MATEMATYKA 1

zakres rozszerzony

MATHEMATICS
WITH A PLUS
textbook, part 2

extended level
Małgorzata Dobrowolska
Marcin Karpiński
Jacek Lech

MATHEMATICS
WITH A PLUS
textbook, part 2

extended level
Translation from Polish: Iwona Turnau, Stefan Turnau
Book design: Iwona Duczmal
Ilustrations: Bartłomiej Brosz
Computer generated graphics: Leszek Jakubowski, Łukasz Sitko, Joanna Szyller
Photography: Agency BE&W, Archives of GWO, Public domain, Shutterstock,
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Typesetting (TEX): Łukasz Sitko, Joanna Szyller

ISBN 978–83–8118–357–4
Publisher: Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Oświatowe, 80–309 Gdańsk, al. Grunwaldzka 411

This publication is subject to the protection provided by the provisions of the Act
of 4 February 1994 on copyright and neighbouring rights. Any copy or reproduc-
tion of a part or of the whole publication constitutes an unauthorized infringement
of the rights of the author or publisher, unless it is performed in accordance with
the provisions of the aforementioned act.
List of content
Part 2

Equations, inequalities, systems of equations

Solving equations ................................................................................................. 6
Directly proportional and inversely proportional quantities .............................. 9
Solving inequalities ............................................................................................ 13
Absolute-value inequalities ................................................................................ 16
Absolute-value inequalities (cont.) ..................................................................... 21
Systems of equations ......................................................................................... 26
Equation systems determinate, indeterminate and inconsistent ...................... 32
Word problems ................................................................................................... 35

Functions
Concept of function ........................................................................................... 40
Reading function graphs .................................................................................... 45
Function formulas and graphs ........................................................................... 50
Monotonicity of functions ................................................................................. 55
Formula and graph of linear function ............................................................... 60
Features of linear function ................................................................................ 65
Direct and inverse proportionality .................................................................... 69

Quadratic equations
Quadratic equations in simplest form ............................................................... 74
Discriminant of quadratic equation. Solving equations .................................... 77
Vieta’s formulas ................................................................................................. 82

Vectors. Transforming function graphs

Vectors. Operations on vectors .......................................................................... 86
Vectors in coordinate system ............................................................................. 91
Operations on vectors in coordinate system ..................................................... 96
Transforming function graphs ........................................................................... 98
Transforming function graphs (cont.) ............................................................. 103

Quadratic function
Parabola ............................................................................................................ 110
Quadratic function’s normal and canonical form ........................................... 114
Quadratic function’s factored form ................................................................. 119
Quadratic function — summary ...................................................................... 122
Quadratic inequalities ...................................................................................... 126
Applications of quadratic function ................................................................. 129
Equations and inequalities with parameter ..................................................... 132
Equations,
inequalities,
systems of equations
A professor at the Jagiellonian University, when asked about his age, replied:
– Seven years ago, my university was seven times older than me. Seventy years ago,
it was seventy times older than me.
In what year did the professor say these words? How old was he then?
These questions can be answered by solving an appropriate system of equations.

Solving equations Directly proportional and inversely proportional

quantities Solving inequalities Absolute-value equations and
inequalities Absolute-value equations and inequalities (cont.)
Systems of equations Equation systems determinate,
indeterminate and inconsistent Word problems
 SOLVING EQUATIONS

EXERCISE A Transform each of the exemplary equations

Examples of first- into the form ax + b = 0.
-degree equations
with one unknown:

2x − 1 = 4 − 3x An equation that can be transformed into the form:

5x + 2 = 2(x + 1) − x ax + b = 0,

x+2
where a and b are given numbers, a 6= 0, we call
− x−4 = x
9 3 the first-degree equation with one unknown.

Some equations in which the unknown occurs in the square or higher

power are also first-degree equations, but this is only visible after simpli-
fication. Let us remind you that by solving equations, we write more and
more simple equivalent equations, that is, having the same solution. We
can add the same number to, or subtract from, both sides of the equation.
We can also multiply or divide the two sides of the equation by a number
other than zero.

EXAMPLE 1 Solve the equation.

(x − 2)3 − x 2 (x − 6) = 7x + 2
We use the formula:
x 3 − 6x 2 + 12x − 8 − x 3 + 6x 2 = 7x + 2 (a − b)3 = a 3 − 3a 2 b + 3ab 2 − b 3 .
12x − 8 = 7x + 2
5x = 10
x=2

PROBLEM Solve the equation: a) (6 + x)2 = (x + 4)2 b) (2x − 5)(2x + 5) = (1 − 2x)2

Equations that have no solutions are called contradictory equations.

When each number meets the given equation, we call it identity.

EXAMPLE 2 Solve the equation.

a) 4x(x + 1) = (2x + 1)2

4x 2 + 4x = 4x 2 + 4x + 1
0×x =1
There is no number which multiplied by 0
Contradictory equation. would equal 1. The equation has no solutions.

6 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

 b) x(x + 2) − (x + 1)2 + 1 = 0
x 2 + 2x − (x 2 + 2x + 1) + 1 = 0
x 2 + 2x − x 2 − 2x − 1 + 1 = 0
0×x =0
Identity. Each number is a solution.

PROBLEM Solve the equation.

a) (2x − 1)(2x + 1) + 2 = (2x + 1)2 − 4x b) (x + 4)(x − 6) = (x − 1)2

Some equations, which are in the

form of proportion, can be solved If b 6= 0 and d 6= 0, then the pro-
using the same methods as in the portion: a = c
first-degree equations. It must be b d
remembered, however, that the may be replaced by the equality:
values of expressions in the de- ad = bc
nominator cannot be equal to 0.

EXAMPLE 3 Solve the equation.

4−x 5−x
a) = Assumptions: 5 + x 6= 0 and x + 1 6= 0
5+x x +1
x 6= −5 x=6 −1
If b 6= 0 and d 6= 0, then the proportion
(4 − x)(x + 1) = (5 − x)(5 + x) a c
b = d may by replaced by the equality
ad = bc.
4x + 4 − x 2 − x = 25 − x 2
We use the formula
3x + 4 = 25 (a + b)(a − b) = a 2 − b 2 .

3x = 21 Number 7 meets the assumptions so it

is a solution.
x =7

6 − 3x 1 − 3x
b) = Assumptions: x − 2 6= 0 and x 6= 0
x −2 x
x 6= 2
If b 6= 0 and d 6= 0, then the proportion
a c
(6 − 3x) × x = (x − 2)(1 − 3x) b = d may be replaced by the equality
ad = bc.
6x − 3x 2 = x − 3x 2 − 2 + 6x
0 = x −2
x =2
Number 2 does not meet the assumption,
The equation has no solutions.
so the equation is contradictory.

PROBLEM Solve the equation.

3x + 2 9x + 1
a) = b) 9 + 3x = 3x c) 2x + 6
= 3+x
2+x 3x + 2 x+3 x+1 4x + 1 2x + 6

SOLVING EQUATIONS 7
PROBLEMS
1. Solve the equation.
a) 3x − (2 − x) = −9 c) 5x = 10x − 2(x + 5)

b) x − (x − 3) = 4x − 8 d) −4(2x − 5) = 2(3x + 7)

2. Solve the equation.

a) 1 x + 2 = 2 (5x − 1) c) 2x − 3 = 3 − 2x e) 3x + 2 = 3 − 5 − 2x
3 3 5 5 4 2

b) x − 3 (2x + 3) = 2 x d) 2 x − 1 = 1 − 3x f) x − 2x − 3 = 1 + 5x
7 7 9 9 6 3

3. Solve the equation.

a) 4x(2 + x) = (2x − 1)2 e) (5x + 1)(5x − 1) = (3 − 5x)2

b) (6x + 5)2 = 9x(4x + 7) f) (x + 2)2 = x(x + 6)

c) (3 + 4x)(3 − 4x) = 1 − 8x(2x + 1) g) 4x2 (3 − 2x) = (1 − 2x)3

d) (2x − 3)2 = (1 + 2x)2 h) (x − 2)3 = x(x − 3)2

4. In each group of equations point one contradictory equation and one identity.
a) x + (x − 3) = 5 b) 3(5x − 1) = 3x c) (x − 2)(x + 2) = x2
5

x − (x − 4) = 5 2(x + 5) = 0 (x − 3)2 = x2
3

x − (x − 5) = 5 3(2x − 3) = 3x − 4,5 (x + 1)(x − 1) + 1 = x2

2

5. Solve the equation.

a) 5 = 7 d) x = x+1 g) x + 2 = x − 1
3−x x x−1 x+3 x−3 x

b) 1 = 5 e) x = x+1 h) 6x = 2x − 1
x+3 2x − 3 x+1 x+2 3x + 1 x+2

c) 4 = 5 f) 2x − 1 = 4x i) 1 − 4x = 4 − 2x
x−1 2x − 2 x+1 2x − 1 2x x−2

6. Write and solve the appropriate equation.

a) The number 3 times greater than x is equal to half the sum of x and 7.
3
b) The quotient of number x and the number by 1 greater than x is equal to 5
.
c) The difference of the square of number x and the square of the number by 2
less than x is equal to 40.
d) The quotient of the number 5 greater than x divided by 4 is equal to the quotient
of 2 times x divided by 6.
e) The number x was first increased by 20 % and then the number obtained was
decreased by 30 %. The result was 63.

8 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

7. In the last month there were 6 female employees working at Macho. This month,
7 gentlemen and 2 ladies were employed, but the ratio of the number of men to
the number of women did not change. How many employees are now employed by
Macho?

8. Until recently,
boys constituted 30 % of the Biesiada song and dance band. Yes-
terday joined 5 boys. Now the male team members account for 40 % of the total
number of members. How numerous is the Biesiada band now?

9. Only 3 times more people were in the Future party than in the Past party. As a
result of unsuccessful actions in the Past party, 5 people have passed into the Fu-
ture party. Recently, the president of the Past conducted a successful propaganda
campaign, as a result of which 2 people from the Future returned to the Past , and
in addition, 5 new members were admitted. Now, the Past is twice as large as the
Future. How many people belong to the Past ?

DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL AND

INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL QUANTITIES
The table shows how much PLN you have to pay for pieces of a certain
ribbon.
x 0,2 0,5 1 1,2 1,5 5 7,5
y 0,10 0,25 0,50 0,60 0,75 2,50 3,75
x — length of the ribbon (in meters) y — cost of the ribbon (in PLN)

Note that for the numbers in the table the ratio y is always equal to 0,50.
x
Thus, the relationship between the cost of purchase and the length of the
ribbon can be written in the form of equation:
y = 0,50
x

From this equation, it follows that when the value of x is multiplied, the
value of y increases the same number times.

DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL AND INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL QUANTITIES 9

 About two varying quantities
whose quotient remains always The mutually dependent quantities
the same, we say that they are x and y are directly proportional
directly proportional. when
y
x = a,
where a is constant and a > 0.

EXAMPLE 1 When the nails from a large package were put on the scales, it
turned out that they weighed 1,05 kg. After removing 24 nails from the pan,
the scales indicated that the remaining nails weigh 0,9 kg. How many nails were
there in a large package?

mass of nails [kg] 1,05 0,9

number of nails [piece] x x − 24

1,05 0,9 Number of nails and their mass are directly pro-
= portional so quotients are equal.
x x − 24
1,05(x − 24) = 0,9x
1,05x − 25,2 = 0,9x
We solve the equation.
0,15x = 25,2
x = 168
Ans. There were 168 nails in the large package.

PROBLEM The jar contains 0,9 honey, which weighs 1,25 kg. Calculate the mass
of 4,5 of honey.

Consider rectangles with the area 2. The table gives examples of possible
dimensions of such rectangles.

x 0,1 0,2 0,5 1 40

y 20 10 4 2 0,05

For the numbers given in this table, the product xy is always equal 2.
The relationship between these quantities can be written in the form of
equation:
x×y =2

From this equation it follows that when number x increases, number y

decreases the same number times.

On varying quantities, whose The mutually dependent quantities

product is always the same, we x and y are inversely proportional
say that they are inversely pro- when
portional. y × x = a,
where a is constant and a > 0.

10 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

 EXAMPLE 2 The hostel manager calculated that if the hostel is visited by 250
tourists a day, then food stores will be enough for 30 days. How many days
would the stocks last if the hostel were visited by 300 tourists daily?

number of persons 250 300

number of days 30 x The number of tourists is inversely proportion-
al to the number of days the stocks would last
for, so, the products are equal.
250 × 30 = 300 × x
x = 25 We solve the equation.

Ans. The stocks would last 25 days.

PROBLEM The breeder has calculated that the water supply in the reservoir in the
pasture will be enough for 25 cows for 6 days. How many days would this stock last for
30 cows?

PROBLEMS
1. After blending 30 dag of strawberries, they filled a glass with a capacity of 0,25 .
a) What volume is 1,5 kg of blended strawberries?
b) How much of strawberries must be blended to get 1,8 of mousse?

2. The time of the Earth’s circulation around the Sun is 365,25 days. During this
time, our planet travels about 340 million km. The distance between Warsaw and
New York is about 6900 km. At what time does Earth cover such a distance?

3. An ant weighing 6 mg is able to lift

a 50-mg object. What mass could be
lifted by a man of weight 70 kg if he
was as strong as an ant and the lift-
ing force were directly proportional to
body weight?

4. A lead cube with the edge length of 20 cm weighs 91 kg. How much will weigh a
lead cube of 10 cm edge length?

5. An empty small barrel with a capacity of 20 weighs 3 kg, and a large empty
barrel with a capacity of 50 weighs 5 kg. A small barrel full of sauerkraut weighs
25 kg. What is the weight of a large barrel filled with such cabbage?

DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL AND INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL QUANTITIES 11

6. Mr. Zenek, a truck driver, usually travels from the border home at an average
speed of 60 km/h. It takes him 4 hours and 15 minutes. Today he was driving for
half an hour less. What was the average speed at which he moved?

7. For the participants of the rally, a pea soup kettle was prepared. Instead of 40
participants in the rally, 50 people took part and the ration of soup per person had
to be reduced by 60 ml. How many liters of pea soup were prepared for the rally?
How much pea soup got each person?

Curiosity

Imagine a board supported at one place. Do The principle of leverage can be

you know that a man on such a swing could described by the equation:
swing with an elephant? All you need to do is
to have the fulcrum much closer to the ele-
phant than to you.
The rule to calculate where to set the ful-
crum was discovered by Greek mathematician
Archimedes (around 287–212 BC). This rule, Q1 × d1 = Q2 × d2
called the leverage principle, states that in or-
der for two items on the swing (lever) to be in After discovering the principle of
balance, place them so that the distances from leverage, Archimedes was to say:
the fulcrum are inversely proportional to their Give me a point of support and I
weights. will move the Earth.

8. Read the curiosity. Assume that the elephant weighs 5 t and sits at a distance of
5 m from the support, and the man weighs 50 kg. Calculate how far away from the
support the man would have to sit so that he could swing with the elephant.

12 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

 SOLVING INEQUALITIES

Examples
EXERCISE A For each of the inequalities in
of inequalities:
the frame:
a) check which of the numbers: 2, 10, −20 7x − 4 ≥ 2
meet this inequality, 4x − 6 < x
1
b) give a number (other than 2, 10, −20) that x−5 ≤0
2
meets this inequality. 3x
> 4
10

We call the solution of inequality any number that satisfies it. Inequality
can be considered solved if we define the set of all its solutions.

EXERCISE B Write down any two numbers and put an appropriate inequality
sign between them. Check which of the operations flip the inequality sign:
• to both numbers we add the same number (positive or negative),
• we subtract the same number (positive or negative) from both numbers,
• we multiply both numbers by the same positive number,
• we multiply both numbers by the same negative number,
• we divide both numbers by the same positive number,
• we divide both numbers by the same negative number.

When solving inequalities, we proceed very much like in solving

equations. However, remember that when we multiply or divide both
sides of inequalities by a negative number, we must flip
the inequality sign.

EXAMPLE Solve the inequality and mark the set of solutions on the number
line.

a) −3x + 4 ≤ 10 |−4 From both sides we subtract 4.

We divide both sides by −3, flipping the in-

−3x ≤ 6 | ÷ (−3) equality sign.

The solutions of the inequality are all num-

x ≥ −2 bers greater than −2 and number −2.

We illustrate the set of solutions on the num-

ber line.
D 
x ∈ −2 ; +∞ The solution can be presented as an interval.

SOLVING INEQUALITIES 13
 x −1 1 3
b) 2
< 8x + 4 |×8 We multiply both sides by 8.

4(x − 1) < x + 6 We transform the left-hand side.

4x − 4 < x + 6 |−x +4 We add −x + 4 to both sides.

3x < 10 |÷3 We divide both sides by 3.

1 The solutions are all numbers less than 3 13 .

x < 33
We illustrate the set of solutions on the num-
ber line.


1
 The set of solutions can be presented as an
x ∈ −∞ ; 3 3 interval.

PROBLEM Solve the inequality.

a) 3(2x − 5) < 10x + 1
5x − 4
b) ≥ 2x − 6
−3

In the previous examples, the illustration of the set of inequality solutions

was a ray (with or without the endpoint). But this is not always the case!
Look at inequalities:
x−1<x x+1< x
The first of these inequalities is fulfilled by every real number (a number
by 1 less than x is always less than x). The second inequality is not fulfilled
by any number (a number by 1 greater than x cannot be less than x).

PROBLEMS
1. Solve the inequalities.
2a < 1 5b < −10 −c ≤ 7 −d ≥ −4 −3e > 9 −1f < 4
2

2. Solve the inequality and mark the solution set on the number line.
2
a) 4x − 7 < 2x + 3 e) 3(2 − x) ≤ − 3 (6x − 21)

b) −x + 4 > −3(x − 1) f) 6 − 3x ≥ 10x − 3

4
c) 2(x + 1) + x ≥ 4x g) 5 (x +
25) ≤ −0,1(2x − 10)
   
1 1
d) −2(x + 6) > 4(3 + 2x) h) 7 2 − 7 x > −6 5 − 2 x

14 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

3. Solve the inequality.
a) 3x − 1 > x c) x − 9 − 2(3x − 1) ≥ 0 e) 2x − x − 1 < 3x − 1 + x
2 4 4 3 4 2

b) x − 3x ≥ −1 d) 3x − 1 − 2x + 1 ≤ x + 1 f) 2x + 1 − x ≥ 1 − 2x
3 5 2 5 10 4 2

4. In each group of inequalities, indicate one that has no solutions, and one that is
fulfilled by any number.

a) 2x + 3 > x + 4 b) −3(5 − 2x) ≥ 6x c) 4x + 5 > 1 + 2x

2
2x + 5 ≥ 2x + 1 4(3 − 5x) > 1 − 20x 4 − 2x ≥ 3 + x
5
2x + 4 < 2x + 3 −7(1 + 4x) ≥ −7x + 4 3x − 2 ≥ x + 5
3

5. Consider inequalities:
x+3<♥ 3x − 2 ≤ ♣ 2(x − 1) > ♠
Replace the symbols ♥, ♣, ♠ with such expressions that the inequality received is
satisfied by:
a) any number, b) no number.

6. Find all integers that satisfy the two inequalities given below at the same time.
1 1
3(x + 2) + 5 ≥ 2 x − 3 (x − 2) > x − 6

7. Look at the drawing next to it.

How much full hours at least should
the boat be rented for to make it
more profitable to use Y services?

8. Look at the drawing. A certain trapeze is shaded in the square. For what values
x the area of this trapezium exceeds 8?

SOLVING INEQUALITIES 15
 ABSOLUTE-VALUE EQUATIONS
AND INEQUALITIES
The methods of solving first degree equations with one unknown can al-
so be used to determine numbers that meet some equations where the
absolute value is present.

EXERCISE A For each equality determine how many numbers are there to re-
place the letter.
|a| = 4 |b| = 0 |c| = −3

The absolute value of a number is always a non-negative number and the

notation |a| can be interpreted as the distance of point a on the number
line from point 0. Consider the equation:
|a| = 7

It is met by numbers whose distance from 0 is equal to 7, that is numbers

7 and −7.

|a| = 7 ⇐
⇒ a = 7 or a = −7

If in the equation |a| = 7 we replaced letter a by another algebraic ex-

pression, e.g. 4 − x, then we would get an equation that can also be easily
solved.

EXAMPLE 1 Solve the equation.

a) |5 − 3x| = 7
5 − 3x = 7 or 5 − 3x = −7
−3x = 2 or −3x = −12
2 The equation has two solutions.
x = −3 or x = 4

We transform the equation to the form

b) 3|5x − 4| = 0 | ÷ 3 |a| = b.
|5x − 4| = 0
0 is the only number whose absolute
5x − 4 = 0 value is 0.
4
x= 5

16 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

 c) 5|2x + 3| + 6 = 0 | − 6 We transform the equation to the form
|a| = b.
5|2x + 3| = −6 | ÷ 5
6
|2x + 3| = − 5
There is no number with negative ab-
Contradictory equation. solute value.

PROBLEM Solve the equation.

a) |x + 6| − 8 = 0 b) |4 − 3x| = 2 c) 4|2x − 6| + 3 = 3
−5

EXERCISE B Give examples of several positive numbers and a few negative

numbers the absolute value of which is less than 5.

Consider the inequality:

|a| < 5
This inequality is met by numbers whose distance from 0 (on the number
line) is less than 5.

If in the inequality |a| < 5, letter a was replaced with a different algebraic
expression, e.g. 7 − 3x, we would get an inequality |7 − 3x| < 5, which can
be easily solved.

EXAMPLE 2 Solve the inequality |7 − 3x| < 5.

|7 − 3x| < 5

7 − 3x > −5 and 7 − 3x < 5

−3x > −12 and −3x < −2
2
x <4 and x> 3

We mark the solution sets of both

inequalities on the number line; the in-
tersection of those sets is the solution
  set of the inequality |7 − 3x| < 5.
2
x∈ 3
;4

PROBLEM Solve the inequality.

a) |x − 9| < 4 b) |7 + 2x| ≤ 3

ABSOLUTE-VALUE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 17

 EXERCISE C Give examples of several positive numbers and a few negative
numbers the absolute value of which is greater than 5.

Let us now consider the inequality:

|a| > 5

It is fulfilled by numbers, whose distance from zero (on the number line) is
greater than 5, i.e. numbers less than −5 and also numbers greater than 5.

Replacing in the inequality |a| > 5 letter a by another expression, e.g.

3 − 4x, we would get an inequality |3 − 4x| > 5, which can be easily solved.

EXAMPLE 3 Solve the inequality |3 − 4x| > 5.

|3 − 4x| > 5

3 − 4x < −5 or 3 − 4x > 5
−4x < −8 −4x > 2
1
x >2 x < −2

We mark solution sets of both inequal-

ities on the number line; the union of
those sets is the solution set of the in-
equality |3 − 4x| > 5.

1
   
x ∈ −∞ ; − 2 ∪ 2 ; +∞

PROBLEM Solve the inequality.

a) |x + 8| ≥ 7 b) |4 − 3x| > 8

EXERCISE D Look at the inequalities given. Without solving them, identify

those that do not have solutions, those whose any number is a solution and
those that have only one solution.
d
|2a − 1| ≤ −3 |8c − 9| ≥ −5 +6 +4<0
2

5 + |4e − 7| ≥ 5 4 − |f + 10| ≥ 4

18 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

PROBLEMS
1. Solve the equation.
a) |3x + 2| = 7 d) 7 + |3y| = 9 g) |x + 1| = 3
2

b) 1−x =3 e) 3|1 − 2w | − 6 = 0 h) 6 − |10 − 4t| = 2

2

c) 2|x − 3| = 8 f) 5 − |4 − x| = 5 i) |2x − 1| + 10 = 5
2

2. Without solving the following equations, justify that they are contradictory
equations.
5 + |2x + 7| = 4 1 − |y + 1| = 3 |z| − 3|z| = 8

3. Solve the equation.

a) |x − 3| = |2x| b) |x + 4| = |2 − x| c) |2x + 5| = |1 − 2x|

Tip: |a| = |b| ⇐

⇒ a = b or a = −b.

4. Solve the equation.

a) ||x| + 1| = 7 b) |3 − |2x + 1|| = 15 c) ||2 − 3x| − 5| = 5

5. Solve the inequality.

a) |2x| < 9 b) |x − 2| ≤ 1 c) |3y + 5| ≤ 4

6. Solve the inequality.

a) |x + 3| > 3 b) |4z + 1| > 5 c) |5 − 2x| ≥ 1

7. Solve the inequality.

a) 3 + |2w − 1| ≤ 5 c) |3 − 5x| − 2 > 0 e) |1 − 3x| − 2 < 0
2

b) 2 × |3 + 4p| ≥ 6 d) 7 − 2 × |t + 1| > 0 f) − |2v| + 1 ≥ 3

3

8. Without solving the inequalities below justify that each is satisfied by any real
number.
|3x − 7| + 2 ≥ 1 −7 × 1 − y ≤0 5 ≥ 4 − |z − 1|
2

9. Solve the inequality.

a) ||x| − 5| > 0 c) |2 − |t − 1|| > 10

b) ||z| + 1| < 6 d) |4 − |3y − 1|| ≤ 7

ABSOLUTE-VALUE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES 19

Worth knowing!

Note that the distance between numbers a and b on the number line is equal to
a − b when a > b, or is equal to b − a when b > a. In both cases, we can write this
distance using the absolute value, as |a − b|.

This property of the absolute value can be used to geometrically interpret some
equations and inequalities. For example, the solutions for inequality |x − 2| > 7 are
numbers whose distance from 2 on the number line is greater than 7.

Inequality |x+1| < 6 can be written as |x−(−1)| < 6; this inequality is met by numbers
whose distance from number −1 on the number line is less than 6.

10. Read the information above.

a) Write the equation, whose solutions are all numbers of which the distance from
number −9 on the number line is equal to 10.
b) Do not make any algebraic transformations, mark on the number line the set of
solutions for |x − 5| ≤ 3.
c) Write absolute value inequalities whose sets of solutions are presented in the
drawings.

20 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

 ABSOLUTE-VALUE EQUATIONS
AND INEQUALITIES (CONT.)
You can solve such equations and inequalities with absolute value, which
can be transformed so that on one side there is an expression within abso-
lute value bars and on the other side a number.

We will now show you how to solve slightly more complex equations and
inequalities with absolute value.

EXERCISE A Determine which condition must be met by numbers a, b, c to

ensure the equality:
|a| = a |b + 2| = b + 2 |c + 1| = −(c + 1)

The absolute value of number a can be defined as fol-

lows:
a for a ≥ 0

|a| =
−a for a < 0

The letter a can be replaced with any expression. For example, the expres-
sion |4x + 1| can be written without using the absolute value symbol:
(
4x + 1 for numbers x such that 4x + 1 ≥ 0
|4x + 1| =
−(4x + 1) for numbers x such that 4x + 1 < 0

This can be shortened to:

for x ≥ − 1

 4x + 1
|4x + 1| = 4
 −(4x + 1) for x < − 1
4

The number − 1 divides the number line into two ranges, so the expression
4
|4x + 1| can be written without the absolute value symbol, considering two
cases that can be illustrated on the number line.

EXERCISE B Using the above illustration, replace the equation |4x + 1| − x = 2

with the corresponding equation without an absolute value:
  D 
a) for x ∈ −∞ ; − 1 b) for x ∈ − 1 ; +∞
4 4

ABSOLUTE-VALUE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES (CONT.) 21

 EXAMPLE 1 Solve the following equation.
|x + 2| + 3x = 8 
x +2 for x ≥ −2
|x + 2| =
−(x + 2) for x < −2
We present this information on an
auxiliary drawing.
  D 
1. x ∈ −∞ ; −2 2. x ∈ −2 ; +∞
We consider two cases. In each we
−(x + 2) + 3x = 8 x + 2 + 3x = 8 write the equation without the sym-
bol of absolute value, solve and
−x − 2 + 3x = 8 4x = 6 check whether the received number
3 meets the assumed condition.
x =5 x= 2
 
5 6∈ −∞ ; −2 Only x = 3
meets the condition.
2

3
Ans. The solution is number 2 .

PROBLEM Solve the equation |3x − 6| − 2x = 1.

EXAMPLE 2 Solve the following equation.

|3 − x| − |2x + 10| = 5 (
(3 − x) for x ≤ 3
|3 − x| =
−(3 − x) for x > 3
(
2x + 10 for x ≥ −5
|2x + 10| =
  −(2x + 10) for x < −5
1. x ∈ −∞; −5
3 − x − (−(2x + 10)) = 5
3 − x + 2x + 10 = 5
x = −8 meets the condition
x = −8 x ∈ (−∞ ; −5)
D 
2. x ∈ −5 ; 3
(3 − x) − (2x + 10) = 5
3 − x − 2x − 10 = 5
x = −4 meets the condition
x = −4 x ∈ (−5 ; 3)
D 
3. x ∈ 3 ; +∞
−(3 − x) − (2x + 10) = 5
−3 + x − 2x − 10 = 5
D 
x = −18, but −18 6∈ 3 ; +∞

Ans. Solution of the equation are numbers −8 and −4.

PROBLEM Solve the equation |5 − x| + |3x − 1| = 14.

22 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

 Absolute-value inequalities are solved like equations, considering different
cases.

In each case, after determining the set of solutions for the appropriate in-
equality, it should be determined which numbers from this set satisfy the
condition under consideration. Therefore, the intersection of the appropri-
ate intervals should be determined.

After considering all the cases, we determine what is the union of the par-
tial solutions obtained. This union is the sought-after set of the inequality’s
solutions.

EXAMPLE 3 Solve the inequality 2x − |x + 5| > −4.

x +5 for x ≥ −5

|x +5| =
−(x + 5) for x < −5

 
1. x ∈ −∞ ; −5
2x − (−(x + 5)) > −4
2x + x + 5 > −4
3x > −9
 
x > −3 x ∈ −3 ; +∞

There are nonumbers

 belonging
 to inter-
vals −∞ ; −5 and −3 ; +∞ at the same
time.
   
−∞ ; −5 ∩ −3 ; +∞ = ∅
No solutions.
D 
2. x ∈ −5 ; +∞
2x − (x + 5) > −4
2x − x − 5 > −4
 
x >1 x ∈ 1 ; +∞

D     
x ∈ −5 ; +∞ ∩ 1 ; +∞ = 1 ; +∞

 
Ans. Solutions of the inequality are all numbers in the interval 1 ; +∞ .

PROBLEM Solve the inequality |x − 7| − 3x ≥ 5.

ABSOLUTE-VALUE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES (CONT.) 23

 EXAMPLE 4 Solve the inequality |x − 1| + |2x + 4| > 1 − 2x and mark the solution
set on the number line.
1−x for x < 1

|x − 1| =
x −1 for x ≥ 1

2x + 4 for x ≥ −2
|2x + 4| =
  −2x − 4 for x < −2
1. x ∈ −∞ ; −2
1 − x − 2x − 4 > 1 − 2x For x ≤ −2:
−x > 4, so x < −4 |x − 1| = 1 − x and |2x + 4| = −2x − 4

We check which of the numbers satis-

fying inequality x < −4 belong to the
interval we are considering.
     
x ∈ −∞ ; −2 ∩ −∞ ; −4 = −∞ ; −4

D 
2. x ∈ −2 ; 1 For −2 ≤ x < 1:
1 − x + 2x + 4 > 1 − 2x |x − 1| = 1 − x and |2x + 4| = 2x + 4
4
3x > −4, so x > − 3

We check which of the numbers satis-

fying inequality x > − 43 belong to the
interval we are considering.

4 4
D     
x ∈ −2 ; 1 ∩ − 3 ; +∞ = − 3 ; 1

D 
3. x ∈ 1 ; +∞ For x ≥ 1:
x − 1 + 2x + 4 > 1 − 2x |x − 1| = x − 1 and |2x + 4| = 2x + 4

2
5x > −2, so x > − 5

We check which of the numbers satis-

fying inequality x > − 25 belong to the
interval we are considering.

2
D    D 
x ∈ 1 ; +∞ ∩ − 5 ; +∞ = 1 ; +∞

4 The solution set of the inequality is the

   
x ∈ −∞ ; −4 ∪ − ; +∞ union of intervals.
3

4
   
Ans. Solutions of the inequality are numbers in the set −∞ ; −4 ∪ − ; +∞ .
3

PROBLEM Solve the inequality |2x − 3| − |x + 2| < 3 + 2x and mark its solutions on
the number line.

24 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

PROBLEMS
1. Solve the equation.
a) |x| − x = 2 d) 2x − |2x + 3| = −3
b) |x − 2| + 2x = 4 e) x − 4|x − 1| + 5 = 0
c) 3x + |5x + 8| = 0 f) 2|3x + 8| = 3x + 10

2. Solve the equation.

a) |x − 1| + |x| = 5 d) |2 − x| − 1 = |1 − 5x|
b) |x − 3| − |x| = 3 e) |x − 8| + 4|x + 4| = 5x + 8
c) |x + 2| − |4 − x| = 7 f) 3|x + 4| − 5|x − 1| = 25 + x

3. Solve the inequality.

a) |x − 2| > x d) 2|3x − 4| − 5x < 1
b) 3x + |2x − 5| ≤ 0 e) 10 + |11x − 9| > 10x
c) 4 − 3|x + 2| > 2x f) |8x + 7| ≤ 5x − 6

4. Solve the inequality. Mark the set of its solutions on the number line.
a) |2x| + |x − 4| ≥ 3 d) |2x + 1| − |x + 2| ≥ 3
b) |x − 1| − |x| ≤ 0 e) |x + 6| − |x + 3| ≥ 8x + 11
c) |x − 7| + |x + 2| > 9 f) |x − 5| + |x + 8| − 2x < 15

5. For what number a the equation |x − 1| + |x + 1| = a has infinitely many solutions?

6. Prove that the equation |x − a| + |x − b| = 1 has infinitely many solutions if and

only if the distance of numbers a and b on the number line equals 1.

7. Without solving the inequalities justify that:

a) the inequality 5 + |3x − 1| < 5 − |x − 1| has no solutions,
b) the inequality |4x − 7| + |2x + 3| > 0 is satisfied by any real number.

ABSOLUTE-VALUE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES (CONT.) 25

 SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS
Look at the drawings. Let’s try to answer the question:
How much does one brick weigh, and how much — one hollow brick?

Assume the following designations:

x — mass of the brick (in kg)
y — mass of the hollow brick (in kg)

The information given in the drawings can be expressed by two equations:

3x + y = 11 x + 2y = 12

To determine the mass of brick and hollow brick, we need to find a pair of
numbers x and y that meets both equations simultaneously. This problem
can be written in the form of so-called system of equations.
(
3x + y = 11 We write the equations one below the other
and bind them with a brace.
x + 2y = 12

Let us first consider the first equation of this system of equations. It is

easy to check that 3x + y = 11 will be satisfied by the pair x = 3, y = 2, and
also x = 2,5, y = 3,5. You can find many pairs of numbers that satisfy this
equation.

EXERCISE a) Replace the symbols with appropriate numbers so that the ob-
tained pairs of numbers satisfy the equation 3x + y = 11.
1
x = 1 and y = ♥ x = ♠ and y = 5 x= 3
and y = ♣

b) Give examples of pairs of numbers that satisfy the equation x + 2y = 12.

c) Which of the pairs of numbers obtained in sub-point a) also satisfies the

equation x + 2y = 12?

Solving the above exercise, it can be seen that the pair of numbers x = 2
and y = 5 satisfies both the first and the second equation. So, we have an
answer to our question: the brick weighs 2 kg, and the hollow brick 5 kg.

26 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

 Systems of equations serve
Examples of systems of equations:
to express and solve prob-
2x + y = 7

lems, in which there are x + y = 3

x − 3y = 5 3v = 4s

more than one unknown. y −z =4
s = 2v + 10 
2x + z = 5

If the system consists of two equations with two unknowns, then a pair of
numbers that satisfies both of these equations at the same time is called a
solution of the system of equations.

From the history

Solving systems of equations has However, the methods of solving

been dealt with already over 3000 them invented by ancient accoun-
years ago! The oldest examples of tants are not much different from
equation systems come from clay the methods used today.
tablets discovered during archaeo-
logical excavations in the area of
ancient Babylonia. These systems
are written in a cuneiform script,
which in no way resembles contem-
porary mathematical symbolism.

One of the methods for solving systems of equations is the substitution

method, which is illustrated in the example below.

EXAMPLE 1 Solve the system of equations.

x + 4y = 0

2x + 3y = 25
We solve the first equation for x. Using the
x = − 4y

equality x = −4y in the second equation, in-
2(− 4y ) + 3y = 25 stead of x we substitute −4y .

x = − 4y

−5y = 25
We rewrite the first equation, and the second
x = − 4y

equation (with one unknown y ) we solve.
y = −5

x = − 4 × (−5)

Because y = −5, so, we can calculate x (from
y = −5 the first equation).

x = 20

Solution of the system of equations is the
y = −5 pair of numbers x = 20 and y = −5.

(
3x − y = 0
PROBLEM Solve the system of equations:
2y − 5x = 4

SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS 27
 When solving a system of equations using the substitution method, you
can allow yourself to simplify the recording. When we get the equation
with one unknown, we can solve it separately, without rewriting the two
equations every time.

EXAMPLE 2 Solve the system of equations.

2(x + 1) = 3y


y + 2x = 10

2x + 2 = 3y The first equation is transformed, the second


y = 10 − 2x equation is solved for y .

2x + 2 = 3(10 − 2x)
In the first equation, we substitute 10 − 2x in
2x + 2 = 30 − 6x
place of y and solve the equation obtained.
8x = 28
x = 3,5
To calculate the value of y , we insert 3,5 in-
y = 10 − 2×3,5 stead of x into the equation y = 10 − 2x.

x = 3,5

Solution of the system of equations is the
y =3 pair of numbers x = 3,5 and y = 3.

PROBLEM Solve the system of equations by the substitution method.

x = 2y y − 3x = 2
 
a) b)
x + 4y = 12 2x − 5y = 3

The next examples present a different way of solving systems of equations

— the method of opposite coefficients.

EXAMPLE 3 Solve the system of equations.

Coefficients at unknown y are opposite num-
2x + 6y = 15

bers; we add the left and right sides of both
+ 3x − 6y = 25 equations, thus getting rid of one unknown,
because 6y + (−6y ) = 0.
5x = 40
x =8 The obtained value of x (number 8) is put
in place of x to one (arbitrary) equation of
2 × 8 + 6y = 15 the system and we calculate the value of the
unknown y .
1
y = −6
(
x =8 Solution to the system of equations is the
1
y = −6 pair of numbers x = 8 and y = − 61 .

PROBLEM Solve the system of equations by the method of opposite coefficients.

3x − 2y = 11 −4x − 2y = 13
 
a) b)
7x + 2y = 9 4x + 11y = 14

28 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

 The case when the coefficients at the same unknown are opposite numbers
is rare. However, you can easily lead to such a situation.

EXAMPLE 4 Solve the system of equations.

13x + 3y = 1

We multiply both sides of the second equation by −3;
2x + y = 5 | × (−3) in this way we will obtain a system in which coeffi-
cients at unknown y will be opposite numbers.
13x + 3y = 1

+ − 6x − 3y = −15 We add the equations by sides.
7x = − 14
We calculate the value of x.
x = −2

2 × (−2) + y = 5 We put −2 for x in one (arbitrary) equation.

y =9
x = −2

Solution to the system of equations is the pair of num-
y =9 bers x = −2 and y = 9.

PROBLEM Solve the system of equations by the method of opposite coefficients.

5x − y = 10 4x + 3y = 7
 
a) b)
3x + 2y = 6 x − 2y = 10

Sometimes, to use the method of opposite coefficients, you must multiply

both equations of the system by the appropriate number.

EXAMPLE 5 Solve the system of equations.

2x + 4y = 3 | × (−3)


3x + 5y = 2 | × 2
We multiply both equations by such numbers to get
−6x − 12y = −9

opposite coefficients at unknown x.
+ 6x + 10y = 4
−2y = −5 | ÷ (−2)
y = 2,5

2x + 4 × 2,5 = 3
2x = −7
x = −3,5
x = −3,5

Solution to the system of equations is the pair of num-
y = 2,5 bers x = −3,5 and y = 2,5.

PROBLEM Solve the system of equations by the method of opposite coefficients.

 − 3 x + 5y = 20

5x + 4y = 13

4
a) b)
2x + 3y = 15  3 x − 3y = −6
5

SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS 29
PROBLEMS
1. Check mentally which of the following pairs
A: x=2 and y = 4
of numbers satisfy the equation 3y − x = 10, and
which meet the equation 2x−3y +11 = 0. Indicate B: x = 0,5 and y = 4
the pair that satisfies the system of equations. C: x = −1 and y = 3
(
3y − x = 10 D: x = 5 and y = 5
2x − 3y + 11 = 0

2. Write any system of equations, whose solution is the pair of numbers x = 1 and
y = 2.

3. Solve mentally the system of equations.

( (
3y = 12 4y − x = 6 x + 10 = 50

a) b) c)
x−y =1 17y = 0 y = 2x

4. Solve the system of equations with the substitution method.

( (
x + 3y = 3 3m + n = 9 5x = 4 − 2y

a) c) e)
x−y =5 2m − 5n = −11 4x + y = 3
( ( (
2x − y = 10 4a − b = 2 6x − 3y = 9
b) d) f)
x + 5y = −17 3a + 7b = 1,5 x + 5y = − 9,5

5. Write down the given information in the form of a system of equations and
solve it.
a) French fries cost x PLN, and the juice costs y PLN. Andrzej bought 2 servings of
fries and juice, and paid 7 PLN. Kamila bought one portion of French fries and 2
juices, and paid PLN 6,50.
b) In a certain class there are x girls and y boys, together 27 students. If there were
twice as many boys and twice less girls, then the class would have 24 students.

6. Solve the system of equations with the method of opposite coefficients.

( ( (
2x + 5y = 7 x + 2y = 9 2x − 1,1y = 0,7
a) b) c)
3x − 5y = 3 −x − 3y = 16 0,5x + 1,1y = 4,3

7. Łut and skrupuł are old mass units. Mr.

Albert claims that 2 łuts and 5 skrupułs
are 30,624 g. Mr. Dionysos claims that 4
łuts and 10 skrupułs are 61,248 g. Mr.
Zenobiusz claims that 8 łuts and 20 skru-
pułs is 120,496 g. It is known that two of
these gentlemen are telling the truth and
one is lying. Which one is lying?

30 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

8. Solve the system of equations with the method of opposite coefficients.
( ( (
2x − 3y = 7 2x − 3y = 10 4x + 5y = 12,3
a) c) e)
3x − 5y = 11 5x + 5y = 0 3x − 2y = − 4
( ( (
5p − 2r = 21 5v1 + 4v2 = 4 3x − 0,2y = 35
b) d) f)
3p + 5r = −6 7v1 + 5v2 = 6 2,5x − 5y = 5

9. Look at the drawings. How much the cube weighs, and how much — the ball.

10. Write and solve the appropriate system of equations.

a) Number x is by 5 less than number y. Number by 1 greater than y is 3 times
greater than x.
b) Number a is 3 times greater than b. The arithmetic mean of numbers a and b is
equal to 14,5.
c) Number x is 8 less than number y. Number y is 3 times greater than number x.
d) Number u is by 6 greater than number v. The sum of the numbers u and v is 4
times greater than v.
e) Number u is 5 greater than v, and a third part of u is equal to half of v.
f) Number by 5 greater than x is by 2 smaller than y. Number 2 times smaller than
x is 4 times smaller than y.
g) Number p is 3 greater than half number r , and the sum of the numbers p and r
is equal to 18.

11. The following figures show a rectangle, an equilateral triangle and an isosceles
trapezium. Calculate a, b, x, y, c and d.

12. For which values a and b the solution to

(
ax + by = 4
the system of equations written next to is the bx − ay = 7
pair of numbers x = 3 and y = −2?

SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS 31
13. Solve the system of equations.
y
 x + = 11  x+ 2 − 2y = 5
 3x − 1 + 2y − 3 = 3(y + 1)
  
  
2 3 3 5 5 4 2
a) c) e)
 y
 − = 21
x x − y +2 = 3
  x + y − 3y − 1 = x − 6y

3 2 3 6 4 2 4

 3x + 1y = 2  3x − 2 − 2x + y = x + 1
 
 x+y − x = 4
 
 
5 2 3 6 6
b) d) 2 3 f)
 1 (2x − y) = 2
  x−y y
  x + y − − x + y = 1 − 0,8x

2
 + = −3 5 5
2 3

14. Solve the system of equations.

a+b+c +d = 10

2

2x + 5y + 3z = 8
 2y + 1 = −z − 3 x
 
 
 


  a − b + c − d

= −2
a) 11x + 11y − 6z = −7 b) 2x + 3y − z = 4 c)

1
  a+b−c −d = −4
x − y − 23 z = 0
  
 3x + 2y + z = 1
 

2

3
a+b+c −d =2

EQUATION SYSTEMS DETERMINATE,

INDETERMINATE AND INCONSISTENT
Each of the systems of equations in the previous topic had one solution.
However, this is not always the case. Look at the following systems of
equations:
x+y =3 x+y =3
 

x+y =4 2x + 2y = 6

This system of equations has no This system of equations has in-

solution. If the sum of two num- finitely many solutions, because
bers equals 3, then it cannot be each pair of numbers that satisfies
equal to 4. the first equation also satisfies the
second equation.

EXERCISE A Give several pairs of numbers that are solutions of the second of
the above systems of equations.

For each system of first-degree equations with two unknowns, one of

three cases occur. The system of equations:
• has one solution; then we call it a determinate system,
• has no solutions; such a system is called an inconsistent system,
• has infinitely many solutions; then the system is called an indeter-
minate system.

32 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

 It is not always possible to decide immediately whether a given system is
determinate, indeterminate or inconsistent. To decide, you have to try to
solve this system.

EXAMPLE Solve the system of equations.

3x − 4y = x + 1
(
a)
− 12 x + y = 3

3x − 4y = x + 1
(
1
y = 3 + 2x

1
 
3x − 4 3 + 2 x = x + 1
3x − 12 − 2x = x + 1
3x − 2x − x = 12 + 1
We received a contradictory equation.
0 × x = 13
No number x satisfies the equation 0 × x = 13,
The system of equations is inconsistent. so, there is definitely no pair of numbers
(x, y ) satisfying the considered system of
equations.
x − 0,3y = 0,2
(
b)
5x − 1 = 1,5y

x = 0,3y + 0,2
(

5x − 1 = 1,5y

5(0,3y + 0,2) − 1 = 1,5y

1,5y + 1 − 1 = 1,5y
1,5y − 1,5y = 0
0×y =0 We received an identity.

The system of equations is indetermi-

nate (it has infinitely many solutions).
The equation 0 × y = 0 is met by every num-
ber. If we take any number for y , and for x
Each pair of numbers x, y , which sat-
the number equal to 0,3y + 0,2, then the pair
isfies the equation x = 0,3y + 0,2 is a of numbers thus obtained meets the consid-
solution to this system of equations. ered system of equations.

PROBLEM Solve the system of equations.

2x = 8y − 1
( (
6x − 4y = 5
a) b)
2y = 3x − 5 4y = x + 1
2

EXERCISE B Give a few pairs of numbers that are solutions of the indetermi-
nate system presented in the example above in subsection b).

EQUATION SYSTEMS DETERMINATE, INDETERMINATE AND INCONSISTENT 33

 Systems of equations inconsistent and indeterminate, such as in the exam-
ples, can be transformed so that in both equations on one side the same
expression occurs, and on the other side — a number. Look at the systems
of equations that we received as a result of the transformations.

3x − 4y = x + 1 x − 0,3y = 0,2 |×5

( (

− 12 x + y=3 | × (−4) 5x − 1 = 1,5y

2x − 4y = 1
(
5x − 1,5y = 1
(

2x − 4y = −12 5x − 1,5y = 1

After the transformation one can Both equations in this system repre-
see that the equations make to- sent the same relationship. So, the
gether an inconsistent system. If system is indeterminate. Each pair of
the difference of numbers 2x and numbers, which satisfies one of the
4y is 1, it cannot be equal to −12. two equations, does satisfy also the
other equation.

EXERCISE C Without solving the system of equations, decide whether it is

inconsistent or indeterminate.
( (
3x − y = 2 2a − 5b = 6 x + 4y − 5 = 0

a) b) c)
3x − y = 1 2a − 5b = 6 x + 4y − 7 = 0

PROBLEMS

1. Decide which of the given systems of equations is determinate, which — inde-

terminate, and which — inconsistent.
2y = x
( ( (
6y − 2x = 9 2y + x = 3
1 2 1 3
3y = x − 6 x − 2 = 0 y − 1,5 = −0,5x

2. Look at the solution of the system of equa-

tions presented next to. Provide several pairs of
numbers that meet this system.

3. Solve the system of equations.

2x − 21 y = 3
( (
x−y =3
a) c)
y − 4x = −6 −5x + 10y = −10

6x + y = 3
( (
x − 2y = −4
b) 1 d)
3x + 2
y =5 0,5x + y = 2

34 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

4. Indicatewhich of the systems of equations given below are inconsistent and
which ones — indeterminate. Try to do it without solving them.

1
( ( (
x+y =3 2
x + 2y = 10 2(x − y) + 1 = 0
1 3 5
2x + 2y = 4 x + 4y = 20 2y − 2x − 1 = 0

1
( ( (
x−y =1 x−y =4 3
x − (x + y) =1
2 4 6
5x − 5y = 5 −2x + 2y = 8 y + 32 x = 3

5. From the equations given in the adjacent frame, x+y =5 x−y =5

select two that will make a system:
−x + y = −5 x+y =3
a) determinate,
b) indeterminate,
c) inconsistent.

6. Inthe equation system next to, what number

(
2x + 6y = 4
should letter a be replaced by to receive an inde- 3x + ay = 6
terminate system?

WORD PROBLEMS

EXAMPLE In the orchard, apple trees, plum trees and one pear tree grew.
Apple trees accounted for three-quarters of all fruit trees. When 2 apples, 5
plums and 3 pears were planted, the apple tree was 10 more than the other
trees. How many fruit trees are currently growing in the orchard?

x — number of apples at the beginning

y — number of plums at the beginning
x + y + 1 — the number of all trees at the beginning

x + 2 — the number of apples currently

y + 5 of plums and 1 + 3 = 4 of
y + 9 — the number of other trees currently pears.

( 3 3
x= 4
(x + y + 1) At the beginning, apples accounted for 4 of all trees.

x + 2 = (y + 9) + 10 Now apples are 10 more than the other trees.

4x = 3(x + y + 1)
(

y = x − 17

WORD PROBLEMS 35
 4x = 3x + 3(x − 17) + 3
4x = 3x + 3x − 51 + 3
− 2x = − 48
x = 24

y = 24 − 17
y =7

x = 24 At the beginning, 24 apple trees and 7 plum trees

(
were growing.
y =7

Currently:
number of apple trees = 24 + 2 = 26
number of remaining trees = 7 + 9 = 16
number of all trees = 26 + 16 = 42

Ans. The orchard now has 42 fruit trees.

PROBLEM The bag contains fudge. Two of them are dairy and the others are
1
chocolate and coconut. Coconut fudges make up 4 of all the candy in the bag. Jurek
ate two chocolate and 4 coconut fudges and now there are 10 more chocolate fudges in
the bag than the others. How many candies have remained in the bag?

PROBLEMS
1. a) The picture in the frame costs
270 PLN. The frame is 200 PLN more
expensive than the picture. How much
does the picture cost?
b) Vase with ladle weighs 900 g. The la-
dle is 3 times lighter than the vase. How
much less than a vase weighs the ladle?

2. The arithmetic mean of two numbers is 3 21 . If we increased one of the numbers

by 1 and the second decreased by 2, then we would get equal numbers. What
numbers are we talking about?

3. Find the common fraction that has the following property: when you add 1 to
the numerator and the denominator, you get 31 , and when you subtract 1 from the
numerator and denominator, you get 41 .

36 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

4. InMarch, the Wodziński used 6 m3 of cold water and 7 m3 of hot water. They
paid 138 PLN for this. In April, for the consumption of 7 m3 cold water and 6 m3
warm water they paid 135 PLN. Water prices in March and April were the same.
How much does 1 m3 cold water, and how much warm cost?

5. During the match a certain basketball player scored 44 points by doing 19

successful throws from the game (i.e. for 2 or 3 points). How many effective throws
for 3 points performed this player?

6. Little Olek often buys bread. Yester-

day, he bought 2 breads and 4 rolls. He
says he has spent 6 PLN. Today, he paid
10 PLN for 3 breads and 6 rolls. Olek’s
mother suspects that either the sell-
er made a mistake or Olek lost some
money. Are the doubts justified?

7. Grandfather Stefan has a collection of post

stamps. Today, his grandson Jacek collects
stamps. If Grandpa gave Jacek 150 stamps, they
would both have the same number. If he gave
three-quarters of his collection, that would be
as many stamps as Jacek has now. How many
stamps has grandfather Stefan, and how many
— Jacek?

8. The olduniversity anecdote is about a professor at the Jagiellonian University,

who, when asked about his age, replied:
— Seven years ago, my university was seven times older than me. Seventy years
ago, she was seventy times older than me.
In what year did the professor say these words? How old was he then?
The Jagiellonian University is the oldest university in Poland, founded by King
Casimir the Great in 1364 in Kraków, then the capital of Poland.

9. An antiquarian bought a coffee

table and a mirror for the total
amount PLN 4050. He sold the
mirror with profit 25 %, and the
table with gain 40 %. He earned in
this way 1260 PLN. How much did
he pay for the mirror, and how
much for the table?

WORD PROBLEMS 37
 10. In the city of Małe there are two no-
table general high schools: High School
I and High School II. 1620 pupils learn
in them. In High School II there are 16 %
more pupils than in High School I. High
school girls in Małe city is 40 more than
high school boys. If 55 female students
passed from High School II to High School
I, there would be as many girls in both
schools. What percentage of high school
students are boys?

11. The perimeter of triangle ABC drawn next to

is 53. The perimeters of the triangles ADC and
DCB are equal. Calculate the lengths of AD and
DB line segments.

12. Look at the drawing next to it. The AC di-

agonal divides the ABCDE pentagon into two
figures: an isosceles trapezoid and an equilateral
triangle. The ABC triangle’s perimeter is 6 times
smaller than the ACDE trapezoid’s perimeter. The
perimeter of the pentagon is 78, and the sums of
the length of the opposite sides of the trapezoid
are equal. Calculate the length of the sides of the
pentagon.

13. When we choose two from among three numbers, depending on which num-
bers we choose, their sum may be 20, 30 or 40. What is the sum of all three
numbers?

38 E Q UATI O NS, I NE Q UALI TI E S, SY STE MS O F E Q UATI O NS

Functions
The electrocardiogram shows how the electrical voltage changes
within the heart muscle over a period of time. In a similar way –
using a graph – various other dependencies can also be illustrated
between two quantities.

Concept of function Reading function graphs Function formulas

and graphs Monotonicity of functions Formula and graph
of linear function Features of linear function Direct and inverse
proportionality
 CONCEPT OF FUNCTION
Look at the table below. The numbers of com-
petitors taking part in the 400 m run were
assigned their times.

x 189 13 5 75 40 12

y 46,22 47,98 47,36 48,07 46,21 45,88

x — runners’ number
y — time of running (in seconds)

We meet with similar situations very often. For example, each student is
assigned a single number in the students’ list, each book has a strictly
defined number of pages, each animal can be identified to a particular
species. This corresponds to the following scheme:
In our example, X is a set of num-
We have a set X and a set Y , and we bers of players, and Y — a set of
achievable times.
assign exactly one element of set Y to
each element of set X. We assign each player the time
obtained.

The assignment in which each element

of set X corresponds exactly to one In our example, the function is de-
fined on the set of numbers of
element of set Y , we call function players with values in the set of
defined on the set X with values in achieved times.
the set Y .

The set X on which the function is The set {5, 12, 13, 40, 75, 189} is
defined is called the domain of the domain of the function, and
function. Each element of the domain each number from this set is an
argument.
is called the function’s argument.

If the x argument is assigned to

the element y, then we say that For example, for argument 5, the
function takes the value 47,36,
the function for the argument x and for argument 12 — the value
takes the value of y. is 45,88.

EXERCISE A Consider the following function: Each student in your class is

assigned a number of letters appearing in his first name.
For example: if Barbara is in the class, we assign her number 7.
a) How many elements does the domain of this function have?
b) Enter the value of this function for several selected arguments.
c) What is the smallest and what the largest value of this function?

40 FUNCTIONS
 The domain of a function can be any set, and function values can also be
elements of any set. In this chapter, we will primarily consider functions
whose arguments and values are numbers.

We define a function by giving its domain and the way in which values are
assigned to arguments. We can do this in a variety of ways, for example
using a word description, table, graph, formula or diagram. The same
function is defined below in five different ways.

Word description:
For each integer x greater than −4 and less than 4, we assign the number
y by 2 less than half the square of x.

Table: Graph:

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3

y 2 12 0 −1 12 −2 −1 12 0 2 12

Formula: Arrow diagram:

1
y = 2 x2 − 2
The marked points form a graph
The number x from the of the function. The first coor-
set {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3} dinate of each of them is the
is assigned number y function’s argument, and the sec-
equal to 21 x2 − 2. ond is the function’s value corre-
sponding to this argument.

The domain of this function is the number set: {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3}. Each
number from this set is assigned a real number.

From the history

We can think of a function as an interdependence between two quantities.

The ancient Greeks were already looking for such dependencies. The term
”function” appeared, however, only in the seventeenth century, in the work
of German mathematician Gottfried Leibnitz. The definition of function
(as an assignment) was first formulated by German mathematician Peter
Dirichlet in 1837.
Today, the concept of function is one of the most important concepts of
mathematics.

CONCEPT OF FUNCTION 41
 Consider the following function f :
The sentence: Function f to ar-
Function f to every natural number
guments from the set X as-
assigns the remainder of its division
signs values from the set Y we
by 3.
can write down as follows:
f : X −→ Y The domain of function f is the set
of natural numbers and its values
The notation f (x) designates are also natural numbers. You can
the f function’s value for ar- put down this information like this:
gument x.
f : Ž −→ Ž

Let’s calculate the function’s f values for arguments: 0, 1, 20, 28, 42, 67.
f (0) = 0, because 0 ÷ 3 = 0 rest 0 f (28) = 1, because 28 ÷ 3 = 9 rest 1
f (1) = 1, because 1 ÷ 3 = 0 rest 1 f (42) = 0, because 42 ÷ 3 = 14 rest 0
f (20) = 2, because 20 ÷ 3 = 6 rest 2 f (67) = 1, because 67 ÷ 3 = 22 rest 1

EXERCISE B For the f function specified above, calculate f (2), f (10), f (15) and
f (100). How many different values can this function take?

The set of all values that the function takes is called

the set of function’s values.

Note. In the notation f : X −→ Y set X denotes the domain, but the set of function
values does not have to be equal to set Y , though it must be a subset of it.

Note that the set of values of function f considered above is three-element:

{0, 1, 2} and is, of course, a subset of the set Ž.

EXERCISE C Write down the domain and the set of values of the function
shown on the previous page.

This function f can be represented by a graph whose initial fragment (for

arguments from 0 to 14) looks like this:

The above graph consists of single points, because the domain is set Ž.
Graphs of functions can also be continuous lines or their fragments.

42 FUNCTIONS
 When we draw the graph of a func-
The graph of function f includes tion, it is worth remembering that
all points with coordinates (x, f (x)), there cannot be two points with the
where x is a domain element, and same x-coordinate to it, because any
f (x) is the function’s value for this function admits only one value for
argument. each argument. It may happen, how-
ever, that for various arguments the
values will be the same.

EXERCISE D Draw the graph of a func-

tion which for the arguments −2, 0
and 3 takes the same value.

EXERCISE E For which arguments the function described on the previous page
assumes value 0?

The argument for which the function assumes value 0 is called

zero of this function.
In other words, argument x is a zero of function f when f (x) = 0.

When a function is specified by means of

a graph, it is usually easy to read its ze-
ros. These are the first coordinates of the
graph points on the x-axis.

The figure on the right shows the graph

of a function whose domain is interval
D E
−4 ; 5 . Its zeros are numbers −3, −1 and
D E
all numbers from interval 2 ; 4 .

PROBLEMS
1. The given assignment isa function. Specify its domain, give several arguments
and the corresponding values.
a) Every word in the sentence: ”Do not do to the other what is unpleasant to you”
is assigned the number of letters in this word.
b) The page number of the mathematics textbook is assigned the number of prob-
lems on this page.
c) A student of your class is assigned the number of his/her siblings.
d) The Nobel Prize Winner is assigned the country in which he or she was born.
e) A chemical element is assigned its symbol.
f) The mountain summit is assigned its height.

CONCEPT OF FUNCTION 43
2. The following are examples of assignments (the numbers y are assigned to the
numbers x). Which of them are not functions?
a)
x −5 −1 0 6 x −3 −2 −1 −1 x −2 0 2 10
y −5 3 −5 3 y 0 −2 −5 −7 y 4 4 4 4

b)

c)

3. For the given function, select two arguments and enter the corresponding values.
a) f : {5, 6, 7, . . . , 99} −→ ’ and f (x) is 10 % of the number x.
b) f : ’ −→ ’ and f (x) is the rounding of x to units.
c) f : Ž −→ ’ and f (x) = x
3

4. Specify zeros that can be read based on the given

function information:

a) x −2 −1 0 1 2 b) x 0 1 2 3 4
y 0 −6 3 −5 3 y 0 1 −1 0 3

5. Determine the set of values and zeros of the given function.

a) f : Ž → Ž and f (n) is the remainder of dividing n by 7
b) f : Ž → Ž and f (n) is the units digit of number 5n
D E
c) f : 0 ; 2 → ’ and f (x) is rounding of x to units
 
d) f : 0 ; 5 → ’ and f (x) is the units digit of the decimal expansion of x
e) f : {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , 20} → Ž and f (n) is the number of even divisors of n

44 FUNCTIONS
6. Function g is defined as follows: Each natural number n is assigned the largest
of even numbers less than or equal to n.
a) For what arguments does the function g take the value 120?
b) What zeros does this function have?
c) For how many arguments function g takes a value less than 50?

7. Function f is defined as follows: We assign the sum of digits to each natural

two-digit number.
a) What is the smallest and the largest value of this function?
b) For which arguments does function f take the value of 4?
c) How many elements does the set of values of the function f have?
d) What value does f function take most often? How many times?

8. Plot a function that meets the following conditions simultaneously:

• the P = (1, 3) point belongs to the graph,
• for the argument x = 2 the function takes value 7,
• the function assumes value 8 for at least two arguments,
• the function assumes value 0 for the argument x = 3,
• the domain of the function is the set of integers greater than −4 and less than 6.

READING FUNCTION GRAPHS

When using a function, we usually describe how one quantity changes
depending on the other. The easiest way to observe this dependence is on
the basis of graph.
The function specified below describes how temperature changes depend-
ing on the altitude above the Earth’s surface (up to 100 km).

EXERCISE A Read from the graph:

a) At what height temperature is the lowest?
b) At what heights do the positive temperatures prevail?

READING FUNCTION GRAPHS 45

 Sometimes arguments and function values are called variables: function’s
argument — independent variable, and function’s value — dependent
variable. In the above example the independent variable is the height
above the surface of the Earth, and the dependent variable — the tem-
perature.

Graphs of three functions are presented below. On their basis, we can

determine the domain and the set of values. We assume that the points
marked with an empty circle do not belong to the function’s graph.

Domain: Domain: Domain:

D  D  D E
{−2, −1, 1, 2, 4} −3 ; 4 −3 ; −1 ∪ 0 ; 3
Set of values: Set of values: Set of values:
 E D E D 
{−3, −1, 2} {−3} ∪ −1 ; 3 −3 ; 1 ∪ 2 ; 4

The following figures show fragments of three function graphs. If the

graph is not finished with a dot on the left or right side, then we as-
sume that the domain is an infinite interval. In cases like the following
we will also assume that all zeros are visible, and the invisible part of the
graph is a continuous curve.

Domain: Domain: Domain:

D   
’ −3 ; +∞ −∞ ; 4

These drawings only show fragments of graphs, so we cannot determine

what sets of values of particular functions are, because we are not sure
how the graphs run.

46 FUNCTIONS
 EXERCISE B For one of the functions described above, answer the questions:
a) What value does the function take for argument 0, and what value — for
argument 2?
b) For which arguments does the function assume the value of 1?

This is how we find the and this — how we find

function’s value for the the argument the given
given argument x. . . value was assigned to.

When we know the zeros and use the graph, we can determine for which
arguments the function assumes positive values, and for which — negative
ones.

 
f (x) > 0 for x ∈ a ; b
   
f (x) < 0 for x ∈ −∞ ; a ∪ b ; +∞

EXERCISE C Draw a graph of the function whose zeros are numbers 1, 2 and
3 and the given condition is met.
   
a) The function assumes positive values only for x ∈ 1 ; 2 ∪ 3 ; +∞ .
 
b) The function takes negative values only for x ∈ −∞ ; 1 .
c) The function does not take positive values.

READING FUNCTION GRAPHS 47

 EXAMPLE The figure shows the graph of
a function f . Specify the domain and set of
values for this function, the largest value, the
smallest value, and zeros. For which argu-
ments the function’s values are negative?
D 
The domain is interval −3; 7 .
D E
The set of values is interval −3; 5 .
The greatest value is f (−3) = 5.
The smallest value is f (1) = −3.
Zeros are numbers: −1, 3, 6.
   
The function takes negative values for x ∈ −1 ; 3 ∪ 6 ; 7 .

PROBLEM Specify the domain and the set of

values of the function g shown in the graph op-
posite and give the arguments for which values
of this function are positive.

PROBLEMS
1. Using the function graph, answer the following questions:
• What is the domain of the function? What is the set of function values?
• What is the smallest and the highest value of the function?
• What coordinates does the intersection point of the graph have with the y-axis?
• Does the function have zeros? If so, which ones?
• For which arguments does the function assume positive values?
• For which arguments does the function take values greater than −2?

48 FUNCTIONS
2. Which of the functions presented in problem 1. meets the following conditions
simultaneously?
• The function has exactly three zeros.
 
• For arguments in the interval −2 ; 2 the function takes negative values.
• The smallest value is −2.

3. Read the zeros of the function represented by the graph and specify for which
arguments the function assumes positive values, and for which — negative ones.

4. The function is defined as follows: For each real number, we assign the largest
of integers not larger than this number.
List several points belonging to the graph of this function. Sketch its graph.

5. Imagine that the vessels, the shape of which is illustrated in the drawings, are
filled with the same stream of water.

The graphs show how the water level in the vessels changes when they are filled.
Match the graphs to the vessels.

READING FUNCTION GRAPHS 49

 FUNCTION FORMULAS AND GRAPHS
Consider the following function f :
For each real number x greater than −1 we assign the quotient of x by the
number 1 greater than x.
The way in which the values of this function are assigned to the arguments
can be represented by the formula:
f (x) = x
x+1
Note. The formula of this function can also be written in other ways. Here are
examples:
y= x x 7→ x
x+1 x+1

By inserting into the formula

 (in place of x) a number belonging to the
domain, i.e. to the set −1 ; +∞ , we get the function’s value. For example,
for arguments 2, − 1 , 0, 3 we get:
2

f (2) = 2 = 2 f (0) = 0 =0
2+1 3 0+1
  − 12 f (3) = 3 = 3
f −1 = = −1 3+1 4
2 − 12 + 1

These results can be presented in a table.

x 2 −1 0 3
However, it should be remembered that 2
such a table is not full description of the 2 3
f (x) −1 0
function, because it contains only selected 3 4
arguments and corresponding values.

The above calculations show that the graph of

 the function
 under
 consid-
eration includes the following points: 2, 2 1
, − , −1 , (0, 0), 3, 3 .
3 2 4

Below, a number of points belong- All points of the graph of this func-
ing to the graph of the function tion form such a curve, as shown in
under consideration are marked. the figure below.

EXERCISE A Mark in the coordinate system a few points belonging to the

graph of the function y = 1 x3 − 1.
2

50 FUNCTIONS
 EXAMPLE 1 The formula of the function shown in the graph is f (x) = |3x +2|−4.
Find the coordinates of points A and B.
Point A:
f (2) = |3 × 2 + 2| − 4 = 4 A = (2, f (2))

A = (2, 4)
Point B:
f (0) = |3 × 0 + 2| − 4 = −2 B = (0, f (0))

B = (0, −2)

PROBLEM Function g is given by the formula g(x) = |2x − 3| − 5.

a) The P point with the first −7 coordinate belongs to the graph of this function. What
is the second coordinate of this point?
b) At what point does the graph of this function intersect the y-axis?

EXAMPLE 2 The function defined on the set ’ \ {0} is described with the for-
x −1
mula f (x) = x 2 . Check if the given point belongs to the graph of this function.

1
 
a) A = 2, 4
2−1 1
f (2) = 22 = 4

1
 
Ans. Point A = 2, 4 belongs to the function graph f .

b) B = (−2, 1)
−2 − 1 3
f (−2) = (−2)2 = − 4 6= 1

Ans. Point B = (−2, 1) does not belong to the function graph f .

   
PROBLEM Do points A = 9, 3 , B = 1 , 2 1 belong to the function graph
10 4 2
√
x
g(x) = ?
x+1

EXAMPLE 3 Which of the numbers:

√ 1, −3, −2 are zeroes of the function speci-
fied by the formula f (x) = (x + 2) x 2 − 1?
√
f (1) = (1 + 2) 12 − 1 = 0
p
f (−3) = (−3 + 2) (−3)2 − 1 6= 0
p
f (−2) = (−2 + 2) (−2)2 − 1 = 0

Ans. Numbers 1 and −2 are zeroes of function f .

PROBLEM Which of the numbers: −1, 0, 1, 2 and 3 are zeroes of the function
√
specified by the formula f (x) = (x3 − 8) x + 1?

FUNCTION FORMULAS AND GRAPHS 51

 Sometimes, the relationship between two quantities is described by means
of a formula. It must be remembered that the arguments of such a function
can only be those for which the formula makes sense. Here are examples
of such relationships:

• The number (L) of the polygon di- • The length of the diagonal (d) of
agonals depends on the number the rectangle with perimeter 10
of its sides (n). depends on the length of one of
the sides (x).
n(n − 3)
L=
2 p
d = x 2 + (5 − x)2
n — number of sides of the polygon
L — number of diagonals x — length of one side of
the rectangle
The domain of this function is d — diagonal’s length
the set: {3, 4, 5, 6, . . .}.
The domain ofthis function
is the interval 0 ; 5 .

EXERCISE B For each of the above functions, calculate the function’s values
for several selected arguments.

When a function is defined only with the formula, and its domain is not
given, we assume that all real numbers for which the function’s value can
be calculated belong to the domain.

√ 6
EXAMPLE 4 Specify the domain of the function y = 3x + x − 2 .

3x ≥ 0 and x − 2 6= 0 The radicand must be non-negative; dividing

by zero is not defined.
Thus:

x ≥ 0 and x 6= 2
D 
Ans. The domain of the function is the set 0 ; +∞ \ {2}.

√
2−x
PROBLEM Specify the domain of the function y = .
x−1

52 FUNCTIONS
 Sometimes, function values are specified using not the same expression
for all arguments. Here is an example of such a function:
(
x(x − 2) for x < 1
f (x) = √
x for x ≥ 1

This notation means that for argument x smaller than 1 the value of f is
calculated from the formula f (x) = x(x − 2), and for argument equal 1 or
√
greater than 1 — from the formula f (x) = x. E.g:
√
f (−1) = (−1) × (−1 − 2) = 3 f (5) = 5
p p
f (−5) = (−5) × (−5 − 2) = 35 f (8) = 8 = 2 2

EXERCISE C Give examples of several points belonging to the graph of this

function. Justify that 0 is a zero of this function and 2 is not.

PROBLEMS
1. Determine what value the given function takes for the argument 0, and what
value — for argument 2.
√
a) f (x) = x3 b) f (x) = x − 10 c) f (x) = 1
x+2

2. Specify the coordinates of three points that belong to the graph of the given
function.
a) y = 2x2 + 1 b) y = −3x3 c) y = −3
x

3. Find the coordinates of the points marked on the graphs.

4. a) Function f is given by the formula f (x) = 3x . Give the values of f (a − 1),

x2 + 2
f (2a), f (a2 ) in the form of algebraic expressions.
b) Function g, to every argument x in the set ’ assigns the value x(x − 1)(2x + 3).
What values does this function take for arguments 3x, x + 1, x − 23 ? Write down the
appropriate algebraic expressions.

FUNCTION FORMULAS AND GRAPHS 53

5. Consider rectangular triangles with hypotenuse of length 1. Let x be the length
of one of the catheti. Present with a formula the dependence y on x and indicate a
graph that represents this relationship if:

a) y denotes the length of the second cathetus,

b) y means the area of the triangle,
c) y means the perimeter of the triangle,
d) y is the length of the hypotenuse.

6. Consider rectangles with the area equal to 1. Let x be the length of one of the
sides. Present with a formula the dependence y on x and indicate a graph that
represents this relationship if:

a) y is the length of the second side of the rectangle,

b) y means the perimeter of the rectangle,
c) y is the length of the diagonal,
d) y is the sum of diagonals’ length.

7. Let x denote the length of one of the sides of the rectangle with perimeter 12,
and y — the distance between the intersection point of the diagonals and the long
side of the rectangle. Which of the following formulas shows the dependence of y
on x?
 E
x
   E

 2 for x ∈ 0 ; 3  3 − x for x ∈ 0 ; 3

2
y= y=  
 x
 
 3 − x for x ∈ 3 ; 6
 
for x ∈ 3 ; 6
2 2

54 FUNCTIONS
 MONOTONICITY OF FUNCTIONS
EXERCISE A One of the graphs shows the function f satisfying the following
condition. Which is its the graph?
 
f (−3) < f (−1,5) < f (0) < f 1 1 < f (2,55)
7

The following are fragments of function graphs which along increase of

arguments assume increasing values. We call such functions increasing
functions.

Function f is called increasing when for any arguments x1 , x2 the

condition is met:
If x1 < x2 , then f (x1 ) < f (x2 )

7+x
EXAMPLE 1 Prove that the function f (x) = is increasing.
2
Assume that x1 < x2 , or x2 − x1 > 0.
7 + x2 7 + x1 x −x
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = − = 2 1 >0
2 2 2
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) > 0, so f (x1 ) < f (x2 )
Thus, function f is increasing.

PROBLEM Justify that the function f (x) = x − 5 is increasing.

3

MONOTONICITY OF FUNCTIONS 55
 EXERCISE B One of the graphs from Exercise A shows the function g that
fulfills the following condition. Which is the 
graph?

g(−3) > g(−1,5) > g(0) > f 1 17 > g(2,55)

The next drawings show fragments of function graphs, which along with
the increase of arguments assume ever smaller values. We call such func-
tions decreasing functions.

Function f is called decreasing when for any arguments x1 , x2 the

condition is met:
If x1 < x2 , then f (x1 ) > f (x2 )

EXERCISE C Imitating example 1 show that the function f (x) = 3 − x is decreas-

5
ing.

The following are examples of functions that take only one value. The first
of these functions takes the value 3 for each argument and the second —
the value −2. We say that such functions are constant.

A function that takes the same value for each argument is called a
constant function.

EXERCISE
 E D Draw graph of the f function whose domain is the interval
−3 ; 4 and which assigns 2 to each argument.

56 FUNCTIONS
 EXERCISE E Justify that the function f presented below is not increasing. Give
arguments x1 , x2 such that x1 < x2 but f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ).

Let us assume that the function f presented above is defined on the set ’,
and the invisible parts of the graph are rays. Such a function is obviously
neither increasing nor decreasing nor constant, but on this function can
be said that it:  E
is increasing in interval −∞ ; −3
D E
is decreasing in interval −3 ; 4
D E
is increasing in interval 4 ; 8
D E
is constant in interval 8 ; 10
D 
is decreasing in interval 10 ; +∞

Note. Although the function f increases in the intervals −∞ ; −3 and 4 ; 8 , we

cannot say that this function is increasing in the set −∞ ; −3 ∪ 4 ; 8 , as, for
example, for the arguments x1 = −4 and x2 = 5 the condition x1 < x2 is met and
at the same time the inequality f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) is not true.

When we identify intervals in which a function is increasing, the intervals

in which it is decreasing, and those in which it is constant, then we say
that we determine the intervals of monotonicity of the function.

EXAMPLE
 E 2 Show that the function f (x) = 5x 2 − 7 is decreasing in the interval
−∞ ; 0 .
 E
Assume that x1 , x2 ∈ −∞ ; 0 and x1 < x2 .

f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = 5x22 − 7 − (5x12 − 7) =

= 5x22 − 7 − 5x12 + 7 = 5(x22 − x12 ) =
 E
x1 , x2 ∈ −∞ ; 0 , then x2 + x1 < 0
x1 < x2 , then x2 − x1 > 0.
= 5(x2 − x1 )(x2 + x1 ) < 0

f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) < 0, so f (x1 ) > f (x2 )

 E
Thus, the function f is decreasing in the interval −∞ ; 0 .

P
D R O B L E M Prove that the function f (x) = 5x2 − 7 is increasing in the interval
0 ; +∞ .

MONOTONICITY OF FUNCTIONS 57
 4
EXAMPLE 3 Show that the function f (x) = − x + 6 is increasing in the interval
D E
−5 ; −2 .
D E
Assume that x1 , x2 ∈ −5 ; −2 and x1 < x2 .
 
4 4
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = − x + 6 − − x + 6 = D E
2 1 x1 , x2 ∈ −5 ; −2 , then x1 x2 > 0
4 4 −4x1 + 4x2 −4(x1 − x2 ) x1 < x2 , then x1 − x2 < 0.
= −x + x = x1 x2
= x1 x2
>0
2 1

f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) > 0, then f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).

D E
So, function f is increasing in the interval −5 ; −2 .
D E
PROBLEM Prove that the function g(x) = 5 −2 is decreasing in the interval −3 ; −1 .
x

PROBLEMS
1. Can any of the functions presented in the graphs be increasing, decreasing or
constant?

2. Among the given relationships, indicate those that are increasing functions.
• The dependence of the braking distance on the speed of the car.
• The dependence of the square’s area on the length of its side.
• The dependence of pencil’s graphite length on the using time of this pencil.

3. Specify the domain of the function f and justify the given property.

a) The function f (x) = 3 + 4x is increasing.b) The function f (x) = 5 − x is decreasing.

2

4. Enter the maximum intervals of monotonicity of the function shown in the graph.

58 FUNCTIONS
5. Can any of the two functions shown in the figure be increasing, decreasing or
constant?

6. Prove that:
 E
a) function f (x) = x2 − 8 is decreasing in the interval −∞ ; 0 ,
 E
b) function f (x) = −3x2 − 4 is increasing in the interval −∞ ; 0 ,
 
c) function f (x) = 4 + 5 is decreasing in the interval 0 ; +∞ ,
x
 
d) function f (x) = 2x3 is increasing in the interval −10 ; −1 .

7. Prove that:
 E
a) function f (x) = x2 − 2x is decreasing in the interval −∞ ; 1 and increasing in the
D 
interval 1 ; +∞ ,
 
b) function f (x) = 2 − 3 is decreasing in the interval −∞ ; 0 and increasing in the
  x
interval 0 ; +∞ ,
 E
c) function f (x) = |x − 5| is decreasing in the interval −∞ ; 5 and increasing in the
D 
interval 5 ; +∞ .

8. a) Functions f and g are increasing and have the same domain. Justify that the
function h(x) = f (x) + g(x) is also an increasing function.
b) Function f is decreasing, function g is constant and both have the same domain.
Prove that the function h(x) = f (x) − g(x) is decreasing, and the function k(x) =
g(x) − f (x) is increasing.

MONOTONICITY OF FUNCTIONS 59
 FORMULA AND GRAPH OF LINEAR FUNCTION
Consider the function defined by the formula:
f (x) = 5 x + 2
3

Its domain is the set ’. Three arguments are giv-

x 1 −3 0
en in the table and their corresponding values.
32
 
f (x) −3 2
Therefore the points 1, 3 2 , (−3, −3), (0, 2) be- 3
3
long to the graph of the function considered.

EXERCISE A Find several other points belonging to the graph of this function
and mark them in the coordinate system.

Below are some points belonging By drawing a line through these

to the function graph f . Note that points, we will obtain the func-
these points are colinear. tion’s graph:
f (x) = 5 x + 2
3

Here are examples of several other functions whose graphs are lines.

y = −3x + 3 y =x+2 y = −2x

4 2

60 FUNCTIONS
 The function defined on the set ’ whose formula can be written in
the form
y = ax + b,
where a and b are real numbers, we call linear function. The graph
of such a function is a line.

EXAMPLE 1 Draw the graph of the function y = − 13 x − 2.

x =0 ⇒ y = − 31 × 0 − 2 = −2 To draw the graph of a linear function,

we find the coordinates of two arbitrary
1
x =3 ⇒ y = − 3 × 3 − 2 = −3 points on its graph.

(0, −2) and (3, −3) We write the coordinates of the points
you are looking for.

We mark the points obtained in the co-

ordinate system and draw a line through
these points.

PROBLEM Draw the graph of the given function.

a) y = 3x + 2 b) y = 1 x + 2 c) y = −2x − 1 d) y = 2x + 3
4 2

Let’s examine the monotonicity of the linear function.

Consider the function defined by the formula:
f (x) = ax + b
Let x1 < x2 .
f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = ax2 + b − (ax1 + b) = a(x2 − x1 )

We have therefore received equality:

f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = a(x2 − x1 )

Because x2 − x1 > 0, so the sign of the difference f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) depends on

whether the coefficient a is positive, negative or equal to zero.

If a > 0, then f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) > 0, so f (x1 ) < f (x2 ), meaning the function is
increasing.

If a < 0, then f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) < 0, so f (x1 ) > f (x2 ), i.e. the function is decreasing.

If a = 0, then f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = 0, so f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), that is, the function is

constant.

FORMULA AND GRAPH OF LINEAR FUNCTION 61

 The coefficient a decides whether the function y = ax + b is increasing,
decreasing or constant. On the value of the coefficient a also depends the
angle of inclination of the graph to the x-axis. Therefore, number a is
called the slope.

If a > 0, function If a < 0, function If a = 0, function

y = ax + b is increasing. y = ax + b is decreasing. y = ax + b is constant.

Coefficient b determines the intersection point of the function y = ax + b

with the y-axis (y-intercept). For x = 0 the function assumes value b, thus
its graph intersects the y-axis at point (0, b).
The following properties of linear functions result from the above consid-
erations.

Graphs of functions of the type Graphs functions of the type

y = ax + b with the same y = ax + b with the same
coefficient a are parallel lines. coefficient b intersect at point (0, b).

EXERCISE B Look at the drawing.

The graph of function f is parallel
to the function graph y = 12 x − 4,
and the graph of function g is
parallel to the graph of function
y = −3x + 2. Write equations of the
functions f and g.

62 FUNCTIONS
 3x + 10 for x ≤ −2



EXAMPLE 2 Draw the graph of the function f (x) = 4 for −2 < x < 4


0,5x + 2 for x ≥4

f (−2) = 3 × (−2) + 10 = 4
The graph of f consists of three fragments of
f (−3) = 3 × (−3) + 10 = 1 graphs of linear functions: y = 3x + 10, y = 4
and y = 0,5x + 2. The graph of y = 4 is parallel
f (4) = 0,5 × 4 + 2 = 4 to the x-axis. For the other functions we find
points on their graphs, two for each.
f (6) = 0,5 × 6 + 2 = 5
(−2, 4), (−3, 1), (4, 4) i (6, 5) We write coordinates of the points.

We mark the points in the coordinate system

and draw the graph.

 1
 − 3 x + 6 for x≤3


PROBLEM Draw the graph of the function g(x) = 5 for 3<x<5



−2x + 15 for x≥5

PROBLEMS
1. Draw the graph of the function.
a) y = 2x − 3 c) y = 3x + 1 e) y = − 1 x − 2
2
b) y = −x + 2 d) y = −0,4x + 1 f) y = 2 x
3

2. Which of the following functions are increasing, which — decreasing and which
are constant? For each function, give the coordinates of the y-intercept.

f (x) = x h(x) = −37 r (x) = 3x − 7

7 5
√  √
g(x) = − 2 x + 3 p(x) = 3 x
2− 2 s(x) = 4 − 3x
5 6

3. Determine monotonicity of the function and intersection point of its graph with
the y-axis.

a) y = 2 − 2x − x b) y = 1 − 6x + 2x c) y = x + 1 − 3 + 2x
−4 3 3

FORMULA AND GRAPH OF LINEAR FUNCTION 63

4. Match formulas to graphs.
f1 (x) = 3 x + 3 f3 (x) = 3 x + 3 f5 (x) = 2 x − 2 f7 (x) = − 2 x + 5
5 2 2 5 7 3 3 2

f2 (x) = − 5 x − 3 f4 (x) = − 3 x − 3 f6 (x) = − 7 x + 3 f8 (x) = 2 x − 5

3 2 2 5 2 2 3 2

5. a)Mach the formulas below to the

graphs next to.
1 y = 3x − 1 3 y = −1x − 1
2
2 y = −2x + 3 1
4 y = x+3
4
b) Write down formulas of functions
whose graph are parallel to lines a, b,
c, d and pass through point (0, 2).

6. Determine which quadrants of the coordinate system the function graph y = ax + b

passes through, when:
a) a > 0 and b < 0 b) a < 0 and b < 0 c) a > 0 and b > 0 d) a = 0 and b < 0

7. Let f function be defined by the formula f (x) = ax + b. Justify that for a > 0 the
value of the function f for argument 1 is by a greater than the value for argument
0. Formulate a similar proposition for a < 0.

8. Draw the function graph.   

 
 2x + 1 for x ∈ −∞ ; −1
 −x − 1 for x ≤ 3


 D 
a) f (x) = c) f (x) = −1 for x ∈ −1 ; 3
 2x − 10 for x > 3 
 D 
 1

 x for x ∈ 3 ; +∞
3

   1x for x ≤ −2
for x ∈ −∞ ; −1

 2x + 4  2
 

b) f (x) = D  d) f (x) = 3x + 5 for −2 < x < 1
 1 x + 2 for x ∈ −1 ; +∞
 
 −1x

2 for x ≥ 1

2

64 FUNCTIONS
 FEATURES OF LINEAR FUNCTION
When we know the equation of a linear function, we can determine its
various properties by performing the appropriate calculations. Consider,
for example, the function:
y = 2x + 1
3 2

• To calculate the zero of this function,

simply solve the equation:
2x + 1 = 0
3 2

• The argument for which this function

takes value 2 is the number that satis-
fies the equation:
2x + 1 = 2
3 2

• Arguments for which the values of this

function are greater than −1 make the
set of inequality solutions:
2 x + 1 > −1
3 2

• To calculate the coordinates of the inter-

section point of the graph of function
y = 2 x + 1 with the graph of function
3 2
y = −x + 2, just solve the system of equa-
tions: 
y = 2x + 1
3 2
y = −x + 2


• The set of arguments for which values

of the function y = 2 x + 1 are smaller
3 2
than values of the function y = −x + 2,
we determine by solving the inequality:
2 x + 1 < −x + 2
3 2

FEATURES OF LINEAR FUNCTION 65

 On the basis of some information about the linear function, sometimes it
is also possible to determine the equation of this function.

EXAMPLE 1 The graph of a certain linear function is parallel to the graph of

the function y = −3x + 4 and passes through the point A = (−2, −5). Find the
equation of this function.

y = ax + b The graph of the function sought y = ax + b

is parallel to the function graph y = −3x + 4,
a = −3 so a = −3.

y = −3x + b

−5 = −3 × (−2) + b The coordinates of point A (x = −2 and y = −5)

meet the equality y = −3x + b.
b = −11

Ans. The equation of the function sought is y = −3x − 11.

PROBLEM The graph of the linear function g is parallel to the function graph
f (x) = − 1 x + 7 and passes through the point P = (6, −5). Find the g function’s equation.
2

EXAMPLE 2 The graph of the function y = ax + b passes through the points

(1, 3) and (−1, 1). Find the equation of this function.
(
3=a×1+b The coordinates of points (1, 3) and (−1, 1)
1 = a × (−1) + b satisfy the equation y = ax + b.

(
a+b =3
+ −a + b = 1
We solve the system of equations.
2b = 4
b=2

a+b =3
We calculate a, by inserting b = 2 into one of
a+2=3 the equations.

a=1

Ans. The equation searched for is y = x + 2.

PROBLEM Find the equation of a linear function whose graph goes through points:
a) A = (3, 7), B = (5, 1) b) P = (−2, 7), R = (−1, −3)

66 FUNCTIONS
PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the zero of the given function and the coordinates of the intersection
points of the graph of this function with the coordinate system’s axes. Draw the
graph of the function.
a) f (x) = −x + 7 b) y = 0,8x − 2 c) f (x) = − 1 x + 1 d) y = 7x + 1
3 6 7

2. a) For what argument the function f (x) = 2 x − 5 takes the value of 6?

3
b) The function g(x) = −4x + b for the argument x = 1 assumes the value 7. For
2
what argument this function assumes the value −7?
c) The value of the function h(x) = ax + 6 for the argument x = −3 is equal to −9.
Find the argument for which the value of this function is equal to −3.

3. a) For which arguments the values of the function y = 3x − 2 are positive?

b) For which arguments does the function y = −0,2x + 5 take negative values?
c) For which arguments values of the function y = 5x − 7 are greater than 100?
d) For which arguments values of the function f (x) = 2(x − 3) − 4 are less than −50?

4. Give the formula of the function whose graph meets the given condition.
√
a) The graph is parallel to the function graph y = −3x + 7 and intersects the y-axis
at the point (0, −1).
√
b) The graph is parallel to the graph of function y = 2 − x and passes through the
origin of the coordinate system.
c) The graph is parallel to the x-axis and passes through point (−1, 6).

5. Find the formula of the linear function whose graph goes through the points:
a) (2, 1) and (−2, −3) b) (−1, 1) and (−2, 5) c) (10, 8) and (−100, −3)

Curiosity

Absolute zero is the temperature at which the relationship between these values is
the translational motion of molecules dies a linear function.
down. It is about −273◦C. Such a tem-
The zero of this function is just the
perature cannot be achieved even under
absolute zero temperature (when the
laboratory conditions. How is it possible
particle motion dies down, the pressure
that its value was calculated in the 19th
is equal to 0).
century?

It turns out that the properties of the lin-

ear function have been used. If we were
to measure the temperature and pressure
of the air being heated in a sealed ves-
sel and mark the results obtained in the
coordinate system, we would notice that

FEATURES OF LINEAR FUNCTION 67

6. Read the Curiosity on the previous page. The following table gives the results of
very accurate measurements of the pressure and temperature of the air heated in
a closed vessel. Calculate for what temperature the pressure will be equal to zero.

Temperature (in ◦ C) 10 20

Pressure (in hPa) 962,71 996,71

Worth knowing!

It is easy to show that for the linear function f (x) = ax + b, if we choose two
different arguments x1 , x2 , there is the equality:

f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
=a
x2 − x1

Take a look at the plotted graphs of linear functions and the selected rectangular
triangle. From the above equality, it follows that for a given function the ratio of
the length of the respective catheti is the same in each triangle.

If the function y = ax + b is increas- If the function y = ax + b is decreas-

ing, the ratio of lengths of the vertical ing, the ratio of lengths of the vertical
cathetus to the horizontal one is equal cathetus to the horizontal one is oppo-
to the coefficient a. site to the coefficient a.

7. On each of the following drawings, find points with both integer coordinates and
using the information above write down the equations of the f and g functions.

68 FUNCTIONS
 DIRECT AND INVERSE PROPORTIONALITY
Let us remind you that y is said to be directly proportional to x when their
quotient is constant and equal to a positive number, i.e., when there is the
equality yx = a, where a > 0. This equality can be transformed by solving it
for y.

y = ax, where a > 0

This dependence is called direct proportionality and number a —
proportionality coefficient.

The formula y = ax describes a linear function whose graph is a line

passing through the origin of the coordinate system. In real situations, the
graph showing the relationship between directly proportional quantities is
usually a ray coming out of the origin and located in the first quarter of
the coordinate system, or its fragments.

Here are some examples of direct proportionality:

• The perimeter of the square is directly pro-

portional to the side length.

x — side length of the square

y — perimeter of the square

y = 4x

• One bar costs PLN 1,50. The cost of buying

candy bars is directly proportional to the
number of bars purchased.

x — number of bars
y — purchase cost

y = 1,5x

• The maximum speed at which a cyclist can

km
go is 40 h . The distance which the rid-
er will pass within a quarter of an hour,
driving at a constant speed, is directly pro-
portional to the speed of the ride.

x — speed of the cyclist in km

h
y — distance (in km) traveled within 15 minutes

y = 0,25x

DIRECT AND INVERSE PROPORTIONALITY 69

 On a quantity y we say that it is inversely proportional to quantity x when
their product is constant and equal to a positive number, i.e. xy = a, where
a > 0. This equality can be transformed by solving it for y.

y = a
x for a > 0
Such dependence is called inverse proportionality.

EXERCISE Find several points of the graph of function defined by the formula
y = x4 .

The formula y = a x
, where a > 0, describes
the function whose graph is presented next
to. Note that its domain is the set ’ \ {0}. We
call this curve a hyperbole.

In real situations, the graph showing the

relationship between inversely proportional
quantities is most often the part of the hy-
perbole lying in the first quarter of the coor-
dinate system, or its fragments.

Here are examples of inverse proportionality:

• Price of 1 kg of apples and the quantity of

apples that we can buy for PLN 10.
x — price of 1 kg of apples
y — the quantity of apples (in kg) that we can buy

y = 10
x

• We divide the 8 m long wire into the same

parts. The length of each part is inversely
proportional to the number of parts.
x — number of parts to which we divide the wire
y — length (in m) of one part

y = 8x

• The car can drive at an average speed of not

km km
more than 100 h and not less than 10 h .
Time to cover 100 km is inversely propor-
tional to the average speed of the car.
x — average speed (in km )
h
y — time (in h) needed to cover 100 km

y = 100
x

70 FUNCTIONS
PROBLEMS
1. Write a formula describing how quantity y depends on quantity x.
a) 10 ml of water leaks from the kitchen tap within 1 minute. After x minutes, y
milliliters of water will leak out.
b) Wojtek jogs 1,5 km every day. After x days, y kilometers will be done.
c) If 1 m of wire weighs 10 dag, x meters weigh y decagrams.
d) During the downpour, 5 liters of water has dropped for every square meter of
surface, so y liters of water dropped to the surface x square meters.

2. Find the dependence y from x.

a) To cook soup for 8 people, 240 g of
concentrate is needed, i.e. to cook such
soup for x people, you need y grams of
concentrate.

b) For 5 scoops of ice cream, 15 PLN were

paid, so x scoops costs PLN y.

c) The water level in the tank rises by 2 cm

within 5 hours, so after x hours the level
will increase by y centimeters.

d) The end of the clock pointer moves 5 cm

within 10 minutes, thus within x hours it
covers y centimeters.

3. Write the ydependence on x. Is this relationship a direct proportionality? If yes

— enter the proportionality coefficient.
a) x — cube edge length, y — cube volume
b) x — circle radius, y — circle length
c) x — disc radius, y — disc area
d) x — square side’s length, y — square diagonal’s length

4. The snail moves at a constant rate of 0,2 of centimeter per second. Present with
the help of a formula, how the length of the path traveled by the snail depends on
time. Draw the graph of this dependence.

DIRECT AND INVERSE PROPORTIONALITY 71

5. Write down the dependence of y on x and determine y.
a) For 45 PLN we buy candy. When a kilo of candies costs x zlotys, for this money
we can buy y kilos of sweets.
b) The waiter has to pour 2 liters of drink into x glasses. He should pour y liters
of drink to each glass.
c) Road builders intend to build 200 km of road in x days, therefore each day they
should build an average of y kilometers of the road.
d) The researcher has to make x measurements within 24 hours in y-hour intervals.
e) It is known that 1 liter of paint is enough to paint 10 m2 of asphalt surface. To
paint the line on the road length of y meters and width x meters, 8 liters of paint
was allocated.

6. The graph shows the relationship between the

lengths of diagonals x and y of rhombuses with
a certain area A.
a) Read the values of y for x = 3 and for x = 6.
Calculate the area A.
b) Which of the formulas below defines the func-
tion shown in the graph?

y= 3
x
y = 6x y= 6
x
y= 1
x

7. Macio company wants to receive a cer-

tain specific capital from the sale of shares.
The manager prepared a graph showing
how the price of shares would depend on
their number.
a) What capital wants Macio receive from
selling the shares?
b) Write down the formula showing the de- x — number of shares
pendence y from x. y — price of one share in PLN

8. a) Quantity x is directly proportional to quantity y, and quantity y is directly pro-

portional to quantity z. Prove that quantity x is directly proportional to quantity z.
b) Quantity x is inversely proportional to quantity y, and quantity y is inversely pro-
portional to quantity z. Prove that quantity x is directly proportional to quantity z.
c) Quantity x is directly proportional to quantity y, while quantity y is inversely
proportional to quantity z. Are the quantities x and z directly proportional or
inversely proportional?

72 FUNCTIONS
Quadratic
equations
The best basketball players can jump so high that they can be found
even 1 m above the ground. By solving the appropriate equation,
you can calculate how long such a basketball jump takes.

Quadratic equations in simplest form Discriminant of quadratic

equation. Solving equations Vieta's formulas
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
IN SIMPLEST FORM

EXERCISE A Answer the questions.

a) How many numbers are there whose square is 64?
b) What are the numbers whose square is equal to 0?
c) Is there a real number whose square is equal to −9?
d) Give numbers that satisfy the equation:
x2 = 4 y2 − 9 = 0 2z 2 = 0 t2 = 5

The best basketball players can jump so

high that they can be up to 1 m above the
ground. It seems then that the athlete ”flut-
ters” in the air.

Let’s calculate how long such a one-meter

jump takes.

We can assume that the time of ascension is

equal to the time of falling. In addition, it is
known that if a body (also the basketball’s
body) drops from the height of h meters in
t seconds, the relationship between these
quantities is described by the formula:

h = 1 gt 2
2
where g ≈ 10 m2 is the gravitational acceleration. By converting this for-
s
mula, we will get equality:
t 2 = 2h
g

So, to calculate how many seconds the basketball player drops from a
height of 1 m, the equation must be solved:
t2 = 2 × 1
10

t2 = 1
5
There are two numbers that meet this equation:
r r
t = 1 or t = − 1
5 5
q q
We reject t = − 15 because the jump time cannot be negative. 15 ≈ 0,45,
so the basketball player drops from 1 m in about 0,45 s. The flight up and
down takes twice as long, or about 0,9 seconds. So even with such a jump,
you can break away from the ground in less than a second.

74 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
 EXERCISE B Transform each of the equations in the following frame into the
form:
ax2 + bx + c = 0

An equation that can be transformed Examples of quadratic

into the form: equations:
ax 2 + bx + c = 0, 3x2 = 1

where a, b, c are given numbers 5x2 = (x + 7)2

and a 6= 0, we call equation of the 8x = 3x2 + 1
second degree with one unknown or
x(x + 5) = 2
quadratic equation.

EXERCISE C Give an example of equation of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0, in which:

a) the coefficient b is equal to 0, b) the coefficient c is equal to 0.

We will now show you how to solve some simple quadratic equations. We
will start with equations of the type ax2 + c = 0.

EXAMPLE 1 Solve the equation.

2
a) 2x − 30 = 0
2x 2 = 30
x 2 = 15 There are only
√ two numbers
√ whose square is
√ √ equal to 15: 15 and − 15; equation there-
x = 15 or x = − 15 fore has two solutions.

b) −3x 2 − 6 = 0
−3x 2 = 6
x 2 = −2 There is no real number whose square would
be a negative number.
The equation has no solutions
(it’s contradictory).

c) (x − 2)2 = 4(1 − x)
x 2 − 4x + 4 = 4 − 4x
x2 = 0 The number whose square is equal to 0 is 0;
x =0 equation therefore has one solution.

PROBLEM Solve the equation.

1 2
a) x −8=0 b) (5x + 2)2 = 20x + 4 c) 5x(3 − 2x) = 15x + 9
2

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS IN SIMPLEST FORM 75

 EXERCISE D Two numbers meet each of the following equations. Give these
numbers.
x(x − 1) = 0 y(y + 2) = 0 z(2z − 1) = 0

We will now show how equations of the type ax2 + bx = 0 are solved.

EXAMPLE 2 Solve the equation.

a) 5x 2 − 3x = 0
The left side of the equation is in the form of
a product — we take out the common factor.
x(5x − 3) = 0

x =0 or 5x − 3 = 0 The product of two numbers is equal to 0 if

3 and only if one of these numbers — the first
x= 5 or the second — is equal to 0.

3
x = 0 or x = 5 The equation has two solutions.

√ x2
b) −x 5 = 2
x2 √
2
+x 5=0 We transform the equation into the form

x √
 ax 2 +bx = 0 and take out the common factor.
x 2 + 5 =0

x √
x =0 or 2
+ 5=0
x √
2
=− 5
√
x = −2 5
√
x = 0 or x = −2 5 The equation has two solutions.

PROBLEM Solve the equation.

2 1 2
a) 7x + 2x = 0 b) 10x = 2x2 c) 3x − 2x = 2x

Note. Some ax2 + c = 0 equations can also be solved by writing the left side in
the form of a product. For example, the equation x2 − 25 = 0 is equivalent to the
equation (x − 5)(x + 5) = 0. We proceed the same way as in the above example.

PROBLEMS
1. Solve the equation.
a) 1 x2 = 9 c) 12 − 3x2 = 0 e) 4(x2 + 2) = 8
2
2
b) 2x2 − 1 = 17 d) 6x2 = 8 − x2 f) 5 + x − 4 = 0
2

76 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
2. The boat floating on calm water creates waves on it. The distance λ between
2
the crests of these waves (in meters) can be calculated from the formula λ = π ×v
5
,
m
where v is the speed of the boat (in s ). Estimate how fast must flow a boat so that
the length λ of the waves it creates is equal to 10 m.

3. Solve the equation.

2
a) x2 − 2x = 0 c) x2 = −7x e) 1 x2 = 5x g) x + 2 = 4x + 1
3 2
2
2
b) 3x + 8x = 0 d) x = 4x2 f) − 2 x2 + 2x = x h) x − 3 = x − 5
2 7 3 5

4. Justify that if in the quadratic equation ax2 + bx = 0 both

numbers a and b are integers, then all solutions of this equa-
tion are rational numbers.

5. An isosceles triangle was built on one side of the rectangle

whose height is twice as long as the base (see figure). At what
dimensions of the rectangle will the area of the triangle be twice
as large as the area of the rectangle?

DISCRIMINANT OF QUADRATIC EQUATION.

SOLVING EQUATIONS
The skill of solving equations of the type x2 = d can be used in solving
equations in which on one side is the square of an expression, and on the
other — a number.

EXAMPLE 1 Solve the equation.

(2x − 3)2 = 5
√ √ There√are two numbers whose square is equal
2x − 3 = 5 or 2x − 3 = − 5 √
to 5: 5 and − 5.
√ √
2x = 3 + 5 2x = 3 − 5
√ √
3+ 5 3− 5
x= 2
or x= 2
The equation has two solutions.

PROBLEM Solve the equation.

2
(x − 1) = 64 (2x + 1)2 = 10 (4x − 8)2 = 0 (3x − 1)2 = −9

DISCRIMINANT OF QUADRATIC EQUATION. SOLVING EQUATIONS 77

 EXERCISE A Write the left side of the
equation as a sum square or square of a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2
difference and solve the equation:
a2 − 2ab + b2 = (a − b)2
a) x2 + 2x + 1 = 0 b) x2 − 12x + 36 = 25

We will now show you how to solve a quadratic equation by using abridged
multiplication formulas. Consider the equation:

x2 − 6x + 5 = 0

It can be transformed to obtain an equation of the type: (x − )2 = .

x2 − 6x = −5 We re-write the equation in another form.

↑
2×x×3

x2 − 2 × x × 3 + 32 = −5 + 32 After adding 32 to both sides we get the ex-

pression (x − 3)2 on the left side.
(x − 3)2 = 4

x − 3 = 2 or x − 3 = −2 We solve the equation obtained.

x = 5 or x=1

Any quadratic equation can be solved in a similar way.

EXERCISE B Solve the given equation using the method described above.
2
a) x + 10x + 9 = 0 b) x2 − x = 12

The method of finding solutions of the quadratic equation described on

the previous page can be used to transform the quadratic equation in the
general form.

a 6= 0, because quadratic equation is

ax2 + bx + c = 0 | ÷ a considered.

bx + c = 0
x2 + a a

bx = −c We transform the equation to obtain

x2 + a a on the left side the square of some ex-
pression.
x2 + 2 × b x = − c
2a a
 2  2
x2 + 2 × x × b + b = −c + b
2a 2a a 2a
 2 2
x+ b = b2 − c
2a 4a a
 2 2
x+ b = b − 4ac
2a 24a

78 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
 The number of solutions of this equation depends on whether the quotient
b2 − 4ac is positive or negative or equal to 0. The value of expression 4a2
4a2
is always positive, so the number of solutions of the equation depends
on the sign of the expression b2 − 4ac. This expression is referred to as
discriminant of quadratic equation and denoted by the Greek letter ∆
(pronounced delta):
∆ = b 2 − 4ac
Thus, we can write the considered equation in the form:
 2
x+ b = ∆2
2a 4a

When ∆ < 0, the equation has no solution.

 2
When ∆ = 0, then: x+ b =0
2a
The equation has
x=− b one solution.
2a

 2
When ∆ > 0, then: x+ b = ∆
2a 4a2
 2  √ 2
x+ b = ∆
2a 2a

Squares of two numbers are equal when the numbers are equal or opposite.
Therefrom:
√ √
x+ b = ∆ or x+ b = − ∆
2a 2a 2a 2a
√ √
The equation has
So x = −b + ∆ or x = −b − ∆
2a 2a two solutions.

Solving quadratic equations can be summarized in the following scheme:

To solve the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a 6= 0), we first calculate the

value of the expression:
∆ = b 2 − 4ac

If ∆ > 0, then the equation has two solutions:

√ √
−b − ∆ −b + ∆
x1 = x2 =
2a 2a
If ∆ = 0, then the equation has one solution:
−b
x =
2a
If ∆ < 0, then the equation has no solutions.

DISCRIMINANT OF QUADRATIC EQUATION. SOLVING EQUATIONS 79

 EXAMPLE 2 Solve the equation.

a) 6x 2 − 13x + 5 = 0

∆ = (−13)2 − 4 × 6 × 5 = 49 ∆ > 0, so the equation has two solutions.

√
−(−13) − 49 13 − 7 6 1
x1 = 2×6
= 12 = 12 = 2
We use the√formulas: √
√ −b − ∆ −b + ∆
−(−13) + 49 13 + 7 20 5 x1 = x2 =
x2 = 2×6
= 12 = 12 = 3 2a 2a

1 5
x1 = 2 x2 = 3

2
b) 6x 2 + 4x + 3 = 0
2
∆ = 42 − 4 × 6 × 3 = 0 ∆ = 0, so the equation has one solution.

−4 1 −b
x = 2×6 = − 3 We use the formula: x =
2a

c) 6x 2 − 5x + 2 = 0

∆ = (−5)2 − 4 × 6 × 2 = −23 < 0 ∆ < 0, so the equation has no solutions.

The equation has no solutions.

PROBLEM Solve the equation.

a) x2 + x + 20 = 0 b) 4x2 − 8x + 3 = 0 c) 9x2 − 6x + 1 = 0

PROBLEMS
1. Solve the equation using the method shown in the example on page 77.
 2
1 1
a) (x − 3)2 = 25 c) 3
(6 − 5x)2 = 0 e) −3 5x + 2 = 2

b) 4(3x + 2)2 = 8 d) (0,2x − 3)2 = −1,4 f) −0,3(0,7x + 1)2 = −6

2. Solve the equation.

1 2
a) x2 − 5x − 14 = 0 c) −4x2 + 2x − 5 = 0 e) 2
x − 2x + 2 = 0
2 2 2
b) −x − 2x + 15 = 0 d) 6x − x − 1 = 0 f) −x + 2x + 1 = 0

3. Solve the system of equations.

( ( (
x+y =8 y = 2x + 1 x + 2y = 6
a) b) 2 2
c)
x × y = −33 x +y =4 y = x2 + 1

80 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
4. A certain quadratic equation ax2 +bx+c = 0 has two solutions, and all coefficients
a, b and c are integers. Justify that either the two solutions are rational numbers,
or both are irrational numbers.

5. When determining the length of the tracks that the braking passenger car has
left, it is possible to determine with which speed it was traveling. You have to use
the following relationship: if the car was traveling at a speed of v kilometers per
hour, its braking distance is around 0,006v 2 + 0,21v meters. At what speed was the
car driving if the braking distance was 25,5 m?

Curiosity
a a+b
The ancient Greeks thought that among Equality b
= a
can be written in an-
a
the possible divisions of a line segment other form b
= 1 + ba . Assuming a
b
= ϕ,
in two parts there is one, in which the we get the equation:
parts obtained as a result of the division
1
have exceptionally beautiful proportion. ϕ =1+ ϕ
This division should be chosen so that The positive solution to this equation is
the ratio of the length of the longer part the golden number.
to the shorter one is the same as the ratio
of the length of the entire line segment Leonardo da Vinci called the golden di-
to the longer part (see figure). vision divine and used it in many of
his works. Other artists were fascinated
with it.

The golden
division can
be found in
The above-mentioned proportion is called many ancient
the golden division. When we make gold- and contempo-
en division of a line segment, the ratio rary paintings
a and sculptures.
b
is independent of its length. A number
equal to this ratio is called the golden Often, it also
number and denoted with Greek letter ϕ occurs in archi-
(read phi). tecture.

6. Read the curiosity. Solve the appropriate equation and find the golden number
accurate to the second decimal place.

DISCRIMINANT OF QUADRATIC EQUATION. SOLVING EQUATIONS 81

 VIETA’S FORMULAS
You already know that if the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has two
solutions, you can determine them using the formulas:
√ √
−b − ∆ −b + ∆
x1 = x2 =
2a 2a

Let’s calculate the sum of the numbers x1 and x2 and their product:
√ √ √ √
x1 + x2 = −b − ∆ + −b + ∆ = −b − ∆ − b + ∆ = −2b = −b
2a 2a 2a 2a a

√ √ √ √ √
x1 × x2 = −b − ∆ × −b + ∆ = (b + ∆)(b − ∆) = b2 − ( ∆)2 = b2 − (b2 − 4ac) =
2a 2a 2 4a 2 4a 2 4a

2 2
= b − b 2+ 4ac = 4ac2 = c
4a 4a a

We have received simple formulas to calculate the sum and the product of
the solutions of a quadratic equations, without solving the equation.

If the numbers x1 and x2 are solutions of the quadratic equa-

tion ax2 + bx + c = 0, then:
x1 + x2 = −b
a
c
x1 × x2 = a

These formulas were discovered already in the sixteenth century and

named after a French mathematician François Viète (more commonly re-
ferred to by the Latinized form of his name, Francisco Vieta). Therefore,
they are called Vieta’s formulas. Please note that we can use these formulas
only if we are sure that the quadratic equation has two solutions.

EXERCISE The given equation has two solutions. Calculate the sum of these
solutions and their product.
2 √ √
a) x2 − 132x + 25 = 0 b) 3 y 2 + y − 1 = 0 c) − 2z 2 − 3 2z + 8 = 0

Note that if we know what sign have the product and the sum of two
numbers, we can determine the sign of these numbers.
Numbers x1 and x2 x2 have different signs when x1 × x2 < 0.
Numbers x1 and x2 have the same sign when x1 × x2 > 0.
Numbers x1 and x2 are positive when x1 × x2 > 0 and x1 + x2 > 0.
Numbers x1 and x2 are negative when x1 × x2 > 0 and x1 + x2 < 0.

82 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
 EXAMPLE 1 Check how many positive solutions has the given equation.
√ 2 √
−2 5x + 70x − 1 = 0
√ √ √
∆ = ( 70)2 − 4(−2 5)(−1) = 70 − 8 5 > 0 We check if it has two solutions.

c −1
√ >0
x1 × x2 = a = Both solutions are positive or both are negative.
−2 5
√
−b − 70 As also x1 + x2 > 0, then both solutions are
x1 + x2 = a = √ >0 positive.
−2 5

Ans. The equation has two positive solutions.

PROBLEM Check how many positive solutions has the equation:

2
a) 3x + 20x − 15 = 0 b) − 1 x2 − 10x − 20 = 0
2

EXAMPLE 2 a) Calculate the sum of inverses of solutions of the given equa-

tion.

−623x 2 + 864x + 432 = 0

∆ = 8642 + 4 × 623 × 432 > 0 We check if the equation has two solutions.

c 432 We check if there are inverses of these solu-

x1 × x2 = = 6= 0 tions, i.e. whether x1 6= 0 and x2 6= 0 (enough
a −623
is to check that x1 × x2 6= 0).

−b
1 1 x +x a −b a −b −864
x1
+ x = x1 ×x 2 = c = a ×c = c = = −2
2 1 2 a 432

Ans. The sum of the inverses of solutions of the equation is −2.

b) Calculate the sum of the squares of solutions of the given equation.

−6x 2 + 39x + 34 = 0

∆ = 392 + 4 × 6 × 34 > 0 We check if the equation has two solutions.

2 2 2
−b c −39 34 13 34
    
x12 + x22 = (x1 + x2 )2 − 2x1 x2 = −2× = −2× = + =
a a −6 −6 2 3
169 34 1 1 7
= + = 42 + 11 = 53
4 3 4 3 12

7
Ans. The sum of the squares of solutions is 53 .
12

PROBLEM Calculate:
a) the sum of inverses of the equation solutions −2x2 + 3x + 5 = 0,
b) the sum of squares of the equation solutions 5x2 − 8x − 30 = 0.

VIETA’S FORMULAS 83
Curiosity
François Viète (1540–1603) was a lawyer by profes-
sion, but he is best known for his mathematical
achievements (although he was only an autodidact in
this field). He was the first to come up with an idea
that not only the unknown, but also the coefficients
should be expressed with letters in the equations.
Thanks to this, he could discover his famous formulas.
Viète was known for his skill in solving equations. In
1594, Dutch mathematician Adrian Van Roomen cast
a challenge to other mathematicians, presenting a very
complicated 45-degree equation (i.e. one in which the
unknown occurs in 45th power), which — he believed
— no one would be able to solve. To his astonishment,
Viète found 23 solutions of this equation very quickly.
Another famous exploit of Viète was breaking the cipher used by the king of Spain
in his secret correspondence. The Spaniards could not believe that an ordinary man
could have done it, and they turned to the Pope complaining that the French were
using black magic.

PROBLEMS
1. Check if the equation has two solutions. If so — calculate their sum and product.
3
√ 2 2
√ 1 √
a) x2 − 7 x − 2=0 c) 5
x − 17x + 4
=0 e) − 5x2 − 0,12x + 13 = 0
3 √
b) −x2 + 97x − 1,2 = 0 d) −57x2 − πx − 703 = 0 f) 1,7x2 + 162x − 3 = 0

2. Calculate for which values b

and c the solutions of the equation x2 + bx + c = 0
are the numbers 312 and 1, and for which — the numbers −79 and 10.

3. Choose two different numbers, one of which is greater than 1 and the other is
less than −1. Write down two different equations of the type ax2 + bx + c = 0, where
a 6= 0 and a 6= 1, whose solutions are the numbers you chose.

4. Which of the following sentences are true for the given equation?
1 The equation has two solutions.
2 Solutions have opposite signs.
3 The sum of solutions is a number greater than the product of solutions.
4 Both solutions are positive.
a) 2x2 − 11x − 15 = 0 c) x2 − 15x + 4 = 0 e) 5x2 − 7x − 2 = 0
b) −3x2 + 9x − 8 = 0 d) 2x2 − 12x + 6 = 0 f) −7x2 − 9x − 1 = 0

5. Calculate the difference of the cubes of solutions of the equation x2 − 3x − 2 = 0.

84 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Vectors.
Transforming
function graphs
The truck stuck in the mud. Three identical tractors are to draw it. How (in which
direction) to set these tractors so that the car can start moving forward?
This problem can be solved by means of operations on vectors.

Vectors. Operations on vectors Vectors in coordinate system

Operations on vectors in coordinate system Transforming function
graphs Transforming function graphs (cont.)
 VECTORS. OPERATIONS ON VECTORS
The notion of a vector you probably have met in physics lessons. The word
”vector” in Latin means ”carrier”. This reflects well the meaning that is
given to the concept of vector. A vector is a quantity or phenomenon that
has two independent properties: magnitude and direction. It is represented
by a directed line segment with length indicating the magnitude.

If we move a given figure on the plane

so that its points move on parallel lines
at the same distance and in the same di-
rection, then we say that we moved this
figure by a vector.

Vectors can be parallel or not. We say about parallel vectors that they have
consistent directions or opposite directions. Vectors that are parallel, have
consistent directions and the same magnitude describe the same shift.
That is why we say that these vectors are equal.

Vector can be designated using two points and indicating which one is
the tail point and which is the head point. So, to designate a vector, it is
enough to indicate a certain ordered pair of points.

Vectors are denoted with two capital

−−−→ −−−−→ −−−→
letters, e.g. AB , AA′ , KL (the first let-
ter denotes the tail of the vector and
the second — the head) or with lower- The arrow sets the direction
−−−→
case letters, e.g. →
a,→
− u,→
− −
v . The length of of vector AB . The distance
a vector is its magnitude denoted with between points A and B is its
−−−→ −
two vertical bars, e.g. |AB |, |→u |. magnitude.

The vector whose head coincides with the tail is called the zero vector and
→
−
denoted 0 .

−−−→
Note that if A 6= B, then the AB vector is not equal
−−−→
vector BA . About two parallel vectors, which have the
same magnitude but opposite directions, we say they
are opposite vectors. We denote −→ −
u the vector opposite
→
− −−−→ −−−→
to the vector u . Thus: BA = −AB .

86 VECTORS. TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

 EXERCISE A a) In the drawing, find vectors
equal to →
−
u vector and vectors opposite to it.
b) Draw three arbitrary points K, L and M.
Draw the vector with the tail K equal to the
−−−→
vector LM and vector with the tail L oppo-
−−−−→
site to KM vector.

Let →
−
u be any non-zero vector on the plane.
Translation by vector → −
u is a geometric
transformation in which to each point P
of the plane the point P ′ is assigned such
→ −
−−−−
that P P ′ = →
u.

The origin of the word translation is Latin word translatio meaning trans-
fer.

Suppose a certain figure F we shift by vec-

tor →
−
u and then we shift the image by vector
→
−
v (see figure). These translations can be re-
placed with one translation by vector − →.
w
→
−
Such vector w is called the sum of the vec-
tors →
u and →
− −
v.
→ =→
−
w u +→
− −
v

→−
Given are vectors → −
a and b . To determine
→
−
the vector →
−
a +b , we first chose an arbitrary
−−−→
point A and draw vector AB = → −
a , then
−−−→ →− −−−→ → − →
−
vector BC = b . We get AC = a + b .

Similarly, we can determine the vector which

is the sum of several vectors.

EXERCISE B Draw any quadrilateral ABCD, and then point vectors equal to
−−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−−→
the sums AB + BC , AB + BC + CD and AB + BC + CD + DA .

The sum of vectors can sometimes be equal

to the zero vector.

VECTORS. OPERATIONS ON VECTORS 87

 EXERCISE C Draw two non-parallel vectors
→ →
− →
− →
−
a and b , then vector −b and vector →
− −
a +(−b ).

→
−
For any two vectors →
−
a and b their differ-
ence can be determined:
→−
Vector →
−
a − b is equal to the sum of vector
→
− →−
a and vector −b (the opposite vector to
→
−
b ).

−−−→ −−−→
EXERCISE D Draw a parallelogram ABCD. Justify that the vector AB + BC is
−−−→ −−−→
equal to the vector AB + AD .

Note. To determine the sum and the difference of two vectors, we can hook both
vectors at one point and use the parallelogram rule, probably known to you from
physics lessons (see figure).

We have already determined the sum and difference of two vectors. We can
also determine the product of a vector by any real number.

If k > 0, vector k × →
−
u has the direction
consistent with vector →−
u , and its magni-
→
−
tude is k × |u |.
If k < 0, then the vector k × → −
u has the
→
−
opposite direction to vector u , and its
magnitude is |k|×|→−
u |.
If k = 0, then the vector k × →
−
u is a zero
→− →−
vector, i.e. 0 × u = 0 .

In addition, several properties of op-

− −
→ − → →
a +b = b+−
→ a erations on vectors have been written
− next. As you can see, they are similar
(−
→
a + b) + →
→ −
c =−→ + (−
a
→ −
b +→
c) to the laws of operations on numbers.
−
→ −
→ −
→ −
→
k(a + b) = k a + k b
We can say that the addition of vectors
− − →
→
a +0 = −
→ a is commutative and associative, and that
− −
→= → the multiplication of vectors by number is
a −−
→ a 0 distributive with respect to the addition of
vectors.

88 VECTORS. TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

 EXAMPLE Prove that the line segment connecting the midpoints of two sides
of a triangle is parallel to the third side and twice shorter than it.

We draw an auxiliary drawing; points M and

N are the midpoints of the sides of the trian-
gle.

−−−→ 1 −−→ The MN line segment should be parallel to

We will show that MN = 2 AB . the AB and half shorter.

−−−→ −−−→ −−−→

MN = MC + CN =
1−−−→ 1 −−→ 1 −−−→ −−→ 1 −−→
= 2 AC + 2 CB = 2 (AC + CB ) = 2 AB

→
1 −− −−→
Vector 2 AB has the direction consistent with AB and is twice shorter. So, the
line segments MN, AB are parallel and |MN| = 12 |AB|.

PROBLEM Prove that the line segment connecting the midpoints of two adjacent
sides of any quadrilateral is parallel to one of its diagonals.

PROBLEMS
1. The ABCDEF hexagon shown on the drawing next
to is regular.
a) Identify vectors with the ends in the points marked
−−−→
that have the same direction as vector OD.
−−→
b) Indicate vectors that have the same length as FB
vector.
−−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−−→
c) Which of the OC , ED FC , OF , AB vectors are
−−−→
opposite to the BA vector?

2. The entry T−BG

−→ (F) = K means that after moving point F
−−−→
by vector BG we arrive at point K. What kind of figures
or vectors should question marks be replaced by?

−→ (A) = ?
a) T−
FK
−→ (F) = ?
T−
NP
−→ (∆BFE) = ?
T−
EO

b) T ? (E) = G T ? (N) = K T ? (△NKO) = △EBF

−→ ( ? ) = I
c) T−
DJ
−→ ( ? ) = △BDL
T− → ( ? ) = △FGD
T−
OL JC

VECTORS. OPERATIONS ON VECTORS 89

3. Draw a segment AB and two parallel lines k and l. Then draw the line segment
A0 B0 symmetrical to the line segment AB relative to line k and the line segment
A1 B1 symmetrical to the line segment A0 B0 with respect to the line l.
Prove that the A1 B1 line segment can be obtained by shifting the AB line segment
by a vector perpendicular to those lines, twice as long as the distance between the
lines k and l.

−−−→
4. a) The AC vector marked in the figure opposite,
present in four ways as the sum of different vectors
determined by points A, B, C, D, E.
−−−→
b) Present the AC vector as the difference of two vec-
tors determined by the labeled points.

5. The figure drawn is made of diamonds. Identify vectors with ends at selected
points equal to vectors:
−−→ −−−→ −−−→
a) 3JF , −2AE , 1 HC
2
−−−→ −−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−→ −−→
b) CB + BI , GN + ED , 2IE + IK
−−→ −−→ −−−→ −−→ −−−→ −−−→
c) LI + IK + KE , FJ + NL + HA
−−−→ −−→ −−− → −−−−→ −−−→ −−−→
d) ED − EB , JC − 2MN , CK − FC
−−→ −−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−−→
e) CI − IL + ED , GL + LA − ML
−−→ −−−→ −−→ −−−−→ −−−→
f) − 2 BL , 1 DG + 2JL , 2 MC + 3JN
3 3 3

6. a) Draw any line k and a vector → −

u parallel to this
line. Find vector v such to make the vector →
→
− u +→
− −
v
→
−
parallel to line k, of length equal to the length of u .
b) The truck stuck in the mud. Three identical trac-
tors are to draw it. Two tractors are already set.
How (in what direction) to set the third trac-
tor so that the truck could start moving
forward (along the dashed line)?

7. Prove that if in quadrilateral ABCD points M and N are midpoints of diagonals

−−−−→ 1 −−−→ −−−→
AC and BD, then MN = 2 (AB + CD ).

8. Using the properties of operations on vectors, prove the theorem:

a) A quadrilateral whose diagonals intersect in midpoints is a parallelogram.
b) The midpoints of sides of any quadrilateral are vertices of a parallelogram.
c) The length of the line segment connecting the midpoints of a trapezoid’s diag-
onals is half the difference of lengths of the bases (we subtract the shorter length
from the length of the longer base).

90 VECTORS. TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

9. Inside the triangle ABC, an arbitrary point P
is chosen. Let M, L and N represent
the centers of the sides AB, BC and CA, respectively. Show that there is equality:
−−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−→ −−−→
PA + PB + PC = PM + PL + PN .

10. Read the information below. Prove that if point D is the center of gravity of
−−−→ −−−→ −−−→ →
−
triangle ABC, i.e. the intersection point of its medians, then is DA + DB + DC = 0 .

Worth knowing!

The median of a triangle is the line seg-

ment joining a vertex with the center of |SA| = 2 × |SA′ |
the opposite side.
|SB| = 2 × |SB ′ |
In each triangle, the medians intersect at
|SC| = 2 × |SC ′ |
one point, which divides each of them in
the 2 : 1 ratio.

VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM

In the coordinate system, each translation by a given vector can be inter-
preted as a translation first along the x-axis and then along the y-axis.
Look at the drawings.

Shift by the vector → −

u means the same
as moving 6 units to the right and 3 to
the top. Moving right and up is consis-
tent with the directions of axes. We will
describe this shift with positive numbers.
→−
u = [6, 3]
Numbers 6 and 3 are the coordinates of
vector →
−
u.

Shift by the vector →−

v means the same as
moving 7 units left and 4 down. Moving
left and down is opposite to directions in-
dicated by axes. Then we will describe the
shift using negative numbers.
→
−
v = [−7, −4]
Numbers −7 and −4 are coordinates of
vector →
−
v.

VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM 91

 EXERCISE A Mark any point A in the coordinate system. Mark point B obtained
by moving point A 1 unit to the right and 2 units down. What do you think the
−−−→
coordinates of the AB vector are?

In a similar way, any vector in the coordinate system can be described.

Vector’s coordinates tell you how to move any point by the vector. The
first coordinate indicates the shift along the x-axis and the second – along
the y-axis.

EXERCISE B Draw the coordinate system and the vectors:

→ →
− →
−
a = [−3, 0], b = [0, 5], →
− −
c = [2, 4], d = [−1, 6].

Two vectors in the coordinate sys- Two vectors are opposite if and on-
tem are equal if and only if they ly if their respective coordinates are
have the same coordinates. opposite numbers.

→
u =→
− − →
v = [4, 1] −
u = [2, −5], −→
−
u = [−2, 5]

EXERCISE C What coordinates has point P ′ obtained as a result of the shift of

point P = (5, 1) by vector →
−
u = [2, −3]?

Point P ′ obtained as a result of moving point P = (x, y) by vector →

−
u = [p, q]
′
has coordinates P = (x + p, y + q).

92 VECTORS. TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

 EXERCISE D Given are points A = (x1 , y1 ) and B = (x2 , y2 ). Set down the coordi-
−−−→
nates of vector AB and calculate the differences: x2 − x1 and y2 − y1 if:
a) A = (2, 1), B = (5, 3) b) A = (−4, −3), B = (7, −2)

When we know the coordinates of the

Vector coordinates
tail and head of a vector, we calculate
the coordinates of the vector by sub-
tracting respective coordinates of its
ends.
Note that if the tail of the vector lies at the
−−−→
− point (0, 0), the coordinates of this vector
AB = [xB − xA , yB − yA ]
are equal to the coordinates of its head.

EXERCISE E Vector →
u has the coordinates →
− −
u = [−3, 7].
−−−→ −
a) What are the coordinates of point B when AB = → u and A = (4, −5)?
−−−→ →
b) What are the coordinates of point C when CD = − u and D = (−12, 40)?

 
EXAMPLE Points A = −1 13 , 1 15 , B = (−2, −1) and C = (2, 1) are consecutive
vertices of a parallelogram. Find the coordinates of the fourth vertex of this
parallelogram.

−−→ h 
1

1
i h
2 1
i
AB = −2 − −1 3 , −1 − 1 5 = − 3 , −2 5
−−−→
DC = [2 − xD , 1 − yD ]
−−−→ −−→
DC = AB , so:
2 1
2 − xD = − 3 1 − yD = −2 5
2 1
xD = 2 3 yD = 3 5

2 1
 
Ans. Coordinates of the fourth vertex are 23,35 .

PROBLEM Points P = (−5, −10), R = (2, −7), S = (1, 5) are consecutive vertices of the
parallelogram. Find the coordinates of the fourth vertex of this parallelogram.

VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM 93

 EXERCISE F Mark points A = (1, 2) and B = (5, 4) in the coordinate system and
then, using the Pythagorean theorem, calculate the length of the segment AB
(draw the appropriate rectangular triangle).

The length of a vector is the

distance between its tail and Vector lenght
head. So, you can calculate it
using the formula shown next
−−−→
(|AB | = |AB|).

If A = (xA , yA ) and B = (xB , yB ), then:

−−−→
−
q
|AB | = (xB − xA ) 2 + (yB − yA ) 2

Note that the numbers xB − xA and yB − yA appearing in the formula above

−−−→
are the coordinates of vector AB . The sum of the squares of these coordi-
nates is equal to the square of the magnitude of the vector.

If −
→ = [p, q], then |−
→| =
q
u u p2 + q2.

EXERCISE G Calculate the magnitude of the vector:

−−−→
a) →
−
v = [4, −2] b) AB , where A = (4, −7) and B = (−1, −19)

PROBLEMS
1. a) Enter the coordinates of the drawn vectors.

→− −
b) Enter the coordinates of vectors opposite to vectors →
c, f ,→
− p and →
−
q.

94 VECTORS. TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

2. Select any point P and find such points A, B, C, D in the coordinate system that
the following conditions are met:
−−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−−→
P A = [2, 1] P B = [−3, 4] P C = [0, 4] P D = [−5, 0]

3. a) Enter the coordinates of two vectors with a length of 5, parallel to the x-axis
and two vectors with a length of 5, parallel to the y-axis.
−−−→
b) The P K vector is parallel to the x-axis, it has the opposite direction to the axis
and has length 100. What coordinates does point K have if P = (25, −3)?
−−−−→
c) The MN vector is parallel √ to the y-axis; it has direction consistent with the
axis√and has√ a length of 50 2. What coordinates does the M point have if N =
(20 2, −30 2)?

4. Find the coordinates of the point obtained as a result of moving point A by →

−
u
vector.

5. What coordinates (point or vector) should the question marks be replaced in the
table below?

Point A (−128, 2134) (−15, 14) ? ? (0, 0) (−a, a)

Point B (−125, 2130) ? (−103, −2) (a, 1) (x, y) ?

−−−→
Vector AB ? [0, 124] [7, −138] [1 + a, 1 − a] ? [a, −a]

6. Points A = (3, 2) and B = (−4, −6) are vertices of the parallelogram. The diagonals
of this parallelogram intersect at point P = (7, −2). Find the coordinates of its other
two vertices.

7. About which vector should the circle with the center S1 = (−3, −5) and radius 2
be moved, so that the obtained circle would be tangent externally at point (2, −2)
to the circle with the center S2 = (2, 3) and radius 5?

8. a) Data are points A = (2 , −3), B = (6, 7), C = (−5, −8). Calculate the vector
−−−→ −−−→ −−−→
lengths AB , AC and BC .
b) Calculate the length of the vectors:
→
−
v = [−8, 6], →−
u = [10 , −1],
− √
→ √ √
t = [ 2 − 3, 2 6], → = [a − √1 − a2 , a + √1 − a2 ].
−
w

VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM 95

 OPERATIONS ON VECTORS
IN COORDINATE SYSTEM

Vectors on the drawing next to have

coordinates:
→
u = [−6, 4] i →
− −
v = [5, 2]

Translation by vector → u +→
− −
v can be
interpreted as a shift along the x-
axis to the left by 6 units, then to
the right by 5, that is, by 1 unit to
the left together; while along the y-
→ axis, up by 4 units, and then by 2
u +→
− −
v = [−6, 4] + [5, 2] = [1, 6]
more, or by 6 units up.
−6 + 5 4+2

Analogically, translation by vector

→
u −→
− −
v can be interpreted as a shift
along the x-axis of 6 units to the
left, then another 5 units to the left,
i.e. by 11 units to the left; while
along the y-axis first 4 units up,
then 2 units down, that is by two
units up.
→
u −→
− −
v = [−6, 4] − [5, 2] = [−11, 2]
−6 − 5 4−2

On the following figure, vectors

→
u = [3, 2] and vector 2→
− −
u are
drawn. Note that the coordinates
of vector 2→
−
u are 2 times larger
than the corresponding ones of
vector →
−
u.

The above observations can be 2→

−
u = 2 × [3, 2] = [6, 4]
generalized for any vectors.
2×3 2×2

If →
u = [u1 , u2 ] and →
− −
v = [v1 , v2 ],
EXERCISE Data are vectors:
then: → →
−
a = [3, −7], b = [−10, 0] and →
− −
c = [1, −2].
−
→+→
u −
v = [u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ]
Calculate the coordinates of vectors:
−
→ −
→
u − v = [u1 − v1 , u2 − v2 ] →
−
a) →
−
a +b c) 2→
−
a
For any number k: →
− → −
b) b − c →
d) −c + 12→
− −
a
k ×−
→ = [ku , ku ]
u 1 2

96 VECTORS. TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

 →−
To check if two non-zero vectors →−
a and b are parallel (so, have this same
or opposite directions), we can use the following theorem:

→
−
Two non-zero vectors →−
a and b are parallel if and only if
→
−
there is such a number k, that →
−
a = k×b.

Note. We assume that the null vector is parallel to each vector.

EXAMPLE Points A, B, C , D, E are consecutive vertices of a pentagon and

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−−→
AB = [7, −2], AE = [2, 3], CB = [−5, −6] and CD = [−4, 1]. Prove that the diagonal
AC of this pentagon is parallel to the side ED and is twice as long as this side.

We draw an auxiliary drawing: we draw the

ABCDE pentagon and mark the vectors whose
coordinates are given.

Only the diagonal AC can be parallel to the

side ED (the other diagonals have a common
point with this side).

The ED diagonal meets the conditions of the

−−−→ −−→ −−−→ −−→
problem when AC = 2ED .
We’ll prove that AC = 2ED .

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−−→

ED = EA + AB + BC + CD = −AE + AB + (−CB ) + CD =
= [−2, −3] + [7, −2] + [5, 6] + [−4, 1] = [6, 2]

−−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→

AC = AB + BC = AB − CB = [7, −2] − [−5, −6] = [12, 4] = 2 × [6, 2] = 2ED

PROBLEM About the ABCD quadrilateral we know that: C = (11, 3), D = (5, 12),
−−−→ −−−→
AD = [7, 12], BC = [11, 6]. Prove that the side CD is parallel to the side AB and is three
times longer than it.

PROBLEMS
→ →
−
1. Let a = [2, −1], b = [−3, 4], →
− −
c = [5, 0]. Find vector coordinates:
→
− →
− →
−
a) →
−
a +b c) →a + b +→
− −
c e) −2→
−
a g) 5→
c − 4→
− −
a + 2b
→
− − →− − → →
−
b) b − →
a d) b − →c +−a f) 3→
a −→
− −
c h) 2→
a + 3(→
− −
c − 2b )

2. Let K = (−2, 1), L = (1, 3), R = (4, −5), S = (0, −2). Calculate the coordinates of the
vector:
−−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−−→ −−→ −−−
1 − → −−−→ −−−→
a) KL + SR b) KS − 2LK c) 2 (KR + LR ) d) −2KS + 3KR

OPERATIONS ON VECTORS IN COORDINATE SYSTEM 97

 →
−
3. Let →
− and →
−
h i
1
a = [−4, 1], b = [0, −6] c = − 2 , 2 . Find vector coordinates:
→− − 1→− →
− −
a) 2→
c − 2 (4→
− a + b −→ b) −2→a + 3 b − 4→
c + 2(b + →
1 − − −
c) c)

4. Which of the given vectors are parallel to the vector →

−
u = [12, −20]?
→
− →
− √ √ →
− →
−
a = [−6, 10] b = [−3 2, 5 2] c = [3, 5] d = [−4,5, 7,5]

5. a) Let A = (1, −1), B = (5, 2), C = (−1, 5), D = (−7, 3). Is the quadrilateral ABCD
a trapezium? Is it a parallelogram?
−−−→ −−−→ −−−→
b) In the quadrilateral ABCD data are: AD = [4, 3], AC = [8, 2] and DB = [0, −4].
Prove that the quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram.

−−→ −−−→ −−−→

6. About the ABCDE pentagon is known that −CB = [−6, −9], CD = [0, 4], ED = [6, 1]
−−−→
and EA = [−2, −11]. Show that one of the diagonals of this pentagon is parallel to
the AB side, and one of the other diagonals is parallel to the BC side.

7. The diagonals of ABCD quadrilateral intersect at point P with coordinates

(−3.7), and this point divides each of them so that |P C| : |P A| = |P D| : |P B| = 1 : 3.
−−−→ −−−→
We also know that AC = [4, 6] and BD = [−10, −2]. Find the coordinates of the
vertices of this polygon and show that it is a trapezium.

8. Points A = (−3, 0), B = (4, −1), C = (5, 1), D = (2, 3) are a quadrilateral’s vertices. In
what ratio the line parallel to side DC passing through point B divides side AD?

TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

Look at the drawing next to it. The

graph of the g function arose as
a result of shifting the function
graph f by five units up, i.e. by vec-
tor [0, 5].

Note that the value of function g

for the argument x is 5 greater
than the value of function f for
this argument. Thus, it can be said
that for every argument x the func-
tion g assumes a value equal to
f (x) + 5.
g(x) = f (x) + 5

98 VECTORS. TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

 EXERCISE A Each of the drawn graphs was created by shifting the graph of
the function y = f (x). One of the graphs has been described. Describe the three
others.

Look at the drawing below. The graph of the function h arose as a result
of shifting the function graph f by 8 units to the right, i.e. by the vector
[8, 0].

Note that the value of the func-

tion h for the argument x is the
same as the value of the func-
tion f for the argument by 8 less
than x. So we can say that for
every argument x function h as-
sumes the value equal to f (x − 8).

h(x) = f (x − 8)

EXERCISE B Each of the drawn graphs was made by shifting the graph of
function y = f (x). Some graphs have been described. Describe the others.

Note that when the domain of function f is not a set of real numbers, the
function whose graph was obtained as a result of the shift of the function
graph f may have a different domain.

TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS 99

 The table contains examples of functions that can be obtained by transla-
tion of the function graph y = f (x) vertically or horizontally.

The way of shifting Coordinates of Function

the function graph y = f (x) translation vector obtained
5 units up [0, 5] y = f (x) + 5
3 units down [0, −3] y = f (x) − 3
2 units right [2, 0] y = f (x − 2)
6 units left [−6, 0] y = f (x + 6)

EXERCISE C Write the formula of the function, the graph of which will be
obtained after translation of the graph of function y = f (x) by vector:
 
a) [0, −1] b) [−2, 0] c) [10, 0] d) 0, 1
2

The information in the table can be generalized as follows:

If the graph of function y = f (x) is translated by vector [0, b],
we will get graph of the function y = f (x) + b.
If the graph of function y = f (x) is translated by vector [a, 0],
we will get graph of the function y = f (x − a).

2
EXAMPLE 1 a) Function f is defined with the formula f (x) = 2 + 5. Graph of
x
function f was moved by the translation vector [0, −9]. Find the formula of the
function whose graph was obtained.
y = f (x) − 9
2
y = +5−9
x2
2
y = −4
x2
√
b) Function f is given by the formula f (x) = 5 x + 2x − 3. The graph of f is
translated by vector [−5, 0]. Find the formula of the function whose graph was
obtained.
y = f (x + 5) After moving the graph of f by vector [−5, 0] we obtain
graph of the function y = f (x − (−5)), i.e. y = f (x + 5).
√
y = 5 x + 5 + 2(x + 5) − 3
√
y = 5 x + 5 + 2x + 7

√
PROBLEM a) Function f is given by the formula f (x) = 3 x − 4. The graph of this
function has been moved by the vector [0, 7]. Find the formula of the function whose
graph was obtained.
b) Function f is given by the formula f (x) = 2x2 − 3x. The graph of this function has
been moved by the vector [6, 0]. Find the formula of the function whose graph was
obtained.

100 VECTORS. TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

 Note that if the graph of function f is moved first by vector [a, 0], and then
the graph is moved again by vector [0, b], it will mean that we moved the
graph of function f by vector [a, b].

Each of the following figures shows a graph of the f function and a plot
that was created as a result of its displacement.

The graph of function f The graph of function f

has been moved by vector: has been moved by vector:
→
−
u = [−2, −3] →
−
v = [2, 3]

g(x) = f (x + 2) − 3 h(x) = f (x − 2) + 3

EXERCISE D Each of the graphs drawn is the result of a translation of the

graph of function y = f (x). Some of the graphs have been described. Describe
the remaining ones.

TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS 101

 EXERCISE E How should you move the graph of function f to get the graph of
the function h, given by the formula h(x) = f (x + 1) + 4?

By moving the graph of function y = f (x)

by vector →
−
u = [a, b], we get the graph of
the function:
g(x) = f (x − a) + b

EXAMPLE 2 Find the formula of a function whose graph can be obtained after
shifting the function graph f (x) = 4x 3 + 5x + 1 by vector [−2, 7].

y = f (x + 2) + 7 Translation of function graph y = f (x)

by vector [a, b] gives the function graph
y = 4(x + 2)3 + 5(x + 2) + 1 + 7 y = f (x − a) + b.
For a = −2 and b = 7 we have: y = f (x + 2) + 7.
y = 4(x 3 + 6x 2 + 12x + 8) + 5x + 10 + 8

y = 4x 3 + 24x 2 + 53x + 50

PROBLEM Function f is given by the formula f (x) = 2 + 5x. Find the function
x
formula describing the result of translation of graph f by vector [−6, 4].

PROBLEMS
1. The figure on the right shows the graph of some
function f . Draw the graph of the function:
a) y = f (x − 2) c) y = f (x + 4)
b) y = f (x) + 1 d) y = f (x) − 3

2. Draw a graph of any function. Label it with the

letter f . Draw the graph of the function:

a) y = f (x) + 3 b) y = f (x) − 2 c) y = f (x + 3) d) y = f (x − 3)

3. Write down the formula for the function whose graph will result from transla-
tion of function graph y = f (x) by vector →
−
u , when:

a) →
−
u = [0, 7] b) →
−
u = [0, −7] c) →
−
u = [7, 0] d) →
−
u = [−7, 0]

102 VECTORS. TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

4. The graphs of the g and h functions arose as the result of the shift of the
function graph, whose formula is given in the figure. Write down the g and h
function formulas.

TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS (CONT.)

EXERCISE A Enter the coordinates of the symmetrical point to point A = (a, b):
a) with respect to the x-axis b) with respect to the y-axis.

EXERCISE B The figure shows a function graph f .

a) Let function g be determined by the for-

mula g(x) = −f (x). Using the function graph
f , determine the values of function g for
argument −2 and for argument 3.

b) Let function h be determined by the for-

mula h(x) = f (−x). Using the function graph
f , determine the values of h function for
argument −2 and for argument 3.

TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS (CONT.) 103

 In each of the drawings a function graph f and its symmetrical reflection
are shown.

The graph of the g function

was created by symmetric re-
flection of the function graph
f with respect to the x-axis.
For each argument x the val-
ues of the functions g and f
are opposite numbers. Thus,
for argument x function g as-
sumes the value −f (x).

g(x) = −f (x)

The graph of the h function

was created by symmetric re-
flection of function graph f
relative the y-axis. For each
argument x, the value of func-
tion h is the same as the value
of function f for argument −x.

h(x) = f (−x)

1
EXAMPLE 1 Function f is determined with the formula f (x) = x 3 − x 2 + 1 − x .

a) Write down the formula of the function g whose graph is symmetrical to the
graph of function f relative to the x-axis.
1 1
 
g(x) = −f (x) = − x 3 − x 2 + 1 − x = −x 3 + x 2 −
1−x
3 2 1
g(x) = −x + x −
x −1

b) Write down the formula of the function h whose graph is symmetrical to the
graph of function f relative to the y -axis.
1 1
h(x) = f (−x) = (−x)3 − (−x)2 + = −x 3 − x 2 +
1 − (−x ) 1+x
1
h(x) = −x 3 − x 2 +
1+x

√
PROBLEM Function f is given by the formula f (x) = 3x − 5 x + 7. Find the formula
of the function whose graph was obtained as the result of symmetric reflection of graph f :
a) with respect to the x-axis, b) with respect to the y-axis.

104 VECTORS. TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

 x2
EXAMPLE 2 Function graph f (x) = 2x − 1 + 3 was first reflected in the y -axis,
then in the x-axis, and finally moved by vector [−5, −2]. Find the formula of the
function whose graph was obtained.

x2
f (x) = +3
2x − 1

(−x )2 x2 We write the formula of function f1 ,

f1 (x) = f (−x) = +3= +3
2(−x ) − 1 −2x − 1 whose graph is symmetrical to the
x2 graph of f relative to the y -axis.
f1 (x) = +3
−2x − 1
 
x2 x2 We write the formula of function f2 ,
f2 (x) = −f1 (x) = − +3 = −3
−2x − 1 2x + 1 whose graph is symmetrical to the
x2 function graph f1 relative to the x-axis.
f2 (x) = −3
2x + 1

(x +5)2 We write the formula of function f3 ,

f3 (x) = f2 (x + 5) − 2 = −3−2
2(x + 5) + 1 whose graph was obtained by shift-
(x + 5)2 ing the graph of function f2 by 5
f3 (x) = −5 units left and 2 units down.
2x + 11

√
PROBLEM The graph of function f (x) = 6 x + 4−2x was first reflected in the y-axix,
then in the x-axis, and finally shifted by vector [−7, 5]. Give the formula of the function
whose graph was obtained in this way.

√
EXAMPLE 3 Using the graph of the function y = x, draw the graph of function
√
y = − x + 3 − 2.
√
f (x) = x
√
f1 (x) = f (x + 3) = x +3 We write the formulas of func-
√ tions that we can receive after
f2 (x) = −f1 (x) = − x + 3 subsequent transformations.
√
f3 (x) = f2 (x) − 2 = − x + 3 − 2

Order of transformations:
1. We move the graph of f by
vector [−3, 0] getting graph f1 .
2. We reflect the graph f1 over
the x-axis getting graph of f2 .
3. We move the graph of f2 by
vector [0, −2] and we get the
graph of f3 .

√
PROBLEM Using the graph of function y = x, draw the graph of function
√
y = −x + 4.

TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS (CONT.) 105

 We will now show one more way of transforming a function graph.

EXERCISE C Data are functions f1 (x) = −3x + 2 and f2 (x) = | − 3x + 2| . Calcu-

late the values of each of them for several positive and for several negative
arguments. Draw graphs of these functions.

Let’s consider how to transform the graph of f function to get the graph
of function
g(x) = |f (x)|

For arguments for which f (x) ≥ 0 is g(x) = f (x). For the remaining argu-
ments, i.e. those for which f (x) < 0, g(x) = −f (x).

f (x), when f (x) ≥ 0

(
g(x) = |f (x)| =
−f (x), when f (x) < 0

Thus, the graph of function g is obtained in such a way that this part of
the graph of f , which is above the x-axis, will remain unchanged, and the
rest of the graph of f will be reflected symmetrically with respect to the
x-axis.

g(x) = |f (x)|

EXAMPLE 4
1
Using the graph of function f (x) = x ,
draw the graph of the function
1
y = x −3 −2 .

1
f (x) = x
1
f1 (x) = f (x − 3) = x − 3
1
f2 (x) = f1 (x) − 2 = x − 3 − 2
1
f3 (x) = |f2 (x)| = x − 3 − 2

PROBLEM Using the graph of function f (x) = 1 , draw the graph of the function
x
1
y = 3− .
x

106 VECTORS. TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

PROBLEMS
1. Draw any function graph f , and then draw the graph of the function:
a) y = −f (x) b) y = f (−x) c) y = −f (−x)

2. The figure shows a function graph f . Draw the graph of the function given under
the picture.

y = −f (x) + 1 y = g(−x) + 1 y = 1 − h(x)

y = −f (x + 1) y = −g(−x) y = −1 − h(x − 1)

3. Function f is increasing. Determine which of the functions g, h, j is also

increasing, and which — decreasing, if:
g(x) = f (−x) h(x) = −f (x) j(x) = −f (−x)

4. The only zero of function f is number −7. Find a zero of g function if:
a) g(x) = −f (x) b) g(x) = f (−x) c) g(x) = −f (x + 5)

5. Draw the graph of a function f which is not a constant function and is such that
the graphs of the functions y = −f (x) and y = f (−x) are the same.

6. The graphs of functions g and h are images of the function graph whose formula
is given in the figure. Write down the g and h function formulas.

7. Write the formula for the function g, whose graph we will get as a result of
transformation:
a) of the graph of the function f (x) = 5x − 2 by symmetry about the x-axis,
b) of the graph of the function f (x) = 1 + 1 by symmetry about the y-axis.
x

TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS (CONT.) 107

8. Find the formula of the function whose graph is created as a result of trans-
forming:
a) the function graph f (x) = 2x2 − 1 first by symmetry with respect to the x-axis,
x
and then by translation [0, −4],
√
b) the function graph f (x) = 3x x − 1 first by translation [0, −4], and then by sym-
metry with respect to the y-axis,
√
c) the graph of the function f (x) = x + 7 − 1 first by translation [7, 0], and then
x−7
by symmetry with respect to the y-axis.

√
9. a) How should the graph of the function y =
√
x be transformed in order to
obtain graph of the function y = −x − 2?
√
b) How to transform the graph of the function y = x − 2 in order to obtain graph
√
of the function y = −x + 2?

10. Draw a function graph f such that f takes positive and negative values and has
three zeros, and then draw the graph of the function:

a) y = |f (x)| b) y = −|f (x)| c) y = |f (x + 5)|

11. Draw the graph of the function y = − 21 x + 2, and then, using this plot, draw the
graph of the function:

a) y = − 1 x + 2 b) y = − 1 (x − 3) + 2 c) y = 2 − − 1 x + 2
2 2 2

12. The function graphs are images of function graph y = 1 . Match them with the
x
formulas.

f (x) = 1 + 1 g(x) = 1 h(x) = − 1 + 1

x x−1 x

k(x) = − 1 + 1 l(x) = 1 m(x) = 1 +1

x x x−1

108 VECTORS. TRANSFORMING FUNCTION GRAPHS

Quadratic
function
The ball hit by the volleyball player moves along a curve called a parabola.
Using the properties of quadratic function, you can determine how long
the ball will be above the net.

Parabola Quadratic function's normal and canonical form

Quadratic function's factored form Quadratic function – summary
Quadratic inequalities Applications of quadratic function
Equations and inequalities with parameter
 PARABOLA

EXERCISE A Select in the coordinate system a few points belonging to the

graph of the function y = 1 x2 and sketch its graph.
2

Below are graphs of several different functions of the type y = ax2 .

The curve being the graph of function y = ax2 , where a 6= 0, is called

a parabola. The vertex of the parabola y = ax2 lies at the origin
of the coordinate system, and the y-axis is its axis of symmetry.

When a > 0, the graph of the func- When a < 0, the graph of the func-
tion y = ax2 is a parabola with tion y = ax2 is a parabola with
branches aimed up. D The set
 of val- branches aimed down.  TheEset of
ues is the interval 0 ; +∞ . values is the interval −∞ ; 0 .

110 QUADRATIC FUNCTION

 You already know that after moving the graph of function f (x) by vector
[p, q], you get at the graph of the function y = f (x − p) + q. It is also known
that after moving the parabola y = ax2 by vector [p, q] the vertex of the
new parabola will be in the point (p, q).

EXERCISE B The figure on

the right shows three curves
— the parabola y = −1,5x2
and a pair of parabolas that
were obtained by its trans-
lation. Read the coordinates
of the vectors and write
down the formula of each of
these functions.

The graph of the function y = a(x − p)2 + q, where a 6= 0

is a parabola with vertex (p, q).

EXERCISE C Give an example of function formula whose graph is a parabola

with the vertex:
a) (4, −7) b) (−5, 8) c) (−6, 0)

Curiosity

If we intersect the cone with a plane of the same

slant as the cone’s side, we get a section, the edge
of which is a fragment of parabola.
If the plane that intersected the cone was set in a
different way, we could obtain fragments of other
curves, e.g. a hyperbola or an ellipse. Such figures
are called conic curves.

PARABOLA 111
 EXAMPLE 1 What coordinates has the vertex of the parabola which is the graph
of function y = − 12 (x + 3)2 + 4? Determine the set of values of this function and
specify maximum intervals of its monotonicity.

1
y = − 2 (x + 3)2 + 4
1 We write the formula in the form
y = − 2 (x − (−3))2 + 4 y = a(x − p)2 + q

Vertex of the parabola: (−3, 4)

We mark the vertex and sketch the graph of the

function (the branches of the parabola aimed down).

 E
The set of values: −∞; 4
 E
The function is increasing in interval −∞; −3 and decreasing in interval
D 
−3; +∞ .

PROBLEM For the function specified by the given formula, set the coordinates of
the parabola’s vertex, give the set of function values and specify the maximum intervals
of its monotonicity.
a) y = 2 (x − 7)2 − 6 b) y = − 1 (x + 4)2 + 5 c) y = 1,5(x − 2)2 − 3
3 2

EXAMPLE 2 Find the formula of the function whose graph is a parabola with
vertex (13, −5), passing through the point with coordinates (12, −8).

y = a(x − p)2 + q
p = 13 and q = −5
y = a(x − 13)2 − 5
The formula of the function is fulfilled by the
−8 = a(12 − 13)2 − 5 pair of numbers x = 12 and y = −8, because the
point (12, −8) belongs to the graph of the function
−8 = a − 5 sought.
a = −3

y = −3(x − 13)2 − 5

PROBLEM Find the formula for the function whose graph is a parabola with a ver-
tex (−3, 2) passing through the point (7, −48).

112 QUADRATIC FUNCTION

PROBLEMS
1. The figure on the right shows graphs of
the following functions:

1 y = 13 x2 4 y = − 18 x2

2 y = − 13 x2 5 y = 3x2

3 y = 18 x2 6 y = −3x2

Match the function formulas to the graphs.

2. Each of the parabolas drawn below was created by shifting the function graph
5 2
y= 4x . Write the formulas of the functions whose graphs are these parabolas.

3. Write the formula of the function obtained after moving the function graph f
by the vector →
−
u.
a) f (x) = 3x2 →
− = [2, 3]
u 3
d) f (x) = 4 x2 →
− = [−3, −7]
u
b) f (x) =
1 2
x →
−
u = [−1, 0] e) f (x) = −x2 →
−
u = [2, −5]
2

c) f (x) = −0,1x2 →
−
u = [0, −4] f) f (x) =
x2 →
−
u = [−6, −10]
4

4. The graph of function y = x2 was shift-

ed so that a parabola with an A vertex
was obtained. Write the formula of the
function whose graph is this parabola if:
a) A = (10, 0) c) A = (−3, 7)
b) A = (−15, 0) d) A = (−5, −8)

5. The curves that were drawn next to it

were received by moving accordingly the
graphs of the following functions:
y = x2 y = 12 x2 y = 2x2 y = −2x2
Write down the function formulas whose
graphs are these curves.

PARABOLA 113
6. Determine what coordinates the vertex of the parabola has, which is the graph
of the function with the following formula:
√ 2
a) y = 3x2 − 2 c) y = −(x − 1)2 + 5 e) y = − (x − 2) − 1
2
5 2
b) y = −2,5(x + 3)2 d) y = (x + 1) + 3 f) y = 2(x − 1) + 5
2 4 6

7. Find the formula of the function, whose graph is the parabola with vertex W ,
passing by point P .
a) W = (−1, −1), P = (3, 3) c) W = (−8, 7), P = (1, 6) e) W = (3, 2), P = (−5, 10)

b) W = (0, 6), P = (−6, −1) d) W = (−1, 1), P = (4, 0) f) W = (1, 0), P = (0, 8)

8. Find a formula for the function whose graph is the drawn parabola.

QUADRATIC FUNCTION’S
NORMAL AND CANONICAL FORM
The figure shows graph of the function defined
by formula:
y = 2(x − 3)2 − 4

The expression on the right side of it, we can

transform:
2(x − 3)2 − 4 = 2(x2 − 6x + 9) − 4 = 2x2 − 12x + 14

Thus, the function formula can be written in

the form:
y = 2x2 − 12x + 14

Both formulas, of course, describe the same

function.

114 QUADRATIC FUNCTION

 Examples of quadratic
Any function whose formula can be
function:
written in the form:
y = ax 2 + bx + c, y = 3x2 + 2x − 7

where a, b, c are given real num- y = 5(x − 1)2 − 5

bers and a 6= 0, we call quadratic
y = −3(x − 2)(x − 3)
function. The graph of a quadratic
function is a parabola. y = − 21 x2 − 3(x + 5)

EXERCISE A Transform the last formula among the ones written in the frame
to the form y = ax2 + bx + c. Give the values of coefficients a, b and c.

The notation y = ax2 + bx + c is the normal form of quadratic function.

We have previously discussed the properties of quadratic functions whose
formulas we wrote in the form of y = a(x − p)2 + q, called the canonical
form.

Examples of formulas of quadratic function:

y = ax 2 + bx + c
in normal form in canonical form
normal form
2
y = x + 6x + 11 y = (x + 3)2 + 2
y = 3x2 − 42x + 147 y = 3(x − 7)2
y = a(x − p)2 + q
y = −5x2 + 10x y = −5(x − 1)2 + 5
canonical form

The coefficient a present in both forms of the formula determines how

the branches of the parabola are directed. If a > 0, then the branches are
pointing upwards, and if a < 0, then the branches are pointing downwards.
EXERCISE B Write any example of a
quadratic function in the normal form Parabola y = ax2 + bx + c
and give the intersection point of its intersects y-axis
graph with the y-axis. in point (0, c).

Based on the formula of quadratic

function in canonical form, we can de-
termine the coordinates of the parabo-
la’s vertex. When we know the formu-
la in normal form, it is immediately
known what coordinates has the inter-
section point of the parabola with the
y-axis (called y intercept).

Let’s consider how to find the coordinates (xv , yv ) of the vertex of parabola
which is graph of the function given by the normal formula y = ax2 +bx+c.

QUADRATIC FUNCTION’S NORMAL AND CANONICAL FORM 115

 Assume that a 6= 0 and the formulas y = ax2 + bx + c and y = a(x − p)2 + q
define the same function. The formula in canonical form can be trans-
formed:

y = a(x − p)2 + q xv = p, yv = q

y = a(x2 − 2px + p2 ) + q

y = ax2 − 2apx + ap2 + q We transform the canonical form of the for-

mula into normal form.
y = ax2 + (−2ap)x + ap2 + q
b c

Then: The formula y = ax 2 −2apx +ap 2 +q describes

2
−2ap = b and ap + q = c the same function y = ax 2 + bx + c, so the
corresponding coefficients must be equal.

Therefrom:
p=− b and q = c − ap2
2a

From the equalities above, it follows that

 2
2 2 2 2
q = c−a× − b = c − a × b 2 = c − b = 4ac − b = − (b − 4ac) = −∆
2a 4a 4a 4a 4a 4a

Coordinates (xv , yv ) of the vertex of

the parabola which is the graph of
quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c
can be calculated using the formulas:

xv = −b yv = −∆
2a 4a

EXAMPLE 1 Write the formula of the function y = −5x 2 − 3x − 2 in canonical

form.
−b −(−3)
xv = 2a = 2×(−5) = −0,3 a = −5, b = −3, c = −2

∆ = b 2 − 4ac = (−3)2 − 4 × (−5) × (−2) = −31

−∆ −(−31) 31
yv = 4a = 4×(−5) = − 20 = −1,55

Vertex: (−0,3, −1,55)

We write the formula in canonical form:
2 y = a(x − p)2 + q for a = −5, p = −0,3,
y = −5(x + 0,3) − 1,55 q = −1,55.

PROBLEM Find the canonical formula of the function y = 1 x2 − 2x − 1.

3

116 QUADRATIC FUNCTION

 To calculate the second coordinate of the parabola’s vertex, we do not
need to use the formula yv = −∆ . You can calculate it by first determining
4a
what is the first coordinate and then substitute this value into the function
formula.

EXAMPLE 2 Find the coordinates

√ of the vertex of parabola which is the graph
of function y = − 12 x 2 + x 2 + 1,52. Determine monotonicity intervals of this
function.
1 √
y = − 2 x 2 + x 2 + 1,52
√
−b − 2 √
xv = 2a =  = 2 We calculate the first coordi-
1 nate of the vertex.
2 × −2
√ 
1 √ 2 √ √ We calculate the second coordi-
 
yv = f 2 = −2 2 + 2 × 2 + 1,52 = 2,52 nate
√ of the vertex, substituting
2 for x in the formula f (x).
√ 
Vertex of the parabola: 2, 2,52

We mark the vertex, the y inter-

cept, and sketch the parabola.

 √ E
f is increasing in −∞ ; 2 We read the monotonicity inter-
D√  vals from the graph.
and decreasing in 2 ; +∞ .

PROBLEM Determine monotonicity intervals of the function y = 4x2 − 4x − 3.

The quadratic function y = ax2 + bx + c has as many zeros as the

solutions has the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, i.e., the number of zeros
depends on the value of the determinant ∆ = b2 − 4ac.
If ∆ > 0, then the function has two zeros. If ∆ = 0, then it has one
zero. If ∆ < 0, then there are no zeros.

QUADRATIC FUNCTION’S NORMAL AND CANONICAL FORM 117

 EXAMPLE 3 Calculate zeros of the function y = 41 x 2 − 2x − 5.
1 2
4
x − 2x − 5 = 0
1
∆ = b 2 − 4ac = (−2)2 − 4 × 4 × (−5) = 9
√
∆=3
√
−b − ∆ −(−2) − 3
x1 = 2a
= = −2
2× 1 4
√
−b + ∆ −(−2) + 3
x2 = 2a
= = 10
2× 1 4

Zeros are −2 and 10.

PROBLEM At what points does the parabola y = −2x2 + 4x + 6 intersect the axes of
the coordinate system?

PROBLEMS
1. The graph of the given function is a parabola. Does this parabola have branches
aimed up of down? At what point does the parabola intersect the y-axis?
√
a) y = x2 − 2x − 12 b) y = (2 − 7)x2 − 3x c) y = 2x − x2 + 1

2. Match the formulas to the graphs.

1 y = x2 − 6x + 8 2 y = −x2 + 2x − 1 3 y = −x2 − 4x − 2 4 y = x2 + x − 2

3. The graphs next to represent the fol-

lowing functions:

1 y = 1 x2 − x + 5
4
2 y = − 1 x2 + x + 1
4
3 y = 1 x2 + x + 5
4
4 y = − 1 x2 − x + 1
4
Match them.

118 QUADRATIC FUNCTION

4. Write the formula of the given function in canonical form.
√ √
a) y = 2x2 + 5x − 5 c) y = − 1 x2 − 3 x + 3 e) y = x2 2 − 4x + 2
4 2 4
√ √
b) y = −3x2 + 6x d) y = −x2 + 0,4x − 0,8 f) y = −x2 3 − 2x − 3

5. How many zeros has the given function?

a) y = 1 x2 + x + 9 b) y = 1,2x2 + 0,7x − 2,3 c) y = 9x2 + 12x + 11
9 4

6. Calculate the area of the rectangle shaded on the figure.

QUADRATIC FUNCTION’S FACTORED FORM

EXERCISE A Write down zeros of function f (x) = 3(x− 2)(x+ 5). Next, justify that
the function specified in this way is a quadratic function.

If the numbers x1 , x2 are zeros of a quadratic function, then its

formula can be written in the form:
f (x) = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 )

This form of formula is called the factored form.

Note. The formula of a quadratic function which has no zeros cannot be written
in factored form. When the only zero of a quadratic function is x0 , its formula
can be written in the factored form f (x) = a(x − x0 )2 .

EXERCISE B Check whether the given function can be written in factored form.
If so — write it this way.
f (x) = 2x2 + 3x − 2 g(x) = x2 + x + 5 h(x) = 9x2 + 6x + 1

QUADRATIC FUNCTION’S FACTORED FORM 119

 EXAMPLE 1 Find the normal formula of a quadratic function whose zeros are
the numbers −1 and 3 and whose graph goes through point (2, 6).

f (x) = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) We know the zeros of the function: x1 = −1,

x2 = 3, therefore we write its formula in the
f (x) = a(x + 1)(x − 3) factored form.

f (2) = 6 The graph passes through point (2, 6).

6 = a(2 + 1)(2 − 3)
6 = −3a
a = −2

f (x) = −2(x + 1)(x − 3)

We write the formula in factored form and
f (x) = −2(x 2 − 3x + x − 3) transform it into normal form.

f (x) = −2x 2 + 4x + 6

PROBLEM Find the normal formula of the quadratic function whose zeros are
numbers 3 and 4 and whose graph goes through point (5, 1).

EXERCISE C Write down the zeros of the function y = 3(x − 2)(x − 8). At what
point does the symmetry axis of the parabola, which is the graph of this
function, intersect the x-axis?

When we have a function formula in

The arithmetic mean of
factored form, it does not have to be
the zeros of a function
transformed into normal form or canon-
is the first coordinate of
ical form to determine the coordinates
the vertex of the parabo-
of the parabola’s vertex. la, which is the graph of
this function.
Note that the vertex of the parabola lies
on its axis of symmetry. Thus, the first
coordinate of the vertex — number xv
— is on x-axis in the middle between
the zero places x1 , x2 . Therefore:
xv − x1 = x2 − xv
Hence: x1 + x2
xv =
xv = x1 + x2 2
2

EXERCISE D Find the coordinates of the vertex of parabola with the given
formula.
a) y = 1 (x − 1)(x − 5) b) y = −2(x + 1)(x − 5)
3

120 QUADRATIC FUNCTION

 EXAMPLE 2 Function f (x) = − 12 (x + 2)(x − 6) is given. Find its zeros, the coordi-
nates of the parabola’s vertex, and the y intercept.
1
f (x) = − 2 (x + 2)(x − 6) We read the zeros.

Zeros: x1 = −2 x2 = 6

−2 + 6 We calculate the first coordinate of the vertex,

xv = 2
=2 using the formula xv = x1 +2 x2 .

1
yv = f (2) = − 2 (2 + 2)(2 − 6) = 8 We calculate the second coordinate, i.e. f (xv ).

Parabola’s vertex: (2, 8)

1 We calculate the second coordinate of the in-

f (0) = − 2 (0 + 2)(0 − 6) = 6 tersection point with the y -axis, i.e. f (0).

y intercept: (0, 6)

PROBLEM Find the coordinates of the parabola’s y = 6(x + 3)(x + 5) intersection

points with the coordinate-system axes and coordinates of its vertex. Draw the graph.

PROBLEMS
1. Read the function’s zeros.
a) y = (x − 3)(x + 1) c) y = 3(x + 3)2 e) y = x(6 − x)
2
b) y = −2(x − 3)(3 − x) d) y = − 9 (x − 6)2 f) y = −2x(x + 8)

2. Write in the factored form an example of quadratic function that satisfies the
given conditions.
a) Zeros are the numbers 5, 1, and the parabola has the branches pointing down.
b) The function has one zero equal to −8, and the parabola has branches pointing
upwards.

3. Specifythe coordinates of the vertex and intersection points with the axes of
the coordinate system of the parabola with the given equation. Determine the
maximum monotonicity intervals of the function whose graph is the parabola.

a) y = − 1 (x + 4)(x + 6) c) y = 4(x − 5)2 e) y = −(2 − x)2

2
√ √
b) y = 1 (x − 2)(x + 12) d) y = 2(1 − x)(x − 3) f) y = (1 − 3)(x − 3)2
7

QUADRATIC FUNCTION’S FACTORED FORM 121

 QUADRATIC FUNCTION — SUMMARY

Below we have gathered information on how to use different forms of

quadratic formula to determine its zeros and the vertex of the parabola
being its graph.

formula Canonical form Normal form Factored form

and graph 2
f (x) = a(x − p) + q 2
f (x) = ax + bx + c f (x) = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 )

x1 + x2
vertex of xv = p xv = −b xv =
2a 2
parabola yv = q yv = −∆ yv = f (xv )
4a
or
yv = f (xv )

zeros Solutions Solutions Solutions

of equation of equation of equation

a(x − p)2 + q = 0 ax2 + bx + c = 0 a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ) = 0

Zeros meet If ∆ > 0, then Zeros are numbers

equation function has x1 and x2 .
two zeros:
(x − p)2 = −q
a √
x1 = −b − ∆
2a√
Number of zeros −b + ∆
x2 =
depends on sign 2a
−q
of a or q = 0.
If ∆ = 0, then
function has one
zero x0 = −b .
2a

If ∆ < 0, then
function has
no zero.

122 QUADRATIC FUNCTION

 EXAMPLE 1 a) Find a formula of the quadratic function whose graph intersects
the axes of the coordinate system in points (1, 0), (−5, 0), (0, 15).
x1 = 1, x2 = −5 Zeros are numbers 1 and −5.

y = a(x − 1)(x + 5) We use the factored form y = a(x − x1 )(x − x2 ).

15 = a(0 − 1)(0 + 5) Point (0, 15) belongs to the graph.

15 = −5a
a = −3
y = −3(x − 1)(x + 5) We write the function’s formula.

b) Find a formula for the quadratic function whose graph is a parabola with a
vertex at (5, −7) passing through (3, −8).
p = 5, q = −7 (p, q) is the vertex.
2
y = a(x − 5) − 7 We decide to find the canonical form y = a(x − p)2 + q.

−8 = a(3 − 5)2 − 7 Point (3, −8) belongs to the graph.

−1 = a × 4
1
a = −4
1
y = − 4 (x − 5)2 − 7 We write the function formula.

c) The graph of the function y = 5x 2 has been shifted, and the obtained curve
f (x) intersects the y -axis at point (0, −4) and passes through point (−2, 6). Find a
formula of the function received.
f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c We decide to find the normal form.

a=5 The formula of function f has the same a coefficient as

the formula y = 5x 2 .
c = −4
The graph of f intersects the y -axis at point (0, −4).
f (x) = 5x 2 + bx − 4
6 = 5 × (−2)2 + b × (−2) − 4 Point (−2, 6) belongs to the graph of f .

6 = 20 − 2b − 4
b=5
f (x) = 5x 2 + 5x − 4 We write down the function formula.

PROBLEM a) Find a formula of the quadratic function whose zeros are numbers 4
and 6 and whose graph passes through point (0, 5).
b) Determine a formula of the quadratic function whose graph is a parabola with a
vertex at (−2, 5) passing through (−3, 2).
c) After moving the graph of the function f (x) = − 21 x2 + 7x, the graph of function g was
obtained, which intersects the y-axis at (0, 6) and passes through point (2, 10). Find a
formula for function g.

QUADRATIC FUNCTION — SUMMARY 123

 When we know the formula of a quadratic function, we know how the
branches of the parabola are directed, and we can determine whether yv
(the second coordinate of the vertex) is the smallest or largest value of the
function. It is also possible to determine the smallest and largest value of
the function in a given interval.

EXERCISE Set down the answer to the question using the graph or formula.
a) What is the smallest and what b) What is the smallest and what
the largest value
D of the function in
E the largest value
D of the function in
E
the interval 1 ; 5 ? the interval 1 ; 3 ?

EXAMPLE 2 a) What is the smallest and largestDvalue assumed

E by the function
f (x) = 12 x 2 + 3x + 1 for arguments in the interval −10 ; 5 ?

b −3
xv = − 2a = = −3 We calculate the first coordinate of the
2× 12 vertex.
D E
xv ∈ −10 ; 5 Since xv belongs to the considered in-
terval and the parabola’s branches are
1 directed upwards, the lowest value is
yv = f (−3) = 2 × (−3)2 + 3 × (−3) + 1 = −3,5 yv .

We sketch the graph of f , i.e. a parabo-

la with vertex (−3, −3,5) and branches
pointing upwards.

1 We calculate the values of the function

f (−10) = 2 × (−10)2 + 3 × (−10) + 1 = 21 f at the ends of the considered interval
and choose the greater from the num-
1
f (5) = 2 × 52 + 3 × 5 + 1 = 28,5 bers f (−10) and f (5).

D E
Ans. In the interval −10 ; 5 the smallest value of function f is −3,5, and the
largest is 28,5.

124 QUADRATIC FUNCTION

 b) What is the smallest and what the greatest
D valueEthat the function
y = −3(x + 2)2 + 5 assumes in the interval −12 ; −8 .
D E
xv = −2, xv 6∈ −12 ; −8 The first coordinate of the vertex does not
belong to the interval then the function as-
sumes the maximum and minimum value at
f (−12) = −3(−12 + 2)2 + 5 = −295 its ends.
f (−8) = −3(−8 + 2)2 + 5 = −103
D E
Ans. In the −12 ; −8 interval the minimum value of the function is −295 and
maximum value is −103.

PROBLEM a) Find the smallestD and Ethe greatest value of the function
f (x) = − 41 x2 − 2x + 5 in the interval −9 ; 0 .
b) Find the smallest and the greatest value of the function f (x) = 2x2 + 32 x − 1
D E
in the interval − 21 ; 2 .

PROBLEMS
1. Findthe coordinates of the vertex and intersection points with the axes of the
coordinate system, of the parabola with the given equation. Sketch this parabola.
1
a) y = 4 x2 − x − 8 d) y = x(x + 6) g) y = −5(x + 1)(3 − x)
1 1
b) y = 3(x + 2)2 − 75 e) y = 3 x2 − 3 h) y = − 2 (5 − x)2 + 2

c) y = −5x2 + 30x − 40 f) y = −4x2 + 2x i) y = 3(x − 10)2

2. The graph of thegiven function is a parabola. Are its branches pointing up or

down? At what point does this parabola intersect the y-axis?

a) y = −3 − 2x + 4x2 b) y = (5 + x)(3 − x) c) y = −2(1 − x)2 + 2

3. Determine the set of values of the given function.

3 1 1 2
a) y = 4 x2 − 2 x + 4
c) y = − 5 (x + 5)2 − 10 e) y = −(5 − x)(x + 2) − 10x
3
b) y = 4
(x − 2)(x − 6) d) y = 5x2 + 4x − 7x2 f) y = −3(2 + x) + 4x2

4. Find the formula of the quadratic function whose graph has with the line y = −1
one point common and the line y = −2 intersects this graph in points (−5, −2) and
(1, −2).

5. Find the largest and smallest value of the function f (x) = − 1 (x − 4)2 + 7 in the
2
interval:
D E D E D E
a) −1 ; 3 b) 2;5 c) 6;7

QUADRATIC FUNCTION — SUMMARY 125

 QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

EXERCISE Graphs of several quadratic functions are drawn below. Using the
graphs, specify the sets of solutions for the given inequalities.

f1 (x) = 13 x2 + 2x f2 (x) = 2x2 + 12x + 19 f3 (x) = x2 − 10x + 25

1 2
3x + 2x ≤ 0 2x2 + 12x + 19 ≥ 0 x2 − 10x + 25 > 0

f4 (x) = −x2 − 5x − 4 f5 (x) = −2x2 + 16x − 35 f6 (x) = − 12 x2 − 4x − 8

−x2 − 5x − 4 < 0 −2x2 + 16x − 35 > 0 − 21 x2 − 4x − 8 ≥ 0

Each of the inequalities written next

Examples of quadratic
to it can be transformed so that on
inequalities:
one side of the inequality sign there
is number 0. Then on the other side 4x2 − 2x ≤ 7
of the inequality sign will be an ex- 3x2 < 5
2
pression describing a certain quadrat- x
≥ 3x − 1
2
ic function. The solution of quadratic
x + x < 3x2 − 6
2
inequality can be read from the graph
of such a function.

Note. The graph from which we are to read the solution of inequality does not
have to be too precise — it is enough to mark the zeros of the function (if any)
and to know how the branches of the parabola are directed.

126 QUADRATIC FUNCTION

 EXAMPLE Solve the inequality.

a) x 2 − 18 < 0

x 2 − 18 = 0 We calculate zeros of function

y = x 2 − 18.
x 2 = 18
√ √
x = 3 2 or x = −3 2
We mark zeros and sketch the
graph.
a > 0, so branches are direct-
ed up.

 √ √  From the graph we read the

x ∈ −3 2 ; 3 2 solution set.

b) −3x 2 + 6x ≤ 0
We find zeros of function
−3x 2 + 6x = 0 y = −3x(x − 2) = −3x 2 + 6x.

−3x(x − 2) = 0

x = 0 or x − 2 = 0
x =2
We mark the zeros and sketch
the graph.
a < 0, so the branches are di-
rected downwards.
From the graph we read the
 E D 
x ∈ −∞ ; 0 ∪ 2 ; +∞ set of solutions.

c) −(x − 7)2 ≥ 2x + 1

−(x 2 − 14x + 49) − 2x − 1 ≥ 0

We transform the inequality.
−x 2 + 14x − 49 − 2x − 1 ≥ 0

−x 2 + 12x − 50 ≥ 0

−x 2 + 12x − 50 = 0 The y = −x 2 +12x −50 function

has no zeros and its graph lies
∆ = 122 − 4 × (−1) × (−50) < 0 below the x-axis (the parabola’s
branches are directed down-
wards), therefore the inequal-
ity −x 2 + 12x + 50 ≥ 0 has no
solutions.

The inequality has no solutions.

QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES 127

 x2 √
d) 2 + x 2 ≤ −1
We find zeros of function
x2 √
√ y = 2 + x 2 + 1.
x2
2
+x 2+1≤0
x2 √
2
+x 2+1=0 ×2
√
x2 + 2 2 × x + 2 = 0
 √ 2
∆= 2 2 −8=8−8=0
√ √
b −2 2
x = − 2a = 2 = − 2
We sketch the graph.

2 √
√ The inequality x2 + x 2 + 1 ≤ 0
√
x=− 2 meets only number − 2.

PROBLEM Solve inequality.

2
a) 2x − 5x > 0 b) 1 x2 + 4x < −8 c) 3x − 2 ≤ 5x2
2

PROBLEMS
1. Solve the inequality.
5
a) 2(x − 1)(x + 3) ≥ 0 c) 9
(x + 13)(x + 17) ≥ 0 e) (x − 0,5)2 ≤ 0

b) −2 (x − 5) (x − 7) > 0 d) x(x − 3) ≤ 0 f) −2x(x + 3) < 0

2. Find the zeros of function y = −6x2 − 5x + 4, sketch its graph and then solve the
inequality.

a) −6x2 − 5x + 4 > 0 c) 6x2 + 5x − 4 ≥ 0 e) −12x2 − 10x + 8 ≤ 0

5 2
b) −6x2 − 5x < −4 d) 5x ≤ 4 − 6x2 f) x2 + 6 x − 3 <0

3. Ina rectangular garden with dimensions of 20 m × 30 m, we want to set up a

flower bed as shown in the drawing (the flower bed is the shaded green area). What
should the value of x be for the flower bed to occupy no more than half of the
garden area?

128 QUADRATIC FUNCTION

 APPLICATIONS OF QUADRATIC FUNCTION

Sometimes, when considering a problem, we can describe the relationship

between the measured quantities using the quadratic function and then
use the properties of this function. Consider the following problem: at the
edge of the lake, we want to separate, with rope and buoys, a rectangular
shaped bath. In this way, bathing areas with different dimensions can be
designated.

EXAMPLE An 80 m long rope is to separate a rectangular swimming pool.

What dimensions should it have in order to make its surface as large as possible?
Calculate this area.

If by x we denote the length of the side of the

pool which is perpendicular to the shore of the
lake, then the side parallel to the shore is 80 − 2x
(length x and 80 − 2x are expressed in meters).

The area p depends on the value of x. We write

p — area of pool the formula of the function describing this depen-
(in m2 ) dence.

p(x) = x(80 − 2x) We determine the domain of the function, taking

into account the conditions of the task (length of
x ∈ (0 ; 40) side x must be a positive number and less than
half the length of the rope).

We transform the formula of the function into the

p(x) = 80x − 2x 2 form p(x) = ax 2 + bx + c. Parabola p(x) = −2x 2 + 80x
has branches pointing down, so the p function
p(x) = −2x 2 + 80x takes the maximum value for xv .

−b −80 We calculate xv and check whether the received

xv = 2a = 2×(−2) = 20 number belongs to the domain of the function.

If x = 20, then:
We calculate the length of the other side.
80 − 2x = 80 − 2 × 20 = 40
We calculate the area of possibly largest swimming
p = 20 × 40 = 800 pool.

Ans. The largest area of the bath will be obtained when it will be 20 m × 40 m
(the shorter side is perpendicular to the lake shore). This surface will be equal to
800 m2 .

PROBLEM At the wall, we want to fence a rectangular square on three sides with a
net of total length of 100 m. What dimensions should this square have in order to make
its surface as large as possible?

APPLICATIONS OF QUADRATIC FUNCTION 129

PROBLEMS
1. In the 3rd century BC Archimedes built a catapult that could throw up to 80
kilograms of stones. The diagram below reproduces the path of the stone ejected
by this catapult. Using the formula of the function that describes this move, answer
the questions:
a) What was the range of Archimedes’ catapult?
b) At what height did the stone ejected by this catapult rise?

Curiosity

In 1965 in St. Louis (United States) was measured at the ground. Gateway Arch’s
completed the construction of Gateway shape resembles a parabola, although in
Arch, a monumental arch commemorat- reality the architect Eero Saarinen used a
ing the conquest of the Wild West. The different curve when designing it, called
height of this arch is 192 m and is equal catenary (the shape of, for example, a
to the distance between the branches free-hanging chain attached to the ends).

2. a) Using the information provid-

ed in the Curiosity, find the formula
of parabola that passes through the
points marked on the figure.
b) In the United States, dimensions
are given in feet. The height of
the Gateway Arch and the branch-
es’ span are 630 feet. What formu-
la of a parabola described in item
a) would your American peers re-
ceive?

130 QUADRATIC FUNCTION

3. The path of the shot put by the
competitor during athletics is a part of
parabola. The graph shows the depen-
dence of the height at which the ball is
located on its distance from the putter
(measured horizontally). The vertex of
the parabola is marked with a dot.
a) Find the formula for the function whose graph is shown in the figure.
b) Calculate the altitude of the ball at its highest point.

4. The graph below shows how the altitude changes of the ball from the moment
it was hit by the volleyball player until the moment in which it falls on earth. This
graph is a fragment of a parabola.

a) Find the formula for the function whose graph is shown in the picture.
b) Calculate how long the ball falls on the ground. What is the domain of the
function?
c) Calculate how long the ball rose above the net (the top edge of the net is located
at a height of 2,24 m).

5. At the corner of the house, we want to fence

a vegetable garden with net (see figure). The net
we have is 20 m long. The soil piece is to have
a hexagon shape whose adjacent sides are per-
pendicular. What lengths should the sides have to
make the fenced area as large as possible?

6. Select any point belonging to the function

graph y = −3x + 5 and calculate the distance of
this point from the origin of the coordinate sys-
tem. Find the point that belongs to the graph of
the function y = −3x + 5 and is closest to the
origin of the coordinate system.

APPLICATIONS OF QUADRATIC FUNCTION 131

 EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES
WITH PARAMETER
The figure shows examples of sev-
eral functions of the type:
y = mx2 + mx + 1

Each function was obtained in such

a way that the letter m was re-
placed by a number. In this formula
the letter m plays a different role
than x. The letter x is a variable,
while m is a quantity that we can
treat as a specific number, although
it is not given. We say that m is a
parameter in this formula.

The properties of the function y = mx2 + mx + 1 change depending on the

value of the parameter m. For m = 0, the function graph of this type is
a line, and for m 6= 0 — a parabola. All graphs intersect at points (0, 1)
and (−1, 1). The properties of the function y = mx2 + mx + 1 depending
on the value of parameter m can be examined by solving the appropriate
equations or inequalities.

EXAMPLE 1 Determine all values of parameter m, for which the function

y = mx 2 + mx + 1 has no zero.
This function has no zeros when the
Let’s consider the equation mx 2 + mx + 1 = 0. equation mx 2 + mx + 1 = 0 has no
solutions.
Case I: m 6= 0
The quadratic equation mx 2 + mx + 1 =
∆<0 0 has no solutions when ∆ < 0.

∆ = m2 − 4m In order to determine for which values

of parameter m there is inequality ∆ <
m2 − 4m < 0 0, the quadratic inequality m2 −4m < 0
must be solved.
m(m − 4) = 0
m = 0 or m = 4

 
m ∈ 0; 4

132 QUADRATIC FUNCTION

 Case II: m=0
0 × x2 + 0 × x + 1 = 0 A contradictory equation, so for m = 0 there
are no solutions.
1=0
 
Equation mx 2 + mx + 1 = 0 has no solution if m ∈ 0 ; 4 or m = 0, that is
D 
m ∈ 0;4 .

D 
Ans. Function y = mx 2 + mx + 1 has no zero, when m ∈ 0 ; 4 .

PROBLEM Determine all values of parameter p, for which the function

y = px2 + (p + 1)x − 1 has one zero.

In the above example, we considered an equation with parameter. Also, in

inequalities, some letters may act as parameters. We can then, for example,
examine the number of inequality solutions depending on the parameters’
value.

EXAMPLE 2 Determine all values of parameter k, for which the inequality

2x 2 + kx + 8 ≤ 0 is contradictory.

The equation 2x 2 + kx + 8 = 0 has no Parabola y = 2x 2 + kx + 8 has branches

solutions when ∆ < 0. pointing upwards, thus inequality:
2x 2 + kx + 8 ≤ 0
∆ = k 2 − 4 × 2 × 8 = k 2 − 64 will be contradictory when the equation:
k 2 − 64 < 0 2x 2 + kx + 8 = 0
will not have a solution.
k 2 = 64
k = −8 or k = 8

 
k ∈ −8 ; 8
 
Ans. Inequality 2x 2 + kx + 8 ≤ 0 has no solution for k ∈ −8 ; 8 .

PROBLEM Determine all the values of parameter m, for which a solution of in-
equality −3x2 + mx − 75 ≤ 0 is every real number.

EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES WITH PARAMETER 133

 Sometimes, to find the condition to be met by the parameter, it is worth
using Vieta’s formulas.

EXAMPLE 3 Calculate all values of parameter p for which the function

y = x 2 + px + p + 5 = 0 has two different zeros, being positive numbers.

Condition 1. ∆ > 0 The quadratic function has two different ze-

ros when ∆ > 0.
∆ = p 2 − 4(p + 5) = p 2 − 4p − 20
p 2 − 4p − 20 > 0
p 2 − 4p − 20 = 0
∆1 = 16 − 4 × (−20) = 16 + 80 = 96
p √ √
∆1 = 96 = 4 6
√ √
4−4 6
p1 = = 2−2 6
2√
4+4 6 √
p2 = = 2+2 6
2

 √   √ 
p ∈ −∞ ; 2 − 2 6 ∪ 2 + 2 6 ; +∞

We write the condition that zeros x1 and x2

Condition 2. x1 > 0 and x2 > 0 meet.
x1 × x2 > 0 and x1 + x2 > 0 The product and the sum of two positive
numbers must be positive numbers.
p+5 c
x1 × x2 = 1
=p+5 From the Vieta’s formula: x1 × x2 = a
.

p + 5 > 0, i.e. p > −5

 
p ∈ −5 ; +∞
p b
x1 + x2 = − 1 = −p From the Vieta’s formula: x1 + x2 = − a .

−p > 0, i.e. p < 0

 
p ∈ −∞ ; 0

Both conditions are met when:

h √   √ i h   i  √ 
p ∈ −∞ ; 2 − 2 6 ∪ 2 + 2 6 ; +∞ ∩ −5 ; +∞ ∩ −∞ ; 0 = −5 ; 2 − 2 6

 √ 
Ans. The given function has two positive zeros for p ∈ −5 ; 2 − 2 6 .

PROBLEM Determine all the values of parameter n, for which the equation
2x2 + nx + n − 1 = 0 has two different solutions, being negative numbers.

134 QUADRATIC FUNCTION

 EXAMPLE 4 Determine all the values of parameter m, for which the solutions
of the equation 2x 2 − mx + 2 = 0 are greater than −2.

Condition 1. ∆ ≥ 0
∆ = (−m)2 − 4 × 2 × 2 = m2 − 16
 E D 
m2 ≥ 16, so m ∈ −∞ ; −4 ∪ 4 ; +∞

Condition 2. x1 > −2 and x2 > −2

So, x1 + 2 > 0 and x2 + 2 > 0

These inequalities hold when

x1 + 2 + x2 + 2 > 0 and (x1 + 2)(x2 + 2) > 0

x1 + x2 > −4 x1 x2 + 2x1 + 2x2 + 4 > 0

−(−m) x1 x2 + 2(x1 + x2 ) + 4 > 0
2
> −4
2 −(−m)
m > −8 2
+2× 2 +4>0 We use Vieta’s formulas.
 
m ∈ −8 ; +∞
 
m > −5, so m ∈ −5 ; +∞

Both conditions are met when

 E D       E D 
m ∈ −∞ ; −4 ∪ 4 ; +∞ ∩ −8 ; +∞ ∩ −5 ; +∞ = −5 ; −4 ∪ 4 ; +∞
 E D 
Ans. Equation’s solutions are greater than −2 for m ∈ −5 ; −4 ∪ 4 ; +∞ .

PROBLEM Determine all values of the parameter p for which the solutions of
equation x2 + px + 20 = 0 are less than 3.

PROBLEMS
1. Indicate all the values of p parameter, for which the equation has one solution.
a) x2 + x + p = 0 c) px2 + x + 1 = 0 e) px2 + x + p = 0

b) x2 + px + 1 = 0 d) x2 + (p + 1)x + 1 = 0 f) (1 − p)x2 + x + p = 0

2. Justify that the given sentence is true.

a) For every number m, the equation x2 + 2mx + m2 = 0 has one solution.
b) For each k number, the equation 5x2 + 3kx − 2 = 0 has two different solutions.
c) There is no number s, for which the equation 3s 2 x2 − sx + 5 = 0 has a solution.

EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES WITH PARAMETER 135

3. Show that the given equation has a solution for each value of the parameter m.
Express the solution of the equation as depending on the parameter m.

a) x2 + (m + 1)x + m = 0 b) x2 + (m − 2)x − 2m = 0

4. A family of parabolas is given with the equations y = x2 + nx + 2. Prove that the

vertices of all these parabolas form a parabola. Write down the equation of this
parabola.

5. Calculate values of parameter s, for which the given inequality has no solutions.
a) sx2 + 5 ≤ 0 b) −2x2 + sx − 8 > 0 c) (s − 1)x2 + sx + 2 < 0

6. Calculate all the values of parameter m, for which the equation:

a) 6x2 − x + 6m − 1 = 0 has two solutions with different signs,
b) −x2 + 2mx − m2 + 3 = 0 has two positive solutions,
c) x2 + 3x + 5m + 2 = 0 has two negative solutions.

7. Find the value of:

a) the coefficient m, for which the equation x2 − 200x + m = 0 has two solutions,
such that one is three times bigger than the other,
b) the coefficient p, for which the equation x2 − 160x + p = 0 has two solutions, one
of which is 20 bigger than the other.

Curiosity

Look at the drawing next to it. The

function graph y = mx intersects the
parabola y = x2 + k at two points. The
first coordinates of these points are x1
and x2 . It turns out that regardless of
the value of the k and m parameters,
x1 + x2 = m and x1 x2 = k.

8. Read the curiosity and prove the dependencies described in it between the num-
bers x1 and x2 and the parameters k and m.

9. a) Find all values of parameter p, for which the equation x2 + px + 4 = 0 has two
solutions smaller than 3.
b) Find all values of parameter k, for which both solutions of the equation 2x2 +
kx + k = 0 are greater than 1.

136 QUADRATIC FUNCTION