Data Storage (3.

3)
Data storage refers to the process of saving, organizing, and preserving data in a
medium or location where it can be accessed, managed, and retrieved when needed
Further this can be divided onto two types,

1. Primary Storage
2. Secondary Storage

differences between primary memory and storage devices:

Primary memory
RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary storage used by the CPU to quickly access data
actively being worked on. It is volatile, meaning data is lost when power is turned off yet we can
read and write in RAM. There are two types of RAM of technology
1. Dynamic RAM
2. Static RAM

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Each DRAM chip consists of transistors and capacitors. Each of these parts is tinysince a single
RAM chip will contain millions of transistors and capacitors.
Key Characteristics of DRAM:
1. Volatile: DRAM is volatile memory, meaning it loses all its data when power is turned off.

2. Needs Refreshing: Each memory cell in DRAM consists of a capacitor and a transistor.
The capacitor holds the data, but the charge naturally dissipates over time. As a result,
DRAM requires periodic refreshing (typically every few milliseconds) to retain its data.
This refreshing process takes time and slightly reduces the performance compared to
SRAM.

3. Cost-Effective: DRAM is cheaper than SRAM because it requires fewer transistors per
memory cell, which allows for higher storage capacity at lower cost.

4. Capacity: DRAM typically offers higher capacity than SRAM, making it ideal for
applications like computer main memory, where large amounts of data need to be stored
temporarily.

5. Slower than SRAM: DRAM is slower than SRAM due to the need for refreshing, but its
cost-effectiveness and higher capacity make it a popular choice for general-purpose
memory.

Static RAM (SRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM) is a type of random-access memory that retains data as long as power is
supplied, unlike Dynamic RAM (DRAM), which requires constant refreshing.

Key Characteristics of DRAM

1. No Refresh Required: Unlike DRAM, SRAM does not need to be refreshed periodically
to retain data, making it faster and simpler in terms of operation.

2. Speed: It is faster than DRAM because it doesn’t need to go through a refresh cycle, and
access times are generally much lower

3. Size: SRAM is typically larger and more complex than DRAM, so it has lower memory
density.

4. Power Consumption: While SRAM doesn't require refreshing, it consumes more power
than DRAM because it continuously maintains its data through active transistors
Read-only memory (ROM)
Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory that is primarily used to store
firmware or permanent data that does not need to be altered frequently. As the name suggests,
ROM is generally used to read data rather than write or modify it, although there are variants that
allow for limited writing

Key Characteristics of ROM:

1. Non-Volatility: ROM retains its data even when power is turned off, making it suitable for
storing essential information like system boot instructions and firmware.

2. Permanent Storage: Once data is written to ROM, it is difficult or impossible to change

(depending on the type of ROM). This makes it ideal for storing the operating system or
other software that doesn't require frequent updates.

3. Speed: ROM is typically slower than RAM but faster than storage devices like hard drives
or SSDs in terms of accessing data.

4. Data Integrity: Since the data in ROM is not meant to be changed, it is highly reliable for
storing critical instructions or configuration settings

RAM and ROM features

Secondary and off-line storage

Secondary storage is non-volatile storage used to store data permanently or semi-permanently. It
is slower than primary storage (like RAM) but provides much larger storage capacity at a lower
cost
 1. Magnetic storage

Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a type of data storage device that uses magnetic storage to store and
retrieve digital information. It has been the standard form of storage for computers for decades due
to its relatively low cost, high capacity, and reliability

Solid state drives (SSD)

A Solid-State Drive (SSD) is a type of data storage device that uses flash memory (non-volatile
memory chips) to store data, as opposed to the magnetic storage used by Hard Disk Drives
(HDDs). SSDs have become the go-to storage solution for modern computing, offering faster
performance, lower power consumption, and greater durability compared to traditional HDDs

Memory sticks/flash memories

Memory sticks and flash memories refer to portable storage devices that use flash memory to
store data. Flash memory is a type of non-volatile storage that retains data even when the device
is powered off

Eg: USB Flash Drives

Optical media

1. CD/DVD disks
CDs (Compact Discs) and DVDs (Digital Versatile Discs) are optical storage media used for
storing data, audio, video, and other forms of content.

While both are based on similar technology, DVDs offer more storage capacity and better
performance compared to CDs. These disks are read using a laser beam in optical drives, and both
formats have been widely used for media distribution and storage
 2. Blu-ray discs

Blu-ray Discs (BD) are a high-capacity optical disc format designed for storing large amounts of
data, including high-definition video, audio, and other digital content. Blu-ray is the successor to
DVDs and CDs, offering significantly higher storage capacity and better performance for high-
quality video and audio playback

virtual memory

Virtual memory is a memory management technique used by modern operating systems to extend
the apparent amount of available memory for programs and applications.

It allows the system to run larger programs or multiple programs simultaneously, even when the
physical RAM (Random Access Memory) is insufficient.

Virtual memory uses a combination of the physical RAM and secondary storage (usually a hard
drive or solid-state drive) to create the illusion of a larger, continuous memory space.
Benefits of Virtual Memory

Increased Effective Memory:

Virtual memory allows programs to access more memory than is physically available in the system
by using secondary storage.

Program Isolation:

Virtual memory provides a layer of abstraction between the program’s memory and the physical
hardware, helping to isolate programs from each other.

Simplified Memory Management:

Virtual memory simplifies memory management for the operating system, as it doesn’t have to
keep track of the physical location of data in RAM.

Multi-Tasking Support:

Virtual memory enables multi-tasking by allowing multiple processes to run at the same time,
each with its own address space.

Virtual Memory Example

Suppose you have a computer with 4GB of physical RAM and are running several applications.
One of these applications needs more memory than is physically available. Without virtual
memory, the program would either crash or fail to run. However, with virtual memory, the
operating system uses the hard drive or SSD to store parts of the program’s data that are not
currently being used. The operating system loads only the active portions of the program into
RAM.

For example:

1. Application A requires 6GB of memory, but the computer only has 4GB of physical RAM.

2. The operating system places the active 4GB of data into RAM.

3. The remaining 2GB of data is stored in the page file (on the hard drive or SSD).

4. As the application needs different data, the OS swaps the required data from the hard drive
into RAM, ensuring the program continues to run even though physical memory is limited.
Cloud Storage
Cloud storage is a service that allows users to store data on remote servers that are accessible via
the internet, rather than on local storage devices like hard drives or physical media.

This data can be accessed, managed, and shared from any location, as long as there is internet
connectivity.

There are three common systems:

» Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the customer/client and

cloud storage provider are different companies

» Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a

company firewall; customer/client and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as a single
entity

» Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above environments; some

data resides in the private cloud and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from a
public cloud storage provider.

Advantages of Cloud Storage

Accessibility:

Cloud storage allows data to be accessed from any internet-enabled device, anywhere in the world.
This makes it especially useful for users who need to access their data remotely or across multiple
devices (smartphones, laptops, tablets).

Scalability:

Cloud storage services are typically scalable, meaning that users can increase or decrease their
storage capacity depending on their needs.
Cost-Efficiency:

With cloud storage, users typically only pay for the storage they use, making it more cost-effective
than maintaining local servers or large storage devices.

Automatic Backup and Sync:

Many cloud storage services offer automatic syncing and backup, ensuring that files are
continuously updated across devices and that data is safely backed up without the need for manual
intervention.

Disadvantages of Cloud Storage

Internet Dependency:

Cloud storage relies on a stable and fast internet connection.

Data Privacy and Security Concerns:

While cloud storage providers use encryption and other security measures, some users or
organizations may be concerned about the potential risks of storing sensitive data on remote
servers controlled by third parties.

Subscription Costs:

Although cloud storage offers scalability, large amounts of storage can become expensive over
time,

END