Introduction

➢ Source: analog or digital

➢ Transmitter: transducer, amplifier, modulator, oscillator,

power amp., antenna

➢ Channel: e.g. cable, optical fibre, free space

➢ Receiver: antenna, amplifier, demodulator, oscillator,

power amplifier, transducer

➢ Recipient: e.g. person, (loud) speaker, computer

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➢Types of information:
Voice, data, video, music, email etc.

➢Types of communication systems:

Public Switched Telephone Network
(voice,fax,modem)
Satellite systems
Radio,TV broadcasting
Cellular phones
Computer networks (LANs, WANs, WLANs)

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 Information Representation
➢ Communication system converts information into electrical
electromagnetic/optical signals appropriate for the
transmission medium.
➢ Analog systems convert analog message into signals that can
propagate through the channel.
➢ Digital systems convert bits(digits, symbols) into signals

• Computers naturally generate information as characters/bits

• Most information can be converted into bits
• Analog signals converted to bits by sampling and quantizing (A/D
conversion)

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 WHY DIGITAL?
➢ Digital techniques need to distinguish between discrete
symbols allowing regeneration versus amplification

➢ Good processing techniques are available for digital

signals, such as medium.
• Data compression (or source coding)
• Error Correction (or channel coding)(A/D conversion)
• Equalization
• Security

➢ Easy to mix signals and data using digital techniques

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 Information Source and Sinks
Information Source and Input Transducer:
▪ The source of information can be analog or digital,
▪ Analog: audio or video signal,
▪ Digital: like teletype signal.
▪ In digital communication the signal produced by this source is
converted into digital signal consists of 1′s and 0′s.

Output Transducer:
▪ The signal in desired format analog or digital at the output

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 Channel

▪ The communication channel is the physical medium that is used

for transmitting signals from transmitter to receiver
• Wireless channels: Wireless Systems
• Wired Channels: Telephony
▪ Channel discrimination on the basis of their property and
characteristics, like AWGN channel etc.

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 Source Encoder And Decoder
Source Encoder
▪ In digital communication we convert the signal from source
into digital signal.
▪ Source Encoding or Data Compression: the process of
efficiently converting the output of wither analog or digital
source into a sequence of binary digits is known as source
encoding.
Source Decoder
▪ At the end, if an analog signal is desired then source decoder
tries to decode the sequence from the knowledge of the
encoding algorithm.

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 Channel Encoder And Decoder
Channel Encoder:
▪ The information sequence is passed through the channel
encoder. The purpose of the channel encoder is to introduce, in
controlled manner, some redundancy in the binary information
sequence that can be used at the receiver to overcome the effects
of noise and interference encountered in the transmission on the
signal through the channel.
Channel Decoder:
▪ Channel decoder attempts to reconstruct the original
information sequence from the knowledge of the code used by
the channel encoder and the redundancy contained in the
received data
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 Digital Modulator And Demodulator
Digital Modulator:
▪ The binary sequence is passed to digital modulator which
in turns convert the sequence into electric signals so that
we can transmit them on channel. The digital modulator
maps the binary sequences into signal wave forms.
Digital Demodulator:
▪ The digital demodulator processes the channel corrupted
transmitted waveform and reduces the waveform to the
sequence of numbers that represents estimates of the
transmitted data symbols.

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 Why Digital Communications?
➢Easy to regenerate the distorted signal
➢Regenerative repeaters along the transmission path can detect a
digital signal and retransmit a new, clean (noise free) signal
➢These repeaters prevent accumulation of noise along the path
This is not possible with analog communication systems
➢Two-state signal representation
The input to a digital system is in the form of a sequence of
bits (binary or M-ary)
➢Immunity to distortion and interference
➢Digital communication is rugged in the sense that it is more
immune to channel noise and distortion

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 ➢ Hardware is more flexible
➢ Digital hardware implementation is flexible and permits the
use of microprocessors, mini-processors, digital switching
and VLSI
Shorter design and production cycle
➢ Low cost
The use of LSI and VLSI in the design of components and
systems have resulted in lower cost
➢ Easier and more efficient to multiplex several digital
signals
➢ Digital multiplexing techniques – Time & Code Division
Multiple Access - are easier to implement than analog
techniques such as Frequency Division Multiple Access
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 ➢ Can combine different signal types – data, voice, text, etc.
➢ Data communication in computers is digital in nature
whereas voice communication between people is analog in
nature
➢ Using digital techniques, it is possible to combine both
format for transmission through a common medium
➢ Encryption and privacy techniques are easier to
implement
➢ Better overall performance
➢ Digital communication is inherently more efficient than
analog in realizing the exchange of SNR for bandwidth.
➢ Digital signals can be coded to yield extremely low rates
and high fidelity as well as privacy.

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Disadvantages:
➢ Requires reliable “synchronization”

➢ Requires A/D conversions at high rate

➢ Requires larger bandwidth

➢ Nongraceful degradation

➢ Performance Criteria

➢ Probability of error or Bit Error Rate

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 Sampling Process

Sampling is converting a
continuous time signal into a
discrete time signal.
There three types of sampling
➢Impulse (ideal) sampling
➢Natural Sampling
➢Sample and Hold operation

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 Quantization
Quantization is a non linear transformation which maps
elements from a continuous set to a finite set.

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Quantization Noise

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 Uniform & Non- Uniform Quantization

Non uniform Quantization Used to reduce quantization error

and increase the dynamic range when input signal is not
uniformly distributed over its allowed range of values.

Uniform quantization Non-Uniform

quantization
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Encoding

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 Pulse Code Modulation
➢ Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a special form of A/D
conversion.

➢ It consists of sampling, quantizing, and encoding steps.

1.Used for long time in telephone systems
2. Errors can be corrected during long haul transmission
3. Can use time division multiplexing

4. In expensive

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PCM Transmitter

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PCM Transmission Path

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PCM Receiver

rReconstructed waveform
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 Bandwidth of PCM
Assume w(t) is band limited to B hertz.
Minimum sampling rate = 2B samples / second
A/D output = n bits per sample (quantization level M=2n)
Assume a simple PCM without redundancy.
Minimum channel bandwidth = bit rate /2

➢ Bandwidth of PCM signals:

BPCM  nB (with sinc functions as orthogonal basis)
BPCM  2nB (with rectangular pulses as orthogonal basis)
➢ For any reasonable quantization level M, PCM requires
much higher bandwidth than the original w(t).

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 Advantages of PCM
Relatively inexpensive.
Easily multiplexed.
Easily regenerated.
Better noise performance than analog system.
Signals may be stored and time-scaled efficiently.
Efficient codes are readily available.
Disadvantage
Requires wider bandwidth than analog signals

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Line Codes

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Categories of Line Codes
▪ Polar - Send pulse or negative of pulse
▪ Unipolar - Send pulse or a 0
▪ Bipolar - Represent 1 by alternating signed pulses
Generalized Pulse Shapes
▪ NRZ -Pulse lasts entire bit period
▪Polar NRZ
▪Bipolar NRZ
▪ RZ - Return to Zero - pulse lasts just half of bit period
▪Polar RZ
▪Bipolar RZ
▪ Manchester Line Code
▪Send a 2-  pulse for either 1 (high→ low) or 0 (low→ high)
▪Includes rising and falling edge in each pulse
▪No DC component
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Differential Encoding

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Noise Considerations In PCM

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Time Division Multiplexing(TDM)

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Synchronization

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 Delta Modulation

Types of noise
➢ Quantization noise: step
size  takes place of smallest
quantization level.
➢ too small: slope overload
noise
too large: quantization noise
and granular noise

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Delta Modulator Transmitter & Receiver

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ADM

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ADM Transmitter & Receiver

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 DPCM
Often voice and video signals do not
change much from one
sample to next.
- Such signals has energy concentrated
in lower frequency.
- Sampling faster than necessary
generates redundant information.
Can save bandwidth by not sending all
samples.
* Send true samples occasionally.
* In between, send only change
from previous value.
* Change values can be sent using
a fewer number of bits
than true samples.

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DPCM Transmitter

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DPCM Receiver

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 Processing Gain
In a spread-spectrum system, the process gain (or
"processing gain") is the ratio of the spread (or RF)
bandwidth to the unspread (or baseband) bandwidth.
It is usually expressed in decibels (dB).

For example, if a 1 kHz signal is spread to 100 kHz, the

process gain expressed as a numerical ratio would
be 100000/1000 = 100. Or in decibels, 10 log10(100) =
20 dB.

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Adaptive DPCM

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Comparisons

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