Assignment # 2

Name of Student: Faris Farid

Registration ID: 0000705984
Course Title: General methods of teaching
Course Code: AIOU 8601
Assignment NO: 2
Program: B.Ed. (1.5 years)
Semester: 1st – spring 2024

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Q1. Discuss rationale and different types of questions in classroom
discussion. Evaluate the tips for asking and answering questions
during classroom discussion.

Answer:

Most of the time human beings are in one way or other interacting with each other. They
are discussing on different ideas. Discussion is simply exchange of ideas and opinions.
In classroom settings, teachers use different teaching methodologies. Discussion
method is of great worth. What teachers are doing when they engage in classroom
discussion is quite different from what is typically considered discussion. The modern
theoretical and pedagogical developments in instruction have fostered effective
classroom discussion a crucial teaching skill. The purpose of classroom discussion is to
enable the teacher to pull the content dictated by the curriculum out of the class by
imposing a limited discussion- like format.
The discussion method employs two-way communication and open-dialogue technique
between the teacher and the learner. The method starts with a discussion between
teacher and learner; and among the learners. Verbal and non-verbal feedback from
teacher is the key element in this method, which permits the learner to determine if the
desired learning outcomes have achieved. If not, the learner may be directed to work
more and present the information again, but in a different manner.
Discussion method is vital not only for students as well as teachers. From the learners’
side, it gives them a chance to express their views clearly, to rationalize judgments, and
to endure different visions. It not only allows active engagement of students but also
stimulates thinking about key learning points. It changes and develops learners’
attitudes by providing understanding and insights into new ideas. It also offers students’
an opportunity to request for explanation; to observe their own thoughts; to appraise
ideas; and to create their own perspectives. Many students may be afraid or feel
shyness to discuss in class, but open dialog gives superb learning experience. Students

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 who have different opinion from teacher should move and describe it. To participate in
classroom discussion, students have to follow certain steps.
1. First step is to follow what everyone is saying.
2. Second step is to write down the important points during discussion.
3. Third step requires students to feel free to ask questions, and also make an effort
to give answers of the questions because it enhances learning by giving
clarification of the material.
4. Next step motivates students to make an effort to summarize important points
during discussion. Restating the idea is another strategy to start talking and to
strengthen the statement and to provide clarification of the discussed idea.

Classroom discussions occur on different basis. Perhaps teacher wants to arrange a

discussion to launch a fresh idea or project. May be discussion is needed to critique on
a sample essay etc. Whatever the condition, teacher should take care of his/her role, as
well as the goals of teaching learning process. Taken together, these provide a starting
point to give shape to classroom discussions. Classroom discussion is fruitful if it is
planned well. When preparing a discussion, a teacher has to consider his/her every day
goals and should know the expected outcomes from the students after discussion
Classroom discussions are a powerful tool to enhance student engagement, critical
thinking, and collaboration. Asking and answering questions effectively is central to
facilitating fruitful discussions. This comprehensive guide delves into the rationale
behind classroom discussions, explores various question types, and offers valuable tips
for both asking and answering questions during these interactions.

Rationale for Classroom Discussions

Classroom discussions serve multiple pedagogical purposes, contributing to a richer
and more dynamic learning environment. Some key rationales include:
1. Active Learning: Discussions move students away from passive reception of
information and encourage them to actively participate in the learning process. By

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 expressing their thoughts, opinions, and questions, students become co-creators of
knowledge.
2. Critical Thinking: Discussions challenge students to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize
information. They learn to think critically by considering different perspectives, weighing
evidence, and forming reasoned arguments.
3. Communication Skills: Discussions provide a platform for students to practice and
refine their communication skills. They learn to articulate their ideas clearly, listen
actively to others, and respond respectfully to diverse viewpoints.
4. Collaboration: Discussions foster a sense of community and collaboration within the
classroom. Students learn from each other, build upon each other's ideas, and develop
a deeper understanding of the subject matter through shared inquiry.
5. Engagement and Motivation: Discussions can make learning more engaging and
motivating. When students feel heard and valued, they are more likely to invest in the
learning process and take ownership of their education.
6. Deeper Understanding: Discussions encourage students to delve deeper into the
material beyond surface-level comprehension. By exploring nuances, asking
questions, and debating different interpretations, students develop a more nuanced and
comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.
7. Real-World Application: Discussions can bridge the gap between theoretical
knowledge and real-world application. By applying concepts to real-world
scenarios, students develop a better understanding of how the material is relevant to
their lives and future careers.

Different Types of Questions in Classroom Discussions

To facilitate effective classroom discussions, it's important to utilize a variety of question
types that cater to different cognitive levels and learning styles. Here are some common
types of questions used in classroom discussions:
1. Factual Questions: These questions assess students' understanding of basic
information and recall of key details. They often begin with "who," "what," "when," or
"where." For example, "What are the main causes of World War II?"

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2. Convergent Questions: These questions have a single correct answer and aim to
check students' comprehension of specific concepts. For example, "What is the formula
for calculating the area of a triangle?"
3. Divergent Questions: These open-ended questions have multiple possible answers
and encourage students to think creatively, explore different perspectives, and express
their opinions. For example, "What are some potential solutions to climate change?"
4. Evaluative Questions: These questions require students to make judgments, assess
the value or importance of something, and justify their reasoning. For example, "Which
character in the novel do you find most admirable, and why?"
5. Synthesis Questions: These questions ask students to combine different pieces of
information, draw connections between concepts, and create new ideas or
understandings. For example, "How does the concept of supply and demand relate to
the current economic situation?"
6. Application Questions: These questions ask students to apply their knowledge to real-
world situations or scenarios. For example, "How would you use your understanding of
the scientific method to design an experiment to test the effectiveness of a new drug?"
7. Clarifying Questions: These questions seek to clarify or elaborate on a previous point
or statement. For example, "Could you please explain what you mean by 'sustainable
development'?"
8. Probing Questions: These questions encourage students to delve deeper into a
topic, provide more evidence or detail, and consider alternative viewpoints. For
example, "Can you provide some specific examples to support your argument?"
9. Hypothetical Questions: These questions present hypothetical scenarios or situations
and ask students to consider the possible outcomes or consequences. For
example, "What do you think would happen if the government implemented a universal
basic income?"
10. Reflective Questions: These questions ask students to reflect on their own
learning, thinking processes, and experiences. For example, "What was the most
challenging part of this assignment for you, and how did you overcome it?"

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 Tips for Asking Questions during Classroom Discussions

Effective questioning techniques can significantly enhance the quality and impact of
classroom discussions. Here are some tips for asking questions that promote
meaningful engagement and learning:
1. Plan Your Questions in Advance: Prepare a variety of questions that align with your
learning objectives and address different cognitive levels. This will help you maintain a
smooth flow of discussion and ensure that all students are challenged and engaged.
2. Ask Open-Ended Questions: Open-ended questions that require more than a simple
"yes" or "no" answer encourage students to think critically, express their opinions, and
explore different perspectives.
3. Use Wait Time: After asking a question, allow ample wait time for students to process
the information and formulate a response. This will encourage more thoughtful and well-
developed answers.
4. Ask Follow-Up Questions: Probing and clarifying questions can help students
elaborate on their ideas, provide more evidence or detail, and consider alternative
viewpoints.
5. Encourage Student-to-Student Interaction: Instead of always directing questions to
individual students, encourage them to respond to each other's ideas and engage in
peer-to-peer dialogue.
6. Use Inclusive Language: Avoid gender-specific or culturally biased language when
asking questions. Use inclusive language that makes all students feel seen, heard, and
valued.
7. Vary Your Questioning Techniques: Use a variety of questioning techniques, such as
cold calling, think-pair-share, and small group discussions, to keep students engaged
and cater to different learning styles.
8. Connect Questions to Real-World Examples: Relate questions to real-world
scenarios or examples to make the material more relevant and meaningful to students.
9. Provide Feedback: Offer constructive feedback on students' responses to help them
improve their critical thinking and communication skills.

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10. Be Flexible: Adapt your questioning strategies based on the students' responses and
the flow of the discussion.

Tips for Answering Questions during Classroom Discussions

Answering questions effectively is just as important as asking them. Here are some tips
for providing thoughtful and insightful responses during classroom discussions:
1. Listen Actively: Pay close attention to the question being asked and the context of the
discussion.
2. Think Before You Speak: Take a moment to organize your thoughts and formulate a
clear and concise response.
3. Be Respectful of Others' Opinions: Even if you disagree with someone's
viewpoint, express your disagreement respectfully and avoid personal attacks.
4. Provide Evidence for Your Claims: Support your arguments with evidence from the
text, your own research, or other credible sources.
5. Ask Clarifying Questions: If you're unsure about the question or need more
information, don't hesitate to ask for clarification.
6. Be Concise and to the Point: Avoid rambling or going off on tangents. Stay focused
on the question and provide a direct and relevant response.
7. Use Appropriate Language: Speak clearly and articulately, using appropriate
vocabulary and grammar.
8. Be Confident: Speak with confidence and conviction, even if you're not entirely sure of
your answer.
9. Be Open to Feedback: Welcome constructive criticism and feedback from your
classmates and instructor.
10. Be Willing to Learn: Classroom discussions are a learning experience for everyone
involved. Be open to new ideas and perspectives, and don't be afraid to change your
mind if you're presented with new evidence.

Conclusion:
Classroom discussions, when facilitated effectively, can be a powerful tool for
enhancing student engagement, critical thinking, and collaboration. By understanding
the rationale behind discussions, utilizing a variety of question types, and following tips

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for both asking and answering questions, educators can create a dynamic and enriching
learning environment where students are actively involved in the learning process and
develop the skills necessary for success in the 21st century.

Q2. A Critical Evaluation of Discussion Method Techniques

Highlighted by Green (2000).

Answer:

Introduction

In the realm of educational pedagogy, the discussion method stands as a cornerstone

for fostering active learning, critical thinking, and collaborative engagement. Green
(2000), in their seminal work, provides a comprehensive framework for understanding
and implementing effective discussion techniques in the classroom. This critical
evaluation delves into the key techniques highlighted by Green, analyzing their
strengths, weaknesses, and applicability in diverse educational contexts.

Green's Discussion Method Techniques

Green (2000) outlines a multifaceted approach to discussion facilitation, encompassing

a range of techniques designed to enhance student participation, deepen
understanding, and cultivate a vibrant intellectual environment. These techniques can
be broadly categorized into the following:

1. Structuring the Discussion:

 Establishing Clear Goals and Objectives: Green emphasizes the importance of

setting clear learning objectives for each discussion, ensuring that students
understand the purpose and intended outcomes.
 Selecting Appropriate Topics: The choice of topic plays a crucial role in engaging
students and sparking meaningful conversations. Green suggests selecting
topics that are relevant, controversial, or open to multiple interpretations.
 Providing Background Information: Before diving into a discussion, Green
recommends providing students with sufficient background information to ensure
they have a foundational understanding of the topic.
 Creating a Safe and Inclusive Environment: Green underscores the importance of
fostering a safe and inclusive space where students feel comfortable sharing their
thoughts and opinions without fear of judgment or ridicule.

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 2. Facilitating the Discussion:

 Asking Open-Ended Questions: Green advocates for using open-ended

questions that encourage students to think critically, analyze information, and
express their views.
 Promoting Active Listening: Encouraging students to actively listen to each
other's ideas is essential for building a respectful and collaborative learning
environment.
 Managing Participation: Ensuring equitable participation from all students is a key
challenge for facilitators. Green suggests strategies such as calling on quieter
students, redirecting dominant voices, and encouraging diverse perspectives.
 Summarizing and Synthesizing: At regular intervals, Green recommends
summarizing key points and synthesizing the discussion to help students
consolidate their understanding and identify areas for further exploration.

3. Encouraging Deeper Thinking:

 Challenging Assumptions: Green encourages facilitators to challenge students'

assumptions and preconceived notions, prompting them to re-evaluate their
beliefs and consider alternative viewpoints.
 Promoting Critical Analysis: Asking probing questions that require students to
analyze evidence, evaluate arguments, and draw inferences can deepen their
understanding of complex issues.

 Connecting to Prior Knowledge: Encouraging students to connect new

information to their prior knowledge helps them integrate new concepts into their
existing mental frameworks.
 Fostering Creativity: Green suggests using brainstorming, role-playing, and other
creative activities to stimulate students' imagination and generate novel ideas.

Critical Evaluation

Green's discussion method techniques offer a valuable toolkit for educators seeking to
enhance classroom discourse. The emphasis on clear objectives, open-ended
questions, and active listening provides a solid foundation for fostering meaningful
conversations. However, several critical considerations emerge upon closer
examination:

1. Contextual Applicability:

 Cultural Sensitivity: Green's framework may require adaptation in culturally

diverse classrooms where communication styles and norms may
differ. Facilitators need to be mindful of cultural nuances and tailor their approach
accordingly.
 Developmental Appropriateness: The effectiveness of certain techniques may
vary depending on the developmental stage of the students. Younger learners

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 may require more scaffolding and guidance, while older students may benefit
from more open-ended and challenging discussions.

2. Implementation Challenges:

 Time Constraints: Classroom discussions can be time-consuming, and educators

may face challenges in balancing the depth of discussion with the need to cover
curriculum content.
 Group Dynamics: Managing group dynamics can be complex, especially in large
classes or with students who have diverse personalities and learning
styles. Facilitators need to be skilled in navigating power imbalances, addressing
disruptive behaviors, and ensuring everyone's voice is heard.
 Assessment: Assessing the effectiveness of classroom discussions can be
challenging. Traditional assessment methods may not capture the nuances of
student learning that occur through dialogue and interaction.

3. Potential Drawbacks:

 Dominant Voices: In some discussions, a few dominant voices may monopolize

the conversation, leaving quieter students feeling marginalized. Facilitators need
to actively encourage participation from all students.
 Groupthink: In cohesive groups, there is a risk of groupthink, where individuals
conform to the majority opinion and suppress dissenting viewpoints. Facilitators
need to create a safe space for diverse perspectives and encourage critical
thinking.
 Surface-Level Discussion: If not carefully facilitated, discussions can devolve into
superficial exchanges of opinions without deeper analysis or critical
engagement. Facilitators need to ask probing questions and challenge students
to delve deeper into the topic.

Recommendations for Enhancement

To maximize the effectiveness of Green's discussion method techniques, the following

recommendations are offered:

1. Differentiation:

Tailor discussion techniques to meet the diverse needs of learners. Provide

scaffolding and support for struggling students, while challenging advanced
learners with more complex questions and tasks.

2. Technology Integration:

Incorporate technology tools such as online discussion forums, collaborative

platforms, and multimedia resources to enhance engagement and facilitate
participation from all students.

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 3. Formative Assessment:

Use formative assessment strategies to monitor student understanding and

participation throughout the discussion. This can help facilitators identify areas
where students need additional support and adjust their instruction accordingly.

4. Self-Reflection:

Encourage students to reflect on their participation in discussions and identify

areas for improvement. This can promote metacognitive awareness and enhance
their communication and critical thinking skills.

Conclusion:

Green's (2000) discussion method techniques provide a valuable framework for

fostering meaningful conversations in the classroom. While these techniques offer
numerous benefits, educators need to be mindful of their contextual
applicability, implementation challenges, and potential drawbacks. By adapting and
refining these techniques, educators can create a dynamic learning environment where
students are actively engaged, critically thinking, and collaborating with each other to
construct knowledge.

Q 3.Provide an explanation of what cooperative learning is, what the

benefits of cooperative learning are and why you will be using it.
Enlist some critical thinking objective(s) for the cooperative learning
activity.

Answer:

What is cooperative learning?

Cooperative learning is a strategy used within groups of learners and aims to improve
their learning experience and understanding of a learning subject.

This type of learning strategy uses small group tasks and activities as a learning
experience. Each member is responsible for learning new information and skills, and at
the same time, assisting teammates in learning.

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Types of cooperative learning

Cooperation among coworkers in an organization will rarely occur naturally. It is up to

employers to make an effort by taking steps that bring employees together.

Cooperative learning is divided into three types, with a different implementation of each.

1. Formal cooperative learning

It involves the assignment of tasks and projects to a team by an employer. The team
members have a clear structure of what is to be done and stay together until the project
is complete. It can range from a few hours to several weeks.

2. Informal cooperative learning

This type of learning involves quickly forming teams for short periods to complete a
small task at hand. They require no prior planning and have very little structure. They
can help bring closure to a day’s work or a small project.

3. Group-based learning

It is the most common type of cooperative learning implemented in organizations. It

involves long-term groups that can last up to a year or more with members giving each
other support, encouragement, and assistance.

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Some good examples are the different departments in an organization, each with a
group of people expected to make productive progress. It also works in long-term
organizational projects.

Basic Elements of Cooperative Learning:

Not all groups are cooperative (Johnson & F. Johnson, 2009). Placing people in the
same room, seating them together, telling them they are a group, does not mean they
will cooperate effectively. To be cooperative, to reach the full potential of the group, five
essential elements need to be carefully structured into the situation: positive
interdependence, individual and group accountability, promotive interaction, appropriate
use of social skills, and group processing (Johnson & Johnson, 1989, 2005). Mastering
the basic elements of cooperation allows teachers to:

1. Take existing lessons, curricula, and courses and structure them cooperatively.

2. Tailor cooperative learning lessons to unique instructional needs, circumstances,

curricula, subject areas, and students.

3. Diagnose the problems some students may have in working together and intervene
to increase the effectiveness of the student learning groups.

The first and most important element is positive interdependence. Teachers must give
a clear task and a group goal so students believe they “sink or swim together.” Positive
interdependenceexists when group members perceive that they are linked with each
other in a way that one cannot succeed unless everyone succeeds. If one fails, all fail.
Group members realize, therefore, that each person’s efforts benefit not only him- or
herself, but all other group members as well. Positive interdependence creates a
commitment to other people’s success as well as one’s own and is the heart of
cooperative learning. If there is no positive interdependence, there is no cooperation.

The second essential element of cooperative learning is individual and group

accountability. The group must be accountable for achieving its goals. Each member
must be accountable for contributing his or her share of the work (which ensures that no

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one “hitch-hikes” on the work of others). The group has to be clear about its goals and
be able to measure (a) its progress in achieving them and (b) the individual efforts of
each of its members. Individual accountability exists when the performance of each
individual student is assessed and the results are given back to the group and the
individual in order to ascertain who needs more assistance, support, and
encouragement in completing the assignment. The purpose of cooperative learning
groups is to make each member a stronger individual in his or her right. Students learn
together so that they can subsequently perform higher as individuals.

The third essential component of cooperative learning is promotive interaction,

preferably face-to-face. Promotive interactionoccurs when members share resources
and help, support, encourage, and praise each other’s efforts to learn. Cooperative
learning groups are both an academic support system (every student has someone who
is committed to helping him or her learn) and a personal support system (every student
has someone who is committed to him or her as a person). There are important
cognitive activities and interpersonal dynamics that can only occur when students
promote each other’s learning. This includes orally explaining how to solve problems,
discussing the nature of the concepts being learned, teaching one’s knowledge to
classmates, and connecting present with past learning. It is through promoting each
other’s learning face-to-face that members become personally committed to each other
as well as to their mutual goals.

The fourth essential element of cooperative learning is teaching students the required
interpersonal and small group skills. In cooperative learning groups students are
required to learn academic subject matter (taskwork) and also to learn the interpersonal
and small group skills required to function as part of a group (teamwork). Cooperative
learning is inherently more complex than competitive or individualistic learning because
students have to engage simultaneously in taskwork and teamwork. Group members
must know how to provide effective leadership, decision-making, trust-building,
communication, and conflict-management, and be motivated to use the prerequisite
skills. Teachers have to teach teamwork skills just as purposefully and precisely as
teachers do academic skills. Since cooperation and conflict are inherently related, the
procedures and skills for managing conflicts constructively are especially important for

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the long-term success of learning groups. Procedures and strategies for teaching
students social skills may be found in Johnson (2009) and Johnson and F. Johnson
(2009).

The fifth essential component of cooperative learning is group processing. Group

processing exists when group members discuss how well they are achieving their goals
and maintaining effective working relationships. Groups need to describe what member
actions are helpful and unhelpful and make decisions about what behaviors to continue
or change. Continuous improvement of the process of learning results from the careful
analysis of how members are working together.

These five elements are essential to all cooperative systems, no matter what their size.
When international agreements are made and when international efforts to achieve
mutual goals (such as environmental protection) occur, these five elements must be
carefully implemented and maintained.

Benefits of cooperative learning

Cooperative learning has a massive positive impact on employees and their working
environment. It enhances productivity and improves employee knowledge.

Below are the benefits of cooperative learning:

1. Gaining leadership and decision-making skills

For a team to succeed, the individuals in that group need to show some leadership
abilities.

In every organization, several tasks need someone to be in charge to run smoothly.

Some of them are:

 Delegating and organizing work

 Ensuring the company’s set targets are met
 Supporting team members

Some people may turn out to be natural leaders but are not inclined to lead. The
employer can assign leadership roles to different members of the group.

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In a corporate setting, there are many decisions to be made among team members. A
decision-making process should involve every member airing out their opinion on the
matter, but the final say lies with the leader.

2. Acquiring conflict management skills

Conflict management focuses on positive results while minimizing negative ones. This
process, by which disputes are solved, can impact an organization positively when done
correctly.

There are five conflict management styles that can be applied in every specific situation.

How members of a team handle conflicts remain embedded in their minds. They can
implement any of the above styles in another similar situation in the future.

3. Increases employee work engagement

Employees become more satisfied as they continue to get the opportunity to learn new
skills. They will become eager to continue learning and growing.

A growth in productive engagement is evident in work hence an increase in efficiency

and output.

4. Enhancing communication skills

Members in a cooperative learning group need to learn how to speak productively with
one another. Ethical commitment and communication keep the members on track and
enhances efficient teamwork.

5. Personal responsibility

Cooperative learning increases individual responsibility in employees. They know that

they have a specific task they should perform for the entire team to succeed.

They also gain accountability as they are aware of a backlash from team members if
they fail to play their part.

6. Gaining confidence

Some employees find it more comfortable to speak up in small groups. They can
express their ideas and ask questions, which enables them to gain confidence. This
confidence improves from addressing a few people to a large crowd.

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7. Positive attitude towards colleagues

In every organization, there are those few employees that grow a dislike towards each
other with or without reason. Cooperative learning creates a more positive attitude
towards workmates as they continue working together within a group.

8. Enhancing Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills: One of the key benefits
of cooperative learning in the classroom is enhancing critical thinking and problem-
solving skills. Students are exposed to diverse perspectives and approaches to solving
problems. This environment challenges them to think critically, evaluate ideas, and
develop effective solutions collaboratively.

9. Fostering Teamwork and Communication: Students learn to articulate their

thoughts, listen to others, and build consensus. Working in groups teaches them how to
negotiate, resolve conflicts, and cooperate toward achieving common goals. These
skills are essential for success in both academic and professional settings.

10. Benefits of Diverse Learning Styles and Abilities: In cooperative learning

groups, students can learn from each other in ways that might be more effective than
traditional teaching methods. For example, a student who struggles with textbook
learning might find it easier to understand a concept through a peer’s explanation or
a group activity. This inclusive approach helps ensure that all students have the
opportunity to engage with and understand the material.

11. Long-Term Impacts on Students’ Academic and Personal Development: The

benefits of cooperative learning extend beyond academic success. Students develop a
sense of responsibility, self-esteem, and empathy as they work closely with peers from
different backgrounds and with varying abilities. These experiences contribute to their
overall personal development, preparing them to be more effective and empathetic
individuals.

Here are some critical thinking objectives for a cooperative learning activity:

1. Analytical Thinking: Break down complex information into smaller parts, identify
patterns, and understand relationships between components.

2. Problem-Solving: Collaborate to identify problems, generate solutions, and evaluate

their effectiveness.

3. Communication: Articulate thoughts, ideas, and opinions clearly and respectfully, and
actively listen to others.

4. Creative Thinking: Generate innovative solutions, consider alternative perspectives,

and take calculated risks.

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5. Decision-Making: Weigh evidence, evaluate options, and make informed decisions
collaboratively.

6. Conflict Resolution: Address disagreements, negotiate, and find mutually beneficial

solutions.

7. Empathy and Perspective-Taking: Consider and respect diverse viewpoints, values,

and beliefs.

8. Synthesis: Combine individual knowledge and insights to create new understanding

and meaning.

9. Evaluation: Assess information, arguments, and solutions critically and constructively.

10. Reflection: Critically examine own thinking, learning, and collaboration processes.

By incorporating these critical thinking objectives into cooperative learning activities,

students develop essential skills for success in academics, career, and life.

Q4. What is cooperative learning and what is different strategies use

for it? Describe principles of cooperative learning.

Answer:

Cooperative learning:

Cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work
together to maximize their own and each other’s learning (Johnson and Johnson, 1993,
p. 9). Further these are principles and techniques for helping students work together
more effectively (Jacobs, Power, & Loh, 2002, ). According to UNESCO 2003:
Cooperative learning is the process of getting two or more students to work together to
learn. Students often work in small groups composed of participants with differing
ability levels and using a variety of learning activities to master material initially
developed by an instructor, or construct knowledge on substantive issues. Each
member of the team is responsible for learning what is taught and for helping
teammates

Panitz (1996) differentiates between collaboration and cooperation in the following

words: “Collaboration is a philosophy of interaction and personal lifestyle whereas
cooperation is a structure of interaction designed to facilitate the accomplishment of an
end product or goal.” Gerlach (1994) described the definition of cooperative learning
as “Cooperative learning is based on the idea that learning is a naturally social act in
which the participants talk among themselves. It is through the talk that learning

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occurs.” While Gokhale (1995) defines cooperative learning as “An instruction method
in which students work in groups toward a common academic goal.”

Different authors categorize “community” as “...cultural aggregations, a group of people

who exchange words and ideas” (Rheinhgold, 1994), “alliances of members based on
emotional relationship” (Dyson, 1997), “people who interact socially to satisfy their own
needs” (Preece, 2000), “members with a shared goals, interest need” (Issacs, et al,
2000), “people who create, manage, and participate in a group” (Kom, 2000). Figure
No. 8: Sharing of Ideas in Cooperative Learning

Source: http://edtech.kennesaw.edu/intech/cooperativelearning.htm Speaking in groups

is more natural, because in real life students spend most of their time talking to one
another. If they speak to a large group of people, it is usually a more formal situation
where they have spent time preparing what they are going to say (Qiang, 2007, p100).
Small group work helps students learn to work cooperatively and it helps them develop
interpersonal skills. When students work with other students who are not their friends,
they learn how to work with a wider variety of people and this fosters development of
tolerance, mutual respect and harmony. If students cooperate in harmony and with joy,
anxiety will surely be forgotten.

Cooperative learning creates the special learning environment that is open for any kind
of beneficial information, exchange of ideas, trust building, sharing of ideas, and
ongoing cooperative process. Learners work together, participating in various groups
and teams. That is why the definition “learning community” is so often mixed with such
definitions as “learning teams”, “partnerships”, or “mentorships”.

The main difference of learning communities from other Internet communities

(geographical communities, communities of practitioners, non-profit and non-
governmental communities, etc.) is the specific educational goal that influences both
teachers and learners, identifies their roles in the educational process, and requires the
thoughtful organizational basis of the learning process. A sense of a learning community
can only be created within an online course, or “virtual university”, under the certain
circumstances. The lessons are based on a learner-oriented approach to teaching and
within an overall democratic learning environment; collaboration, cooperative learning
and project-based learning are the leading methods of teaching. A common set of the
tools for communication and knowledge sharing (Internet software and hardware) is
available to all members. The benefits of learning communities, enrichment of ideas,
informal discourse and knowledge swap over that provide deeper understanding of the
learning content; development of communication skills; socializing of the members
within group learning and community activities; improved emotional and learning
support of the learning communities’ members, decreasing drop-outs in distance
learning environment; high motivational level of learning and awareness of individual

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responsibility for the success in learning; development of the group learning
experiences, which are more than the sum of individual experiences because of the
interactive nature of the knowledge construction process; learning through practice,
learning as experience, making meaning in a social context.

The structural approach to cooperative learning is based on the design, analysis and
logical application of structures, or content-free ways of organizing social
communication in the classroom. Structures usually involve a chain of steps with
proscribed behavior at each step. An important cornerstone of the approach is the
distinction between “structures” and “activities”.

To exemplify, teachers can design many excellent supportive activities such as making
a team mural or a coverlet. Such activities almost always have a specific content-bound
objective and thus cannot be used to deliver a range of academic content. Structures
may be used repeatedly with almost any subject matter, at a wide range of grade levels
and at various points in a lesson plan.

Computer-Supported Cooperative Learning (CSCL) is a relatively new educational

paradigm within cooperative learning which uses technology in a learning environment
to help mediate and support group interactions in a cooperative learning context. CSCL
systems use technology to control and monitor interactions, to regulate tasks, rules, and
roles, and to mediate the acquisition of new knowledge. Most recently, one study
showed that using robots in the classroom to promote cooperative learning led to an
increase in learning effectiveness of the activity and an increase in the student’s
motivation. Researchers and practitioners in several fields, including cognitive sciences,
sociology, computer engineering have begun to investigate CSCL, thus, it constitutes a
new trans-disciplinary field.

The cooperative learning is based on constructivist theory that knowledge is socially

produced by communities of inhabitants, and each person could get this awareness if
he would join these communities. The inhabitants share their ideas, experiences, way of
thinking, information, and within this practice of exchange of ideas, they come to the
consideration of what is important and acceptable for the other members of the group,
and for the group on the whole. The main ability that students get within collaboration is
the skill to listen to other people; to respect their views, understand the substitute points
of view, not rejecting the personality, but at the same time, remaining the associated
member of the community.

STRATEGIES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING

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Cooperative learning strategies could be used in the planning, translating and
reviewing. The teachers should encourage the students to participate in good
discussions. Different cooperative strategies included:

1. Jigsaw: Groups with five students are set up. The faculty member divides an
assignment or topic to the group. Each student is assigned some material to learn and
to teach to his group members. The representative of the students working on the same
topic gets together and discusses the important concepts and the ways to teach it to the
whole class. After the practice in these “expert” groups the original groups get together
and teach each other. Tests and assessments follow.

2. Think-Pair-Share: This is a simple and quick technique; the instructor develops and
poses questions preferable one demanding analysis, gives the students a few minutes
to think about a response, and then asks students to share their ideas with a partner.
This “think-time” can be spent writing, also. Students then turn to a partner and share
their responses. This task gives them opportunity to collect and organize their thoughts.
“Pair” and “share’ components encourage learners to compare and contrast their
understanding with those of another, and to rehearse their response first in a low-risk
situation before going public with the whole class. And then responses can be shared
within a four-person learning team, within a larger group, or with an entire class during a
follow-up discussion. All students have an opportunity to learn by reflection and by
verbalization.

3. Three-Step Interview: Common as an ice-breaker or a team-building exercise, this

structure can also be used also to share information such as hypotheses or reactions to
a film or article. In it each member of a team chooses another member to be a partner.
In the first step students form dyads (pair of individuals); one student interviews the
other. Then Students switch roles. And at the third step the dyad links with a second
dyad. This four-member learning team then discusses the information or insights
gleaned from the initial paired interviews.

4. Numbered Heads Together: Members of learning teams usually composed of four

individuals, count off: 1, 2, 3, or 4, the instructor poses a question, usually factual in
nature, but requiring some higher order thinking skills. Students discuss the question,
making certain that every group member knows the agreed upon answer. The instructor
calls a specific number and the team members originally designated that number during
the count off respond as group spokespersons. Because no one knows which number
the teacher will call, all team members have a vested interest in understanding the
appropriate response. Again, students benefit from the verbalization, and the peer
coaching helps both the high and the low achievers. Class time is usually better spent
because less time is wasted on inappropriate responses and because all students
become actively involved with the material.

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5. Round Robin: It is primarily a brainstorming technique in which students generate
ideas but do not elaborate, explain, evaluate, or question the ideas. Group members
take turns responding to a question with words, phrases, or short answers. The order of
responses is organized by proceeding from one student to another until all students
have had an opportunity to speak. This technique helps generating many ideas because
all students participate, because it discourages comments that interrupt or inhibit the
flow of ideas. The ideas could be used to develop a piece of good paragraph on a given
topic.

6. Three-minute review: Teacher stops any time during a lecture or discussion on the
various formats of letter writing, report writing, etc. and give team members three
minutes to review what has been said, ask clarifying questions or answer questions.

7. Numbered Heads: A team of four is established. Each member is given number 1, 2,

3 and four. Questions are asked of the group. Groups work together to answer the
questions so that all can verbally answer the questions. Teacher calls out a number
(three) and the number three in each group is asked to give the answer. This could be
used for comprehension exercises.

8. Buzz Groups: Buzz groups are teams of four to six students that are formed quickly
and extemporaneously. They discuss on a particular topic or different topics allotted to
them. The discussion is informal and they exchange the ideas. Buzz Groups serve as a
warm-up to whole-class discussion. They are effective for generating information and
ideas in a short period of time. This technique could be used to write essays on current
issues.

9. Talking Chips: In talking chips, students participate in a group discussion,

surrendering a token each time they speak. This technique ensures equitable
participation by regulating how often each group member is allowed to participate. This
technique encourages silent students to participate and solve communication or
process problems, such as dominating or clashing group members.

10. Critical Debate: This activity could be used while drafting argumentative essays. In
this individual students select their side of an issue in contrary to their own views. They
form teams and discuss, present, and argue the issue against the opposing team. It
exposes the class to a focused, in-depth, multiple-perspective analysis of issues. It can
move students beyond simple dualistic thinking, deepen their understanding of an issue,
and help them to recognize the range of perspectives inherent in complex topics. This
technique is suitable for tertiary level students.

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11. Write Around: For creative writing or summarizing, teachers could give a sentence
starter (for e.g. If there were no plants on the earth. A man met an alien on the sea
shore) then all students in each team have to finish the sentence. Then, they pass the
paper to the right, read the one they receive, and add sentence to than one. After a few
round, four summaries or stories emerge. Students should be given time to add a
conclusion and/or edit their favorite one to share with the class.

12. Praise-Question-Polish: In this technique the group members take turns to read
aloud their papers as their other group members follow along with copies. First, the
respondents are asked to react to the piece of writing by asking them to identify what
they liked about the work (Praise), then identify what portion of the writing they did not
understand (Question), finally offering specific suggestions for improvement of the
writing (Polish). The students would be able to improve their own writing by critically
evaluating the writing of their peers.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING PRINCIPLES

Many principles have been proposed for cooperative learning. Below is one list of eight
such principles.

1. Heterogeneous Grouping. This principle means that the groups in which students
do cooperative learning tasks are mixed on one or more of a number of variables
including sex, ethnicity, social class, religion, personality, age, language proficiency,
and diligence.

2. Collaborative Skills. Collaborative skills such as giving reasons are those needed
to work with others. Students may lack these skills, the language involved in using the
skills, or the inclination to apply the skills. Most books and websites on cooperative
learning urge that collaborative skills be explicitly taught one at a time.

3. Group Autonomy. This principle encourages students to look to themselves for

resources rather than relying solely on the teacher. When student groups are having
difficulty, it is very tempting for teachers to intervene either in a particular group or with
the entire class. We may sometimes want to resist this temptation because as Roger
Johnson writes, “Teachers must trust the peer interaction to do many of the things they
have felt responsible for themselves” (http://www.clcrc.com/pages/qanda.html).

4. Simultaneous Interaction (Kagan, 1994). In classrooms in which group activities

are not used, the normal interaction pattern is that of sequential interaction in which one
person at a time – usually the teacher – speaks. In contrast, when group activities are
used, one student per group is speaking. In a class of 40 divided into groups of four, ten

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students are speaking simultaneously, i.e., 40 students divided into 4 students per
group = 10 students (1 per group) speaking at the same time.

5. Equal Participation (Kagan, 1994). A frequent problem in groups is that one or two
group members dominate the group and for whatever reason, impede the participation
of others. Cooperative learning offers many ways of promoting more equal participation
among group members.

6. Individual Accountability. When we try to encourage individual accountability in

groups, we hope that everyone will try to learn and to share their knowledge and ideas
with others.

7. Positive Interdependence. This principle lies at the heart of CL. When positive
interdependence exists among members of a group, they feel that what helps one
member of the group helps the other members and that what hurts one member of the
group hurts the other members. It is this “All for one, one for all” feeling that leads group
members to want to help each other, to see that they share a common goal.

8. Cooperation as a Value. This principle means that rather than cooperation being
only a way to learn, i.e., the how of learning, cooperation also becomes part of the
content to be learned, i.e., the what of learning. This flows naturally from the most
crucial cooperative learning principle, positive interdependence. Cooperation as a value
involves taking the feeling of “All for one, one for all” and expanding it beyond the small
classroom group to encompass the whole class, the whole school, on and on, bringing
in increasingly greater numbers of people and other beings into students’ circle of ones
with whom to cooperate.

Q5. Offer a working definition teaching skills. Elaborate different

types of set induction.

Answer:
1. TEACHING SKILLS

Teaching is an indispensable part of education. Its unique function is to deliver

knowledge, expand understanding and talents. It is generally linked with imparting of 3
R’s (reading, writing, arithmetic). The teacher plays a fundamental role in imparting
knowledge to the learners. Hence, teaching does not primarily mean telling. It is rather
helping students to learn. This means the focus is on the learners instead on teachers.
A teacher needs to get into the shoes of the students to know what they need and
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where they are in understanding a particular subject matter. This demands certain
teaching skills from teacher to have an insight regarding the level of students’
understanding. The teaching skills are defined as a group of teaching operations or
behaviors or acts, which are aimed to assist students’ learning directly or indirectly. To
know how to teach is the great art of teaching (Brookfield, 1995). Here are some
teaching skills which are necessary for effective teaching. These include set induction,
presentation of content in a meaningful way, identification of students’ learning
difficulties, preparation of lessons according to individual needs, and students’
evaluation.

Examples of teaching skills

While there are many teaching skills that can be beneficial in the classroom, here are a
few top skills to have:

1. Communication
Communication is important as a teacher, whether you are transferring information to a
student, or learning how you can better meet the needs of your students. Teachers will
often use both verbal and nonverbal communication skills to understand school policies,
as well as to communicate the progress of students to their parents. Teachers may
need to read body language to understand students who are struggling or when the
classroom does not understand a lesson.

2. Project management
Teachers will often work on multiple projects at one time. This might include creating
lesson plans, working one-on-one with students, or grading assignments. Additionally,
teachers are often required to meet certain goals before the end of the school year.
Teachers will need good project management skills to stay organized and timely and to
meet these year-end goals.

3. Problem-solving
Problem-solving or conflict resolution skills can also be helpful in the educational
environment. Teachers may need to manage conflict between students, other teachers,
or even during parent-teacher meetings. Problem-solving skills allow teachers to come

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up with unique solutions to conflict, identifying ways that meet the needs of everyone
involved.

4. Creativity
Different students learn differently, making creativity an important teaching skill. Some
lessons can also be more difficult to teach and creativity can help students maintain
interest in the lesson. Teachers who are creative tend to hold the interest of their
students longer, allowing them to teach difficult topics and subjects.

5. Leadership
Leadership skills can also be helpful in the classroom. Teachers will need to lead their
classrooms, keeping their students engaged and interested. Leadership skills can help
with managing the classroom and highlighting the importance of upcoming due dates or
project goals.

6. Patience
Patience is crucial when working as a teacher. In addition to being a role model to teach
patience to students, being patient can help teachers meet their students where they’re
at academically. Students will gather information at different paces and being patient
can help create an environment of acceptance while also promoting learning.

7.Technical
In today’s technical times, having some comfort with using computers is important.
Many lessons are taught using computers or videos and having the ability to
troubleshoot and run these programs is useful. Younger students may also need
assistance with running or updating programs and will turn to the teacher for help doing
so. Some teachers may also choose to assign work or tests online.

How to improve teaching skills

Good teachers are continually improving upon their skills. You can improve your
teaching skills with the following steps:

1. First, recognize your strengths: It can be helpful to first know your strengths in
relation to your teaching skills. You may be able to use these strengths to help
with developing areas that you would like to improve.
2. Second, create a list of teacher skills needed you would like to
improve: Now, create a list of skills for teachers that you would like to further

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 develop. These may be skills that you have had less experience with or ones that
you find the most difficult to implement in the classroom.
3. Then, identify specific ways to improve these skills: For each teaching skill
listed, consider specific ways you can improve them. For example, if you want to
be more organized, you might try to improve your organization in other areas of
your life. If you want to be a better leader, then you might volunteer for a
leadership position in an after-school group.
4. Determine how you will measure the development of skills: Good goals are
SMART goals, which are goals that are specific, measurable, actionable,
realistic, and timely. Determine how you will measure the development of each
skill, as well as a timeline of how long you can expect to realistically complete
each one.
Improving skills takes time and practice. That is why it is so important to continue
monitoring your progress toward the development of certain skills.

Teaching skills in the workplace

You can improve your skills in the workplace with the following tips:

 Use SMART goals: Setting goals that are S.M.A.R.T. can help you track
progress toward the development of your skills.
 Continue working on your skills: Teaching skills can be continually improved.
Continue to track your progress toward these goals and find new opportunities to
improve as you meet your goals.
 Practice your teaching skills in your daily life: Certain skills, like organization
and patience, can be harder to develop. But, trying to be more organized in your
home life, or more patient in your personal relationships can help you develop
these skills.
 Get creative: Finding unique ways to develop your classroom skills can also
help with developing your creative skills. For example, you might try mindfulness
to improve patience. You might join an art class to find new ways to express
creativity in the classroom.
 Drop-in on other teachers’ classrooms: Sometimes, it can be helpful to
monitor how other teachers lead their classes. It can also be helpful to accept
and give feedback, allowing you and your coworkers to work in a collaborative
way to improve your skills.
Developing your teaching skills may take some creativity. But, in doing so, you can
develop the skills that will help you in the classroom, while also improving your creativity
skills.

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How to highlight teaching skills

Highlighting your teaching skills is an important part of finding a job as a teacher. You
will need to highlight your skills on your cover letter and resume to get an interview.
Then, you will need to highlight the same skills in your interview to get a teaching job.

Key skills for teachers for resume and cover letter

As you begin your career as a teacher, you will need to highlight your skills on your
resume and cover letter. You might include your teaching skills on your resume in the
following ways:

1. First, make a list of your top skills: Get organized by first making a list of your
top teaching skills. Go through some of the most common skills and consider
which you would consider your top skills.
2. Then, consider which work experiences highlight these skills the most: You
can highlight your top skills by listing your duties in previous positions. For
example, if you worked as a teaching assistant as an intern and you were in
charge of facilitating a new program, you could list this experience. This
demonstrates your skills in leadership and creativity.
3. Next, evaluate the requirements of the position: You can gather a lot of
information from the job description. Most employers will list the skills they are
looking for in a candidate.
4. Finally, review your cover letter and resume: Review your cover letter and
resume before submitting it. It is best to create a new cover letter with each
position and to review your resume.

Teaching skills for the job interview

If you were called for an interview, it is time to practice how you will highlight your top
skills. You can highlight your skills in the interview with the following steps:

 First, review your list of top skills: You will be asked about your teaching skills
in your teacher interview. Go over your list of skills and consider how you can
best demonstrate them.
 Then, think of a few top teaching experiences: Many of the interview
questions asked are likely to be behavioral. These are questions that ask you to

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 describe a situation. Think of a few top teaching situations that highlight your
skills ahead of time to help you prepare for these questions.
 Then, consider what skills you would like to improve: You may also be
asked about your greatest weaknesses as a teacher. It can be helpful to consider
which skills you would like to develop further. In your answer, be sure to include
steps you are taking to improve on them.
 Finally, practice with a friend: You can improve your confidence by practicing
some of the most common teaching interview questions ahead of time. Be sure
to include your top skills in your answers.
By highlighting your teacher skills in your resume and interview, you can demonstrate
why you are a good fit for the position.
Developing certain teaching skills is important as a teacher. By practicing your
interview answers ahead of time and understanding what skills are important as a
teacher, you can excel at your interview and land a job you enjoy.

2. SET INDUCTION
Cheek (2006) says that sometimes students do not understand the lesson and disturb
their classes. The opening of every lesson is imperative because this occasion is the
base for understanding so that the rest of the lesson is established. An effective
proactive teacher obtains the students’ attention before launching the lesson. When all
the students’ attention is collectively obtained, it is called set induction. It is also called
anticipatory set, and sometimes labeled as a "hook" to capture the learner's attention.
Basic purpose of using set induction is to place students into a receptive frame of mind
and to create an organizing framework for the ideas, principles, or information that is to
follow. Teacher can use this skill technically in several ways i.e. teacher can use an
announcement, apply a set of instructions, and ask a provocative question. Teacher can
also launch the lesson by telling exciting stories about the lesson and motivate students
by using examples or analogies to extend the understanding and the application of
abstract ideas.

Set induction is about preparation of lessons. When the students are set, they are ready
to learn. Set induction is thus about getting them ready, inducing them into the right
mind- set. Sets are used before any new activity, from introduction of a new concept to
giving homework. It is important in each set both to create clarity about what is expected
happen (both what you will do and what they should do), and to create motivation for
what to occur, with students being fully engaged in the learning.

Set is a mental state of readiness, in which, induction brings it on. Set Induction gets
learners thinking and ready for the lesson. Anticipatory set is another name used. Set
induction should contain a statement of the learning to provide a reference point

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between what the student knows and the new material, thus creating a link from one
lesson or class to the next. Moreover it must relate the lesson’s objectives; and involve
the learner in the learning. Relating the objective to some experience past, present and
future helps in retention and transfer at a later time. Teacher can use certain techniques
for involvement of the learner in the learning i.e. Covert, Overt, Questions, Activity,
Pictures, Objects, Cartoons, Stories, Anecdotes, Outlines, Transparencies,
Summarizing etc.

Set induction is useful strategy to explain prospective benefits to the learner, providing
obvious instructions and describing what is going to happen.

The STEP acronym may be used to help remember what to do:

• Start: Welcome the students and settle them down and gain attention.

• Transact: Understand their expectations and explain yours.

• Evaluate: Assess the gap between their expectations and current reality. Clarify any
discrepancies for them.

• Progress: Move on to the main body of learning. There are several reasons for
using set induction to induce students to concentrate and learn.

1. To focus attention on what is to be learned.

2. To create a frame of reference before or during a lesson.

3. To give meaning to a new concept or principle.

4. To stimulate student interest and involvement.

The question arises “how” set induction is used. Set induction is used for preliminary
attention gaining and orientation purposes. For preliminary attention gaining purpose,
teacher can give pause/ look at students and wait for their response. For orientation
purpose, teacher can select an event, process, object or device which matches
objectives. The teacher also needs to know “when” to induce a set. Sets are appropriate
for almost any learning activity. For example, a set is appropriate:

• At the start of a unit

• Before a discussion.

• Before a question-and-answer period

. • When assigning homework.

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• Before hearing a panel discussion.

• Before student reports,

• When assigning student reports.

• Before a film or other media event.

• Before a homework assignment based on a discussion that followed a filmstrip.

The most effective sets are those that catch the students' attention and interest them in
the material.

2.1 Types of Set Induction:

Set induction can be used by a teacher by variety of ways. Some of the set induction
types include facilitating sets, motivating sets, and summary.

• Facilitating Sets: Facilitating set is used to summarize information presented in

previous lessons. It is also used to summarize information that will occur. In short,
teacher can use facilitating set to emphasize the cognitive aspects of a new lesson by
reviewing or summarizing.

• Motivating Sets: By using this type of set, teacher can catch the students’ attention
and arouse curiosity. In motivating set, teacher poses interesting questions and uses
dramatic appeal. It also creates a need or interest among students and induces an
affective or emotional response.

• Summary: It is best to provide both motivating and facilitating sets. Teacher can
monitor behavior by involving students in overt behavior. Set Induction Example: Here
is one example of set induction. If a teacher is teaching hypertension topic to 10th grade
biology class, set induction may be used as following: “How many of you have a friend
or a family member that has a heart problem or blood condition? (After posing the
question, teacher waits for the students’ answers and proceeds towards the topic). Well,
today we are going to learn about hypertension and its causes. Making healthy lifestyle
choices and starting those habits now can help you in preventing this disease in your
future”.

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