil investigations and pile load tests.

 Use high-quality materials and follow proper construction practices.
 Monitor installation processes and ensure compliance with design specifications.
 Protect piles from corrosion and other environmental hazards.

Summary Table:

Aspect Load Tests Integrity Tests Failure Causes

Purpose Validate load Assess structural Identify reasons for failures.

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Aspect Load Tests Integrity Tests Failure Causes

capacity. soundness.

Structural, geotechnical, or
Types Initial and routine. Pulse echo, CSL, TIP.
installation-related.

Key Settlement Detecting subtle Addressing unexpected soil or material

Challenges monitoring. defects. issues.

Methods of pile driving by Vibration

Q12. Explain the process and working principle of pile driving by vibration.
Discuss its advantages, limitations, and applications in civil engineering.

Introduction

Pile driving by vibration is a technique that uses vibratory forces to install piles into the
ground. It is especially effective for granular soils like sand and gravel. The method involves
specialized equipment, such as a vibratory hammer, which transmits oscillating forces to the
pile, reducing soil resistance and enabling the pile to penetrate the ground efficiently.

Working Principle

The principle is based on reducing the friction and soil resistance around the pile by inducing
continuous or high-frequency vibrations. These vibrations temporarily loosen the soil
particles around the pile, making it easier to drive the pile into the ground.

1. Equipment Used:
o Vibratory Hammer: Generates vertical or rotational vibrations.
o Power Unit: Supplies energy to the vibratory hammer.
o Clamps: Attach the hammer to the pile securely.
2. Process:
o The vibratory hammer is attached to the top of the pile.
o Vibrations are applied along the pile's longitudinal axis.
o The vibrations liquefy the surrounding soil, reducing friction.
o The pile is driven into the ground using its weight and the vibratory forces.
3. Optimal Conditions:
o Works best in loose, granular soils.
o Less effective in cohesive soils like clay due to the lack of particle separation.

Advantages

1. Efficiency:
o Faster installation compared to impact methods.
o Suitable for driving long piles into soft soils.

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2. Reduced Noise:
o Generates less noise and ground vibration compared to traditional impact
driving.
3. Pile Integrity:
o Minimizes structural damage to piles, especially for steel or concrete piles.
4. Environmental Benefits:
o Less disturbance to nearby structures due to controlled vibrations.

Limitations

1. Soil Dependency:
o Ineffective in cohesive soils like clay, where vibrations cannot loosen soil
particles.
2. Load Limitations:
o May not be suitable for very heavy or large piles requiring significant load-
bearing capacity.
3. Equipment Cost:
o Requires specialized and costly equipment, increasing initial expenses.
4. Environmental Concerns:
o Vibrations may still pose risks to sensitive structures or ecosystems nearby.

Applications

1. Temporary Pile Installations:

o For construction of cofferdams or retaining walls.
2. Marine and Offshore Construction:
o Driving piles for jetties, piers, or offshore platforms.
3. Urban Construction:
o Suitable for projects in noise-sensitive areas like hospitals or schools.
4. Foundation Work:
o For lightweight structures in sandy or loose soil conditions.

Construction of Micro Piles

Q13. Explain the construction process of micro piles, their advantages, and the
typical situations where they are used in civil engineering.

Introduction

Micro piles, also known as mini piles, are small-diameter (typically 150–300 mm) piles
constructed using high-strength steel and grout. They are used in situations where traditional
piling methods are not feasible due to site constraints or sensitive environmental conditions.

Construction Process

1. Site Preparation:
o The site is cleared, and the exact locations for micro piles are marked.
o Soil investigations are performed to determine subsurface conditions.
2. Drilling:

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oA small-diameter hole is drilled into the ground using rotary or rotary-

percussion drilling equipment.
o The depth of the hole depends on the design load and subsurface conditions.
3. Reinforcement Installation:
o A high-strength steel bar or a hollow steel rod is inserted into the drilled hole.
o Centralizers are added to ensure proper alignment and positioning within the
hole.
4. Grouting:
o Cementitious grout is injected under pressure to fill the borehole.
o Grouting serves to bond the reinforcement to the surrounding soil or rock,
increasing the pile's load-bearing capacity.
5. Curing and Load Testing:
o The grout is allowed to cure for a specified period to achieve strength.
o Load testing is conducted to ensure that the micro piles meet the required load
capacity.

Advantages

1. Accessibility:
o Ideal for areas with restricted access or low headroom.
2. Versatility:
o Can be used in a wide range of soil types, including rock.
3. Minimal Disturbance:
o Causes less vibration and noise, making it suitable for sensitive sites.
4. Load Capacity:
o Effective for both tension and compression loads.
5. Retrofit Capabilities:
o Often used for strengthening or stabilizing existing structures.

Applications

1. Stabilizing foundations of historic or existing structures.

2. Supporting new construction in urban or constrained sites.
3. Strengthening slopes and retaining walls.
4. Providing foundation solutions in seismic zones.

Construction of Diaphragm Walls

Q14. Describe the step-by-step construction procedure for diaphragm walls.

Highlight their key advantages and applications in modern construction.

Introduction

Diaphragm walls are deep, reinforced concrete walls used as structural retaining walls,
foundation elements, or water-tight barriers. They are commonly employed in deep
excavation projects such as basements, tunnels, and underground stations.

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Construction Procedure

1. Planning and Design:

o Conduct site surveys and geotechnical investigations.
o Design the wall based on soil properties, excavation depth, and load
requirements.
2. Guide Wall Construction:
o A shallow guide wall (about 1 m deep) is constructed to define the trench
alignment and provide stability during excavation.
3. Trench Excavation:
o The trench is excavated in panels using hydraulic grabs or cutter machines.
o Bentonite slurry or polymer solution is used to support the trench walls and
prevent collapse.
4. Stop-End Placement:
o Stop-ends are installed at panel joints to maintain continuity and alignment.
5. Reinforcement Cage Installation:
o Prefabricated reinforcement cages are lifted and placed into the excavated
trench using cranes.
6. Concreting Using the Tremie Method:
o Concrete is poured from the bottom of the trench using a tremie pipe.
o The slurry is displaced by the concrete, ensuring a dense, void-free wall.
7. Joint Cleaning and Finishing:
o The panel joints are cleaned, and adjacent panels are constructed sequentially.

Advantages

1. Structural Stability:
o Provides excellent lateral support and resistance to water ingress.
2. Versatility:
o Can be used as both temporary and permanent structural elements.
3. Minimal Disruption:
o Allows deep excavation in urban areas with minimal impact on surrounding
structures.
4. Water Tightness:
o Essential for projects requiring below-ground water control, such as basements
and tunnels.

Applications

1. Urban Construction:
o Retaining walls for basements and underground parking.
2. Hydraulic Structures:
o Dams and flood protection systems.
3. Transportation Projects:
o Shafts for metro and subway stations.
4. Deep Excavations:
o Foundations for high-rise buildings or large industrial facilities.

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