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SQL best practices & optimisation interview Q&As

00: 18+ SQL best practices & 300+ Java Interview

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1) Translating any business requirements into SQL.

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Let’s start with the best practices.

#1. Use uppercase for the keywords like SELECT, FROM, JOIN, Key Areas & Companion
GROUP BY, WHERE, etc. It’s also a good practice to use uppercase Techs FAQs
for the SQL functions like UPPER(col_name), COUNT(o.id), etc.
16+ Tech Key Areas FAQs 
Another key rule is that each clause such as SELECT, FROM, WHERE,
GROUP BY, HAVING etc. should be in a new line. Proper structure 10+ Companion Tech Q&As 
improves readability of SQL queries.

Avoid: lower cases for the key words.

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1 select c.id, 800+ Enterprise & Core
2 c.name, Java Q&As
3 count(o.id) as orders_count
4 from my_schema.customers c
300+ Core Java Q&As 
5 join my_schema.orders o ON c.id = o.customer_id
6 where c.age <= 30 300+ Enterprise Java Q&As 
7 group by c.id, c.name
8

Favor: upper case as shown below.

Java & Big Data Tutorials

Tutorials - Golang 
1 SELECT cust.id,
2 cust.name, Tutorials - Big Data 
3 COUNT(ord.id) as orders_count
Tutorials - Enterprise Java 
4 FROM my_schema.customers cust
5 JOIN my_schema.orders ord ON cust.id = ord.customer_id
6 WHERE cust.age <= 30
7 GROUP BY cust.id, cust.name
8

#2. Use column & table aliases where it makes sense. For example,
in the above example the column alias orders_count makes it more
readable as in “COUNT(ord.id) as orders_count”. Use table aliases
like cust, ord, etc shown above when you are joining multiple tables.

#3. Avoid select * as it hides the intentions behind your query. More
importantly, the table can grow later with new columns added, which
could intentionally impact the existing queries & scripts written with
“SELECT * FROM table…..”.

Avoid:

1 SELECT c.* FROM my_schema.customers c

Favor: naming the columns explicitly.

1 SELECT c.id, c.name, c.address FROM my_schema.customers c

The selection of unnecessary columns in table that has 100+

columns or columns storing CLOB or BLOB object types can
adversely impact the query performance.

#4. Favor joins over subqueries where possible for better

performance.

#5. Favor GROUP BY or WHERE EXISTS (….) over DISTINCT as the

GROUP BY takes place higher up in the order of execution in the 
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logical plan. The DISTINCT statement finds the unique rows

corresponding to the SELECTed columns by dropping duplicated
rows from the table. The GROUP BY can be faster & lesser error
prone.

Avoid:

1 SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT c.name, c.age0) FROM my_schema.customers

Favor:

1 SELECT COUNT(*)
2 FROM
3 (
4 SELECT c.name, c.age
5 FROM my_schema.customers c
6 GROUP BY c.name, c.age
7 )
8

It is also easy to misuse DISTINCT to get erroneous results as

demonstrated below.

The order of operations in SQL are:

1) FROM (including JOIN, etc.)

2) WHERE
3) GROUP BY (can remove duplicates)
4) Aggregations like SUM(), COUNT(), etc (aggregates the grouped
data)
5) HAVING (filters the grouped & aggregated data)
6) Window functions (aka SQL analytic functions)
7) SELECT
8) DISTINCT (can remove duplicates)
9) UNION, INTERSECT, EXCEPT (can remove duplicates)
10) ORDER BY
11) OFFSET
12) LIMIT

The GROUP BY happens before the SELECT, which is a projection

(i.e. choosing the columns & expressions) task, whereas the
DISTINCT happens after the SELECT.

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SQL Order of execution incorrect use #1

The incorrect use of DISTINCT can lead to erroneous results as
shown below. The DISTINCT operation “happens after” the SELECT,
hence you can no longer remove DISTINCT ratings because the
window function was already calculated and projected.

Wrong:

1 SELECT DISTINCT rating, row_number() OVER (ORDER BY rating) AS

2

Correct:

1 SELECT dt.rating, row_number() OVER (ORDER BY dt.rating) AS ro

2 SELECT DISTINCT rating FROM review
3 ) dt
4

dt is a Derived Table.

DISTINCT incorrect use #2

Unnecessary JOINs are performed and when the data doubles the
DISTINCT keyword is used to incorrectly fix it. It is correct to do
SELECT … FROM employer WHERE EXISTS (SELECT… FROM
employee) as opposed to joining and selecting the DISTINCT rows.

SQL Order of execution incorrect use #2

When using analytical functions along with WHERE clause to filter
out certain ranks. The WHERE clause is evaluated higher up in the
order before the analytic functions like “ROW_NUMBER() over
(PARTITION BY name ORDER BY updated desc)”

Wrong:

1 SELECT *
2 , ROW_NUMBER() OVER(PARTITION BY name ORDER BY updated de
3 FROM user
4 WHERE row_num = 1
5

Correct:
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1 SELECT *
2 FROM (
3 SELECT *
4 , ROW_NUMBER() OVER(PARTITION BY name ORDER BY updated de
5 FROM user
6 ) as k
7 WHERE k.row_num = 1
8

Where the alias “k” is a derived table.

Alternatively, if your server supports CTE (i.e. Common Table

Expression).

1
2 WITH cte_tbl AS
3 (
4 SELECT *, ROW_NUMBER() OVER(PARTITION BY name ORDER BY update
5 FROM user
6 )
7
8 SELECT FROM cte_tbl
9 WHERE row_num = 1
10

If you are using Teradata then

1
2 SELECT *
3 FROM user
4 QUALIFY ROW_NUMBER() OVER(PARTITION BY name ORDER BY updated d
5

QUALIFY filters on OLAP (i.e. analytical) functions similar to HAVING

clause filters on aggregate functions.

#6. Use Common Table Expression (i.e CTE) if your database

supports it. CTEs are available on most modern databases. CTEs
work like a Derived Table, but has 2 advantages.

1) CTEs make your query more readable.

2) CTEs can be defined once & reused multiple times.

Use CTEs instead of multiple sub or nested queries.

Learn more about CTEs.

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#7. Beware with NULLs in equality or comparison operators.

Internally a value of NULL is an unknown value and therefore SQL
engines don’t equate an unknown value to another unknown value.

NULL has no value, and so cannot be compared using the scalar

value operators like = or <>. SQL has special IS NULL and IS NOT
NULL predicates for dealing with NULL.

#8. Write useful comments only when the logic is complex, but don’t
over do it. Use meaningful names & aliases to improve readability.

#9. Starting the WHERE clause with 1=1 allows you to comment
certain conditions for debugging purpose.

1 SELECT cust.id,
2 cust.name,
3 COUNT(ord.id) as orders_count
4 FROM my_schema.customers cust
5 JOIN my_schema.orders ord ON cust.id = ord.customer_id
6 WHERE 1=1
7 AND cust.age <= 30
8 GROUP BY cust.id, cust.name
9

#10. Table primary keys, indexes or data partitions help retrieve

information faster and more efficiently. Full table scans are
expensive, and can be avoided with proper keys, indexes &
partitions. Use indexed columns in the WHERE clause to limit the
number of records read.

#11. Avoid function calls in WHERE clause where possible as it will

be applied to every record read, and adversely impacting
performance when you have millions of rows. The second reason
which can have even more impact on query performance is the fact
that if there is a function surrounding the column you are trying to
filter on, any indexes on that column can not be used.

Avoid:

1 SELECT s.id, s.age

2 FROM sales s
3 WHERE YEAR(s.sale_date)=2024
4

Favor:

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1 SELECT s.id, s.age
2 FROM sales s
3 WHERE s.sale_date between '2024-01-01' AND '2024-12-31'
4

It is not always possible to avoid functions. For example, using a

CAST in WHERE clause to convert string to DATE or TIMESTAMP.

#12. Favor using wildcards at the end of like ‘p%’ as opposed to the
beginning like ‘%d’ as it is faster & more efficient. At times you want
to search by the last numbers as in last 4 digits of a credit card
number or a phone number. In this scenario have an additional
column with the reversed card number or phone number.

For single condition: LIKE is faster

For multiple conditions: REGEXP_LIKE is faster

LIKE:

1 SELECT *
2 FROM employees
3 WHERE LOWER(name) LIKE '%ep%' OR
4 LOWER(name) LIKE '%es%' OR
5 LOWER(name) LIKE '%em%' OR
6 LOWER(name) LIKE '%et%'
7

REGEXP_LIKE:

1 SELECT *
2 FROM employees
3 WHERE REGEXP_LIKE( LOWER(name), 'ep|es|em|et')
4

REGEXP_EXTRACT can be used in place of CASE WHEN LIKE if it is

supported by your RDBMS.

1 SELECT id
2 , CASE WHEN LOWER(name) LIKE '%peter%' THEN 'Peter'
3 WHEN LOWER(name) LIKE '%jessica%' THEN 'Jessica'
4 WHEN LOWER(name) LIKE '%john%' THEN 'John'
5 END AS emp_name
6 FROM employees
7

REGEXP:

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MySQL v8 server does not support REGEXP_EXTRACT(), hence

REGEXP is used below.

1 SELECT id
2 , CASE WHEN LOWER(name) REGEXP 'peter|john|jessica' THEN CONCA
3 END AS emp_name
4 FROM employees
5

#13. Limit the number of records to be returned, when you are

testing the correctness of your query. Imagine how much time will
be wasted on running a massive query that returns millions of rows
to find out that the results or calculations were not as anticipated.
You can use the SELECT TOP 10 or LIMIT 10 to restrict the number
of rows returned as a sample.

Avoid:

1 SELECT txn_id, amount

2 FROM txn_history
3

Favor:

1 SELECT TOP 1000 txn_id, amount

2 FROM txn_history
3

LIMIT & TOP clauses are more efficient than COUNT(*) or EXISTS(…),
but can only be used in scenarios like testing or sampling.

#14. Favor UNION ALL over UNION , when you know that the two
tables being combined don’t have any duplicates. The UNION ALL is
more efficient as it does not have to perform a deduplication
operation.

#15. Create joins with INNER JOIN but not with WHERE as joins with
WHERE can create a cartesian product or a CROSS JOIN. In a
CROSS JOIN, all possible combinations of the variables are created.

Avoid:

1 SELECT cust.id,
2 cust.name,
3 COUNT(ord.id) as orders_count 
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4 FROM my_schema.customers cust, my_schema.orders ord
5 WHERE 1=1
6 AND cust.id = ord.customer_id
7 AND cust.age <= 30
8 GROUP BY cust.id, cust.name
9

Correct:

1 SELECT cust.id,
2 cust.name,
3 COUNT(ord.id) as orders_count
4 FROM my_schema.customers cust
5 JOIN my_schema.orders ord ON cust.id = ord.customer_id
6 WHERE 1=1
7 AND cust.age <= 30
8 GROUP BY cust.id, cust.name
9

#16. Use WHERE instead of HAVING to filter records as WHERE is

executed before HAVING as per the order of execution shown below.
The WHERE is more efficient as you restrict the number of records
read from the database. HAVING should only be used when filtering
on an aggregated fields.

1) FROM (including JOIN, etc.)

2) WHERE
3) GROUP BY (can remove duplicates)
4) Aggregations (like SUM(), COUNT(), etc)
5) HAVING
6) Window functions
7) SELECT
8) DISTINCT (can remove duplicates)
9) UNION, INTERSECT, EXCEPT (can remove duplicates)
10) ORDER BY
11) OFFSET
12) LIMIT

Avoid:

1 SELECT s.id, s.age, COUNT(s.ord_id)

2 FROM sales s
3 GROUP BY s.id, s.age
4 HAVING s.age < 25
5

Favor:

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1 SELECT s.id, s.age, COUNT(s.ord_id)
2 FROM sales s
3 WHERE s.age < 25
4 GROUP BY s.id, s.age
5

#17. At times it is better to split a complex query . In some cases

joins will improve your query performance, but too many JOINs can
result in memory or performance issues. You can split your complex
queries with an initial SELECT followed by a sequence of
UPDATE/INSERT statements. You need an orchestrator to execute
these statements in the correct order. At times this approach may
come with a readability/performances trade-off. Assess the
scenarios & weigh the pros vs cons.

Instead Of:

1 SELECT cust.id,
2 cust.salary,
3 ord.order_no
4 prod.product_code,
5 inv.invoice_no
6 FROM my_schema.customers cust
7 LEFT JOIN my_schema.order AS ord on cust.ord_id = ord.ord_id
8 LEFT JOIN my_schema.product AS prod on cust.product_id = prod
9 LEFT JOIN my_schema.invoice AS inv on order.invoice_id = inv
10 ...
11

You could try:

1 #STEP 1: Create the initial table

2 CREATE TABLE customer_detail AS
3 SELECT cust.id,
4 cust.salary,
5 NULL as order_no
6 NULL as product_code,
7 NULL as invoice_no
8 FROM my_schema.customers cust;
9
10
11 -- STEP 2: Update the order number
12 UPDATE customer_detail
13 SET order_no = dt.order_no
14 FROM (
15 SELECT ord_id, order_no
16 FROM my_schema.order
17 ) dt
18 WHERE customer_detail.ord_id = dt.ord_id;
19
20
21
22
-- STEP 3: Update the product code
UPDATE customer_detail
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23 SET product_code = dt.product_code
24 FROM (
25 SELECT product_id, product_code
26 FROM my_schema.product
27 ) dt
28 WHERE customer_detail.product_id= dt.product_id;
29
30 -- STEP 4: Update the invoice number
31 UPDATE customer_detail
32 SET invoice_no = dt.invoice_no
33 FROM (
34 SELECT invoice_id, invoice_no
35 FROM my_schema.invoice
36 ) dt
37 WHERE customer_detail.invoice_id= dt.invoice_id;
38

“dt” is a shorthand for the Derived Table.

#18. Use meaningful concise names for the table & column names.
Most organisations maintain a data dictionary with an abbreviated
naming convention to be adhered to. They also have a review &
approval process in place where the Data assets are reviewed by the
Data modellers, Data stewards, Leads, Product owners, etc.

#19. Remove unnecessary ORDER BY clauses. If you are using CTEs

or subqueries you don’t need to have ORDER BY in them. Often it is
fine to have the ORDER BY in the final query. This not only improves
performance, but also the readability.

#20. Favor EXISTS() over COUNT() to find if a table has a specific

record as COUNT will search the entire table, whilst EXISTS() will
execute until it finds the first record in the table.

Instead Of:

1 SELECT COUNT(*)
2 FROM order o
3 JOIN product p
4 ON o.product_id = p.product_id
5 WHERE p.product_code= 'BCL-23'
6

Favor using

1 SELECT EXISTS (
2 SELECT 1 FROM order o
3 JOIN product p
4 ON o.product_id = p.product_id
5 WHERE p.product_code= 'BCL-23' 
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6 )
7

Time taken in the order from longer to shorter:

1 COUNT(*) > COUNT(id) > EXISTS (....)

2

#21. EXISTS(…) Vs. IN(….) clauses: The EXISTS clause is much

faster than IN clause when the subquery returns a large result.
Conversely, the IN clause is faster than EXISTS clause when the
subquery returns a very small result. The EXISTS clause evaluates to
true or false, but the IN clause will compare all values in the
corresponding subquery column.

If you happen to have a long list in an IN clause, replace it with a

temporary table or a derived table.

When you have a lots of orders

1
2 SELECT product_id
3 FROM product
4 WHERE EXISTS (SELECT product_id FROM orders);
5

When you have a few orders

1
2 SELECT product_id
3 FROM product
4 WHERE product_id IN (SELECT product_id FROM orders WHERE orde
5

#22. Beware of the operator precedences as not using parentheses

can result in incorrect results. For example, to find employees
earning 50K or more in the states of NSW & VIC.

Wrong:

1 SELECT first_name, state, salary

2 FROM employees
3 WHERE upper(state) = 'NSW' OR upper(state) = 'VIC'
4 AND salary >= 50000.00
5

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Without parenthesis AND will take precedence over OR, hence a

parenthesis is required as shown below.

Correct:

1 SELECT first_name, state, salary

2 FROM employees
3 WHERE (upper(state) = 'NSW' OR upper(state) = 'VIC')
4 AND salary >= 50000.00
5

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Arulkumaran Kumaraswamipillai
Mechanical Engineer to self-taught Java engineer in 1999. Contracting since 2002 as a Java Engineer &
Architect and since 2016 as a Big Data Engineer & Architect. Preparation & key know-hows empowered me
to attend 150+ job interviews, choose from 130+ job offers & negotiate better contract rates. Author of the
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Practicing & brushing up a few Q&As each day on broad number of main stream categories can make a huge impact in 3-12
months.

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"You are paid to read & write lots of code & solve business problems in a
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Don't be overwhelmed by the number of Q&As. Job interviews are not technical contests to see who gets most number of questions right.
Nobody knows everything. The Clarity of the answers you give with real-life examples will go a long way in getting you multiple job offers.
It pays to brush-up & choose from 2-6 job offers. Experienced interviewers can easily judge your real experience from a few open-ended
questions & the answers you provide.

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