25.

Engineering Drawing
Artistic Drawing - By hand or free hand or Model drawing
Engineering Drawing- The way of representation of objects or Ideas on a
plane paper with the help of some good instruments by systematic means of line
to represent on object in its proper shape, size and dimension is called
engineering drawing.
Engineering Drawing is the language of engineers.(HPSSSC Draftsman 2018 , APPSC Draftsman 2011)
Types of Engineering Drawing (DFCCIL JE 2021)
• Plain geometrical Drawing. (plane -2D)
Geometrical drawing
• Solid geometrical Drawing. (solid - 3D)

DRAWING INSTRUMENT : -Used to prepare drawing easily and accurately.

1. Drawing Board 7. Scale 13. Compass

2. T-Square 8. Pencil cutter and sand 14. Drawing board

paper pins, Clips or tape
3.Mini-Drafter(MD) 9. French curve 15. Clinograph
4. Protractor 10. Drawing Sheet 16. Fasteners
5. Pencil 11. Eraser (Rubber) 17. Template
6. Set square 12. Divider 18.Stencil
(1) Drawing Board (IS :1444-1989) : -
Rectangular shape & made of well-seasoned
softwood strip about 25 mm thick.
• One of the edges of board is used as working
edge, on which T-square is made to slide.
• I-strip protect drawing board from warping.

Designation of drawing board Size (in mm) : (Length × Width × Thickness)

D0 1500×1000×25
D1 1000×700×25
D2 (Mostly used) 700×500×15
D3 500×350×15 (ISRO Draughtsman 2018)

(2) T-Square : - Made of hard-quality wood

such as teak or mahogany etc.
• Long strip called blade and a short strip called
head or stock
• Working edge is known as ebony edge.

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• It is used horizontal and parallel lines , not used for inclined lines. (BSPHCL JE 2019)
• Vertical and inclined lines are drawn with combination of set squares
• Stock and blade joined together at right angle.
• T-square is named by blade length.

Length of Blade (in

Designation
mm)
T0 1500
1000 ←T-square
𝑇1
(Kerala draftsman 2017)
Drawing
T2 700 board

T3 500
T4 350

(3) Mini-Drafter : - Mini-drafter are used to draw horizontal, vertical and

inclined parallel lines on sheet with saving of time.
All advantages of T-square, set-square, scale and protractor are available in mini-
drafter.
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(4) Protractor : - These are circular semi-circular or flat in shape.

• It is made of wood, transparent celluloid or plastic material.
• Protractor are used to measure angles and to draw angles with L.C. = 1𝑜

Scale of chords used to set or read an angle in the absence of a protractor.

(5) Pencil : - Lead of pencil is made of graphite powder or kaolin or clay.
 Drawing pencils are graded according to increase in relative hardness.
➢ Grade H denotes the degree of hardness.
Engineering Drawing Civil ki Goli
➢ Grade B indicates the degree of softness.
➢ Grade HB denotes medium soft.
Grades of pencil and its use : -
Grade of pencil Uses
Hard grade (9H, 8H, 7H, 6H, 5H, Used to draw light and fine lines
4H)
Medium grade (3H, 2H, H, HB, B) Used for lettering and dimensioning
Soft grade (2B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 7B) Used to draw thick and shiny lines
9H Very hard grade pencil (Clay content↑)
7B Very soft grade pencil (Graphite content↑)
2H Use to draw thin line, outer lines, dimension line, dotted line and
arrow head, drawing construction lines
HB Used to draw thick line, Border lines, For free hand works.
3H or Used to draw to center line and section line, drawing minute
4H details
B For shading
H For outlines, visible edges, dimensioning, lettering , Boundary
lines, In compass

Generally 20 grade of pencils are used : -

B = Black HB = Mid grade H = Hard F = Fine

• Cylindrical shape -Used for sketching and shading

• Conical shape - For lettering
• Wedge (Chisel edge) -For drawing lines
• Bevel edge -Used in compass

(6) Set-Square : - It is used for drawing all straight lines except the horizontal
lines which are usually drawn with the T-square.
• Triangular in shape & are made of
celluloid or plastic materials.
• Vertical lines can be drawn with the
T-square and set-square.

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• The angle which is divisible by 150 are made with the help of set square.
Ex. - 150 300 1050 1200 1650 etc.
They are following two type
(a) 45o - 45o - 90o set square
(b) 30o - 60o - 90o set square

(7) Rule or Scale : - Scales are typically made from materials such as wood, steel,
celluloid, or plastic. They are commonly used for drawing straight lines.
The edges of a scale are marked with centimeter divisions, further subdivided into
millimeters for precise measurements.

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(8) French Curve : - French curves is a flexible curve consists of a lead bar
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inside rubber which bends conveniently

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to draw a smooth curve through any set

of points.
• Used to draw curve which can not be
drawn with compass (for irregular
curve)
(9) Drawing Sheet (IS 10711 : 2001): - Size of drawing sheet is represented
by ratio of length and width of sheet . (RRB JE 2019)

Length of sheet ∶ Width of sheet = 1 ∶ √2

Designation Trimmed size Untrimmed Area,
of Sheet
Sheet Name
(in mm) size m²
A₀ Anti Quarian 841×1189 880 × 1230 1
A₁ Double Elephant 594×841 625 × 880 1/2
A₂ Imperial 420×594 450 × 625 1/4
A₃ Half Imperial 297×420 330 × 450 1/8
A₄ Quarter Imperial 210×297 240 × 330 1/16
A₅ - 148×210 165 × 240 1/32
• A2 size drawing sheet is mostly used by engineering drawing students.
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• The standard line thickness of the border is 0.60 mm
• Top, right and bottom margin should be 10mm
• Left margin should be 20mm.
• Title block placed at right hand bottom of sheet except A4 drawing sheet.
• Title Block size is - 185 mm x 65 mm
• Figure should be drawn in centre of the working space.
• Folding of drawing sheets should be done according to IS: 11664-1986
• Always fold vertically first
• Untrimmed size of drawing sheet is approximately 30 mm greater than trimmed
size. (HPSSSC Draftsman 31.05.2018)

(10) Rubber or Eraser : - It is made of rubber and used to erase extra or wrong
pencil work or lines.

(11) Divider : - Divider is used to divide straight or curved lines into desired
number of equal parts.

(12) Compass : - It is used to draw circles and arcs of circles of required

diameter.

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 (13) Drawing clips or drawing pins : - These are used to fix the drawing sheet
firmly in their position to the drawing board.

(14) Clinograph : - Clinograph is a drawing instrument which works with a

T-square and function like an adjustable set square.
• It is made of wood or plastic
• It is an instrument used to draw inclined parallel lines.
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(15) Fasteners:- Materials used to fix the drawing sheet on the drawing board.
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(16) Template:- Templates are available for drawing circles, arcs, ellipse,
triangles, squares and other polygons.

(17) Stencil:- Stencil is a thin flat piece of celluloid used to write letters and
numerals.

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(18) Flexible curve:- It is made of lead bar enclosed in rubber and can be bent
into any shape to form a curve.

SCALE - The proportion by which we either reduce or increase the actual size
of the object on drawing sheet is called scale. Civil Engineers and Architects
generally use reduced scales. Conventional signs and symbols are in constant use
on small scale drawing like cities, roads and railways. (Kerala draftsman 2014)

Maximum size of scale or largest measurement will be 30×3 cm and smallest

measurement will be 12×2 cm. (HPSSSC Draftsman 2018)

Engineering Scale Graphical scale

 CLASSIFICATION OF SCALE 

(a) According to the size

• Used when the dimensions on the drawing sheets are
smaller than the actual dimension of the object.
Reducing scale
• It is used to represent a big object.
Scale 1 : X (X<1)
Ex.-Buildings, bridges, boilers, ships, aeroplanes etc.
R.F. < 1 (RSMSSB JE 2020)

• Used for drawing that parts which are drawn easily on the
Full scale sheet with their actual size.
Scale 1 : 1 Ex.- Spanner, pen, nut-bolt etc.
• R.F. = 1

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 • Drawing is drawn with the bigger dimensions comparison
Enlarging scale to the actual dimensions of the objects.
Scale, X : 1 (X>1
• Used for small objects that's need to be enlarged.
)
• R.F. > 1 (ISRO Draughtsman 2019)

Graphical scale - Scale is drawn an the drawing itself. It takes care the shrinkage
of the engineers scale when the drawing becomes old.
Representative Fraction (R.F.) - It is the ratio of the size of object on the
drawing sheet and actual size of the same object.
Length of object on the drawing Map distance
R. F. = or (In terms of length)
Actual length of object Ground distance

2 Area of object on the drawing

=√ (In terms of area)
Actual area of object

3 Volume of object on the drawing

=√ (In terms of volume)
Actual volume of object

Length of scale = R. F.× Max. length to be measured

R.F. is unitless.
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(a) According to the Type

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• It measure two consecutive division or unit.

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• The smallest measurement that can be taken using a plain scale of RF 1:1
1. Plain scale

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is 0.5mm
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Ex. m - dcm, dcm - cm, yard – feet

• It can measure three consecutive division or units. (GSSSB Instructor Civil 2019)
2. Diagonal scale

Ex. m - dcm - cm, yard - feet - inch.

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 • These scales, like diagonal scale, are used to read a very small unit with
great accuracy.
• Fractional parts of the smallest division of the main scale can be measured.
• It consists of two parts – Primary scale Vernier scale
• In Direct or forward vernier scale, n divisions on vernier scale is equal to
3. Vernier scale

(n–1) division on main scale.

• In Retrograde or backward vernier scale, n divisions on vernier scale is
equal to (n + 1) division on main scale.
• Extended vernier : N divisions of the extended vernier = (2n - 1) division
of the main scale

• It is a plain scale having same R.F. but calibrated to read different units.
4.Comparative scale

Ex. km – mile, km – minute etc.

• It is used to measure or draw angles in absence of protractor.

5. Scale of chords

Layout of drawing sheets UPPCL JE 2019, ISRO Draughtsman

2016

Left side - 20 mm, Other three side - 5 mm

(a) Margins or border

lines-

Right side & lower most of drawing sheet.

(b) Title block Location
Size - 185 mm × 65 mm

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 Title block : - ISRO Draughtsman 2016

➢ SYMBOLIC REPRESENTATION - Sign Conventional representation of

materials-

Diagrammatic Representation of various materials.

Materials Conventions Materials Conventions
Asbestos,
Felt, Paper,
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Steel, Cast
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Mica, Cork,
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iron,
Rubber,
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Aluminium
Leather,
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and its
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Wax,
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alloys.
Insulating
Materials

Lead, Zinc,
Wood,
Tin, White
Plywood
Metal, etc.

Brass,
Bronze, Gun Earth
Metal, etc

Glass
(DFCCIL Jr. Concrete
Executive 2021)

Porcelain, Water, Oil,

Stoneware, Petrol,
Marble, Kerosene,
Slate, etc. etc.

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 Object Convention Object Convention
Ceiling fan
Spot weld (Two
blade)

Plug weld Exhaust fan

Seem weld
(Continuous Regulator
welding)
Connecting
wire
Fuse
(straight
wire)
Switch
light bulb
(open)

Switch (off)

Conventional Representation of Breaks

Object Convention

Rectangular section

Round section

Pipe

Tubing

Wood rectangular section

Rolled section

Channel section

Types of Lines, Lettering & Dimensioning : -

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Lines : - As per B.I.S. S.P. :46-2003, various types of lines are demonstrated
below.
Line General Application
A • A1 Visible outlines.
Continuous thick
• A2 Visible edges.

B • B1 Imaginary lines of
intersection.
• B2 Dimension lines.
• B3 Projection lines.
Continuous thin (straight or curved)
• B4 Leader lines.
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• B5 Hatching lines.
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• B6 Outlines of revolved
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sections in place.
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• B7 Short centre lines

C Continuous thin free hand C1 – Limits of partial or

interrupted views and
sections, If the limit is not a
chain thin.
D Continuous thin (straight) with zigzags D1 -Long break line

E Dashed thick • E1 -Hidden outlines.

• E2 – Hidden edges.

F Dashed thin
F1 -Hidden outlines.

F2 -Hidden edges.

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 G Chain thin • G1 -Center lines.
• G2 -Lines of symmetry.
• G3 -Trajectories

H Chain thin, thick at ends and changes

Of direction
H1- Cutting planes.

J Chain thick
J1 – Indication of lines or
surfaces to which a special
requirement applies

K • K1 -Outlines of adjacent
parts.
• K2- Alternative or extreme
Chain thin double dashed position of movable parts.
• K3 -Centroidal lines.
• K4 -Initial outlines prior to
forming
• K5 -Parts situated in front of
the cutting plane

Generally 3 types of line based on thickness in drawing.

(i) Thick line– 1 mm (HPSSSC Draftsman 31.05.2018)
(ii) Medium line– 0.5 mm
(iii) Thin line– 0.3 mm
Minimum thickness of thick line = 0.5 mm
As per IS : 962 - 1989 min. space b/w parallel lines including hatching should
never be less than twice the thickness of the heaviest line and recommended
that should ≮ 0.7 mm.
LETTERING [ IS 9609 (PART I: 2006)]: -
(IS: 962-1989 - Lettering for technical drawings)
• Lettering should be done only horizontally
• The standard height for most lettering is 3 mm
Mainly two types of lettering is used in Engineering drawing-
1. Gothic lettering - Lettering having all alphabets or numerals of uniform
thickness called gothic lettering. Gothic letters are mainly used for main titles of
ink – drawing.

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 This lettering is most common style used in working drawing and most
appropriate because of it is easy to read & write consist of uppercase letter,
lowercase letter and numerals.
Gothic lettering is also classified into two types.
Italic or inclined Gothic lettering
Vertical Gothic lettering (Letters inclined at 75o to the
horizontal)
Single stroke vertical Gothic lettering Single stroke Italic Gothic lettering

Double stroke vertical Gothic Double stroke Italic Gothic lettering

lettering

2. Roman lettering : - The lettering in which all the letters are formed by thick
and thin elements is called Roman lettering.
• It may be vertical or inclined.
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 Single stroke letters are two types : – (i) Vertical

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(ii) Inclined
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The size of letters are described by its height. They are classified by-
ℎ ℎ
(i) Lettering 'A' ⇒ (𝑑 = ) (ii) Lettering 'B' ⇒ (𝑑 = )
14 10

Where,
d = thickness of letters,
h = height of letters) Recommended size (height, h) of letters/numbers-
Main Title - 5 mm, 7 mm, 10 mm
Sub- Title - 3.5 mm, 5 mm
Dimensions, notes etc. - 2.5 mm, 3.5 mm, 5 mm
Symbols used in Engineering Drawing
ϕ - Diameter of circle SR - Radius of sphere
6ϕ8- 6 holes, 8 mm diameter 𝑆ϕ - Spheriodal diameter
• R 40 - Method of writing radius dimension.
DIMENSIONING – IS 11669:1986 General Principles of Dimensioning on
Technical Drawings

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The process of indicating the sizes of the featuring of the objects and other details
for its construction and function om a drawing by the use of lines, symbols, notes,
etc are called Dimensioning.
• Where space is insufficient for arrowheads, oblique stroke or dot may be used.
• Oblique stroke is drawn as a short line inclined at 45 Degree.
• The origin indication is drawn as a small open circle of about 3mm Diameter.
• Leader line is a line referring to a feature like dimension of object and outline. It
is a continuous thin line.
• The recommended unit of dimensioning is millimetres.
• Draw dimensions line parallel to the object line to be dimensioned at about 8 to
10mm from it.
• First dimension line from object: 12mm
Types of dimensions : –
1. Size dimension (Denoted by 'S')
2. Location dimension (Denoted by
'L')
SYSTEM OF DIMENSIONING
1. Aligned system 2. Uni-direction system
• They are read • Dimensions are
from the placed in such a
bottom edge or way that they can
right hand side be read from the
of the drawing bottom edge of the
sheet. drawing sheet.
• Dimensions • Dimensions are
are placed at the middle and above inserted by breaking the dimension
top of the dimension lines. lines at the middle.

Types of Dimensioning
• A series of adjacent dimensions
are arranged in one horizontal
Chain/ row.
Continuous • Used when tolerance accumulated
dimensioning on each of the chain dimensions
does not affect the functional
requirement of the part.

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 • Dimensions are measured in the
same direction from a common
Parallel / surface or line.
Progressive
dimensioning • All the dimensions from the same
feature is called parallel
dimensioning.

• Both the chain and parallel

Combined
dimensions are used in the same
dimensioning
drawing.

• Adopted when dimension has to

Progressive
be established from a particular
dimensioning
datum.

Dimensioning • This method is done when a

by number of holes of different sizes
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coordinates have to be dimensioned.

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Superimposed • It is used where the space is limited

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running • One end of the dimension line should be terminated at the

dimensioning origin while other end should have an arrow head

Repeated dimensions : - When certain features or elements of the same size are
repeated a number of times on drawing, to avoid repetition of the same
dimension everywhere, the product of a number of repeated feature and the
dimensions value may be indicated only at one such feature.
Equidistant Dimensioning : - Dimension is calculated by the product of the
number of spacing and dimension value. A point is set to be equidistant for a set
of objects if the.

Elements of Dimensioning: (DFCCIL Jr. Executive 2021)

1. Dimension line -b

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 2. Extension line and projection line -a
3. Leader line- c
4. Dimension line terminations - d
5. Arrowheads
6. Oblique stroke
7. The original (starting point) indication and the dimension - e

Dimension lines: It should show distinct termination, in the form of arrowheads

or oblique strokes or where applicable, an origin indication.
The size of the termination should be proportionate to the size of the drawing
on which it is used. One style of termination only should be used on a single
drawing.
• These are thin continuous lines, terminated at ends by arrowheads, dots, or
oblique lines touching the extension line.
• Dimension line may cut or cross another dimension line where there is no
other way.
• Dimension to the hidden lines is avoided.
• Arrowheads may be placed outside where space is insufficient.

Arrowhead: An arrowhead is placed at each end of a dimension line. Ratio of

length and thickness of arrow head = 3 : 1
• Its pointed end touches an outline or extension line.
• The size of an arrowhead should be proportional to
the thickness of the outline.
Extension line or projection line: It is a continuously narrow like drawn
perpendicular to the outline to be dimensioned and without leaving a gap from
the outline. It is drawn extending slightly beyond dimension line by about 2 mm.
A line used to mark the end of a dimension line is called on extension line.
Leader line: It is a continuous narrow line, connecting a dimensional value or a
note with the corresponding features on the drawing.

Engineering Drawing Civil ki Goli

 Conic sections : -Conic section is a section of a right
circular cone. Curves, which are obtained when a double
cone is intersected by a plane at different angles relative to
the axis of the double cone. Straight line which is
generating the surface of cone is called Generator. The line
joining centre of circle to the vertex of the cone is called
axis.
• Circle, rectangular parabola etc. are special case of conic
section.
➢ Mainly there are three types of conic sections –
1. Ellipse 2. Parabola 3. Hyperbola

• Obtained by the intersection of a cutting plane, inclined to the axis of

the cone and cutting all the generators.
Ellipse

• Angle of inclination of the cutting plane with the axis of the cone > the
angle of generator with the axis
𝑥2 𝑦2
• Eccentricity <1 ,Directrix & Focus = 2,equation → + =1
𝑎2 𝑏2

• Obtained by the intersection of a cutting plane, inclined to the axis of

Parabola

the cone and parallel to one of the generators

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• Eccentricity =1, Directrix & Focus = 1, equation → y2 = 4ax

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• Obtained by the intersection of a cutting plane, inclined to the axis of

Hyperbola

the cone at an angle < The inclination angle of the generator with the
axis.
𝑥2 𝑦2
• Eccentricity>1, Directrix & Focus = 2, equation → − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2

• Obtained by the intersection of a cutting plane, parallel to the base of

Circle

the cone.
• Eccentricity = 0 , equation → x2 + y2 = r2

CURVES:-
• A curve generated by a point on the
circumference of a circle and circle
Cycloid rolls along a straight line
• Rolling circle is called generating
circle
• Straight line is called directing line
or base line
➢ Epicycloid : The cycloid is called
epicycloid when the generating

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 circle rolls along another circle
outside it.
➢ Hypocycloid : Hypocycloid is
obtained when the generating circle
rolls along another circle inside it.
Trochoid is a curve generated by a
point outside or inside the circle
rolling along a straight line.
• Superior Trochoid: If the point is
Trochoid outside the circle
• Inferior Trochoid: If the point is
inside the circle
An Involute is a curve traced by the
free end of a thread unwound from a
circle or a polygon in such a way that
the thread is always tight and
tangential to the circle or side of the
polygon.
Involute
A curve generated by the point
moving on the surface of a cylinder
or on a cone in the circumferential
direction at a constant angular
Helix velocity and in the axial direction at
a uniform rate.

PROJECTION AND VIEW : -

Principle of Projection : - If straight lines are drawn from various points on the
contour of an object to meet a plane, the object is said to be projected on that
plane and that plane are called plane of projection.
• The image of object on the plane of projection is called projection of the object.
• Five essential characteristic properties of map projection are subject to
distortion: shape, distance, direction, scale and area. (Ricco Draftsman 11.09.2021)

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Classification of Projection : -

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 (i) Perspective projection : - Perspective projections are pictorial views that
look more like a photograph or rather it is a pictorial view similar to how an
object looks like when it is viewed through human eye. Linear projection where
three dimensional objects are projected on a picture plane is known as
perspective projection.
• In this projection the image of object is greater than the original object. Ex.-
Projector.
• In perspective projection, the distance from the center of projection to the
projected plane is finite and the size of the object varies inversely with distance
which looks more realistic.
• The distance and angles are not preserved and parallel lines do not remain
parallel. Instead, they all converge at a single point called the center of projection
or projection reference point.
Perspective Details
Type
• Also called Parallel perspective.
One point • Contains only one vanishing point.
perspective • Mostly used to draw interior details of
buildings.
• Also called Angular perspective.
• Contains two vanishing points.
Two point • Used to draw long and wide structures.
perspective • In this both horizontal axis are oblique
to the picture plane and the vertical axis
remain parallel with the picture plane.
• Contains three vanishing points.
Three • Object is placed in a similar fashion as
point in axonometric projection.
perspective • Used to draw pictorial view of tall
buildings.

Terms in Perspective Projection:-

Ground plane It is the horizontal plane on which the object is assumed to be at

(GP) rest.
Horizon plane It is an imaginary plane at the level of the eye (i.e. station point).
(HP) It is a horizontal plane.
Auxiliary This plane is placed above the normal HP and the object. The view
ground plane from the top of the object and the perspective elements are
projected on this plane.
Picture plane It is an imaginary vertical plane, resting between the station point
(PP) and the objects being viewed.
This is the plane on which the perspective view is formed.

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 Ground line It is the line of intersection of the picture plane with ground plane.
(GL)
Horizontal It is the line of intersection of picture plane with horizontal plane.
line (HL)
Station point It is the point where the observer’s eye is located while viewing
(SP) the object.
Axis of vision / It is the line drawn through the station point perpendicular to the
Perpendicular picture plane.
axis / Line of
sight (DV)
Centre of It is the point on the picture plane at which the perpendicular axis
vision (CV) passes through the picture plane.
Central plane It is an imaginary vertical plane, which passes through the station
(CP) point and the centre of vision. It is perpendicular to the picture
plane as well as ground plane.

(ii)PARALLEL PROJECTION : In parallel projection, the projection lines are

parallel to each other.

Pictorial Projection : - Pictorial view shows all three dimensions in one view.It
provides a realistic view of a 3D object.
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Types of pictorial projection:-

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(a) Oblique projection - The type of pictorial projection in which one face of
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the object is parallel to the plane of projection and the adjacent face is inclined
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at an angle of 45° to the plane of projection is known as oblique projection.

• In such projection, the projectors are not perpendicular to the plane of projection
rather inclined to the plane of projection at 30˚, 45˚ or 60˚.
• The inclined lines in an oblique projection are called receding lines.
• Here oblique axis is called as receding axis. In oblique projection, projectors
from various points on the object are down parallel to each other and inclined to
the plane of projection. One dimension of object is parallel to H.P. and second is
vertical to the horizontal or parallel to V.P. and the third is at an angle of 30º or
45º to the H.P.
• oblique perspective is used to presented huge an tall building. (Kerala PSC draftsman 2017)

 Types of oblique projection-

• When the receding lines are drawn to full-size scale and the
projection inclined at an angle of 30 o,45o,60o to the plane of
Cavalier
projection. Such oblique projection is known as cavalier
projection projection.
• Oblique drawings drawn to 1:1 are called cavalier projections.

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 • The Cavalier projection makes 45° angle
with the projection plane.

• If the receding lines are drawn to a half-size scale such oblique

projection is known as the cabinet projection.
• The Cabinet projection makes 63.4° angle with the projection
Cabinet plane.
projection • Difference b/w cavalier and cabinet projection
is how the depth of the object.

• In cavalier and cabinet projections, the main face of the object

Cliongraphic is made parallel to the projection plane. In some cases, when
projection the object is rotated at an angle, the plane of projection is
called cliongrahic plane.
(b) Orthographic Projection : - When the projectors are parallel to each other
and perpendicular to the plane, the projection is called orthographic projection.
• In orthographic projection methods, an object is represented by two or three view
on an perpendicular projection planes. (BSPHCL JE 2019)
• Each projection view represents two dimension of an object.
• For the complete description of the three dimensional object in this projection,
at least two or three views are required. (ISRO Draughtsman 2016)

The orthographic projection system is used to represent a 3D object in a 2D

plane. The orthographic projection system utilizes parallel lines, to project 3D
object views onto a 2D plane. According to the rule of orthographic projection.
To draw a projection view of a 3D object on a 2D Plane. The horizontal plane
is rotated in the clockwise direction.
❖ Planes of orthographic projection-
• Two planes employed for purpose of orthographic projection are called
principal planes (i.e. H.P. and V.P.)
• They intersect each other at right angles (90º).

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 ❖ The line at which V.P. and H.P. intersect is called Reference line
(XY). -
• Projection on the V.P. - Front view or elevation
• Projection on the H.P. - Top view or plan
• Projection on the A.V.P. - Side view

Quadrants system of orthographic projection:-

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Quadrant Object position

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First In front of V.P. and above the H.P.

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Second Behind the V.P. and above the H.P.

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Third Behind the V.P. and below the H.P.

Fourth In front of V.P. and below the H.P.
Difference between first angle and third angle projection:-
First angle projection Third angle projection

• Object lies between the observer • Plane of projection lies between

and the plane of projection. observer and object.

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• Plane of projection is assumed to be • Plane of projection is assumed to be
non transparent. transparent
• H.P. and V.P. is located below and • H.P. and V.P. is located respectively
above the reference line (X-Y lines) above and below the reference line.
respectively.
• Projection is drawn apposite to the • Projection is drawn same side to the
viewer side viewer

Front view- Front view-

Above X-Y line Below X-Y line
Top view- Top view-
Below X-Y line Above X-Y line
Right view- Right view-
Above X-Y line parallel to V.P. and Below X-Y line parallel to V.P. and in
in left of elevation. right of elevation.
Left view- Left view-
Above X-Y line parallel to V.P. and Below X-Y line parallel to V.P. and in
in right of elevation. left of elevation.
This method of projection is used in This method of projection is used in
India and Europe. U.S.A.

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Difference between Perspective and Parallel Projection (i.e. Orthographic
Projection)

Orthographic Projection Perspective Projection

Observer is situated at infinite distance Observer is situated at finite distance

from the object. from the object.
Projection rays (or projectors) are Projection rays are intersect at view
parallel. point.
Projection has same size of original Objects appear smaller the farther
object. away they are.
Application : - Architecture, computer Application : - Animation, visual
aided design etc. simulation etc.
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(c) Axonometric projection - WBPSC JE 2016

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All the three faces of cube

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make equal angles with the

plane. (120° to each other).
Isometric Isometric projection, is a
projection type of 2D drawing used to
draw 3D object that is set
out using 30° angles.
(WBPSC JE Civil 2016)

Dimetric Two faces of cube make

projection equal angles with plane.

All three faces of cube

Trimetric
make unequal angles with
projection
plane.

In Isometric view shape conversion

Circle ⇒ Ellipse, Square ⇒ Rhombus, Rectangle ⇒ Parallelogram
• The isometric projection of a sphere is a circle.

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1. Isometric axes: The three lines CB, CD and CG, meeting at point C and
inclined at an angle of 120° with each other, are called isometric axes.
2. Isometric lines: The lines parallel to the isometric axes i.e. inclined at an
angle of 120° with each other, are called isometric lines. Here lines AB, BF,
FG, GH, DH and AD are isometric lines.
3. Non-isometric lines: The lines which are not parallel to isometric axes are
known as non-isometric lines. Here diagonals BD, AC, CF, BG, etc., are non-
isometric lines.
4. Isometric plane: The plane representing any face of the cube as well as
another plane parallel to it is called an isometric plane. Here, ABCD, BCGF,
CGHD, etc., are isometric planes.
5. Non-isometric plane: The plane which is not parallel to isometric planes are
known as non-isometric planes. Here, the plane ABGH, CDEF, AFH, CFH,
etc., are non-isometric planes.
6. Isometric scale: It is the scale which is used to convert the true length into
isometric length. Mathematically, Isometric length = 0.816 × True length
 Methods of projection used in Engineering Drawing : –
1. Orthographic projection
2. Isometric projection
3. Oblique projection
4. Perspective projection

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ISOMETRIC VIEW AND PROJECTION:-

ISOMETRIC VIEW / ISOMETRIC PROJECTION

DRAWING
Drawn to actual scale Drawn to isometric scale
When lines are drawn parallel When lines are drawn parallel to isometric axes,
to isometric axes, the true the lengths are foreshortened to 0.816 times
length are laid off. (81.6%) the actual length. (Riico 2021)

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 DJFFERENCE BETWEEN OBLIQUE PROJECTION AND ISOMETRIC
PROJECTION-
OBLIQUE PROJECTION ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
Projectors from an object are Projectors from an object are parallel to each
parallel to each other and inclined other and perpendicular to the plane of
to the plane of projection. projection.
The object is placed in such a way The object stands on one of its corners. The
that one of its prominent faces object is kept in such a way that its three
remains parallel to the plane of mutual perpendicular edges make equal
projection. angles with the plane of the projection.
Object is drawn with the actual The object is drawn with reduced (About
dimensions. 81.6%) dimensions.
Faces of the object which are All the faces of the objects are distorted in
perpendicular to the plane of the shape and size.
projection will be distorted in
shape and size.
The choice of position of the The choice of position of the object is not
object is possible. possible.
Auxiliary plane : - Sometimes two views of object (front view & top view) are
not sufficient to convey all information regarding the object. In this condition
the additional view, called auxiliary view and projected on that plane known as
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auxiliary plane.
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(a) The true length of a line

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(b) The point view of a line

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(c) The edge view of a plane

(d) The true size and form of a plane.
TYPES OF AUXILIARY PLANE –

1.Profile plane - It is vertical to the H.P. and

V.P. both.
2.Auxiliary vertical plane (A.V.P.)
3.Auxiliary inclined plane (A.I.P)

A.V.P. is perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined to the V.P. .

A.I.P. is perpendicular to the V.P. and inclined to the H.P.

Miter line : - Miter line is used to construct side view. this line is drawn at 45o
to the horizontal.

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 Transferring a depth : miter line

 PROJECTION OF LINE
1. When line parallel to one or both the planes –
(i).When a line parallel to both Top view - A line of true length and
planes(H.P. and V.P.) parallel to XY line.
Front view - A line of true length
and parallel to XY-line.
Side view- Point

(ii). When a line is parallel to H.P. and Top view - A line of true length and
inclined to V.P.- inclined to XY line (ab = AB)
Front view - A line smaller than
true length and parallel to XY-line
(a'b' < AB)

(iii).When a line parallel to V.P. and Top view - A line smaller than true
inclined to H.P. length and parallel to XY-line (ab <
AB)
Front view - A line of true length
and inclined to XY line. (a'b' = AB)

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2. Line contained by one or both the planes
(i). Line contained by horizontal Top view - A line of true length (ab = AB)
plane (H.P.) Front view - A line smaller than true
length in XY-line (a'b' < AB).
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(ii). Line contained by vertical Top view - A line smaller than true length
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plane (V.P.) in XY line.

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Front view - A line of true\ length.

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(iii). Line contained by both plane Its front view and top view coincide with
(H.P. and V.P.) each other in XY line.

3. Line perpendicular to one of the plane

(i). Line perpendicular to horizontal Top view - A point
plane (H.P.) Front view - A line of true length
perpendicular to XY line .

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 ii. Line perpendicular to vertical Top view - A line of true length
plane (V.P.) perpendicular to XY line
Front view - A point

4. Line inclined to both planes (H.P. and V.P.)–

Top view - A line smaller than true
length inclined to XY-line
Front view - A line smaller than true
length inclined to XY-line.

When a line is parallel to a plane , its projection on that plane will show its true
length and true inclination with the other plane.
Trace of a line : - These are the points of intersection of line (or its extension)
with respective reference planes.
• A line itself or its extension, where ever touches HP, that point is called Trace of
the line on HP (Horizontal Trace)
• A line itself or its extension, where ever touches VP, that point is called Trace of
the line on VP (Vertical Trace)
• When a line is inclined to a plane, it will meet that plane, produced if necessary.
• The point in which the line or produced line meets the plane is called its trace.
• The point of intersection of the line with H.P. is called horizontal trace (H.T.).

Engineering Drawing Civil ki Goli

• The point of intersection of the line with V.P. is called vertical trace (V.T.)
• When a line is parallel to a plane it has no trace upon that plane.
• Trace of a line is always a Point
• Line Parallel to HP has no Horizontal Trace (HT)
• Line Parallel to VP has no Vertical Trace (VT)
• Line Perpendicular or Inlined to HP has Horizontal Trace
(HT)
• Line Perpendicular or Inclined to VP has Vertical Trace
(VT)

Projection of a plane : -
Plane - Plane have only two dimensions (i.e. length and breath). They do not
have thickness.
1.Projection of plane, perpendicular In this case, H.T. and V.T. are in a
to both the H.P. and V.P. straight line, perpendicular to XY-line.
Top view and front view
A line perpendicular to XY-line.
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2. Projection of a plane Its H.T. is parallel to XY-line.It has no

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perpendicular to one plane and V.T.

parallel to the other plane Top view- A line parallel to XY-line
(i). Plane, perpendicular to the H.P.
Front view - A plane of true shape and
and parallel to the V.P.
size

(ii). Plane perpendicular to the V.P. Its V.T. is parallel to XY-line. It has no
and parallel to the H.P. H.T.
Top view - A plane of true shape and
size Front view - A line parallel to XY-
line

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 3. Projection of a plane Its V.T. is perpendicular to XY-line and
perpendicular to one plane and H.T, is inclined to XY-line.
inclined to the other plane– Top view- A line inclined to XY-line
(i) Plane perpendicular to H.P. and
Front view- A plane smaller than true
inclined to V.P.
size of plane.

(ii). Plane perpendicular to V.P. and Its V.T. is inclined to XY-line and H.T.
inclined to H.P. perpendicular to XY-line.
Top view - A plane smaller than true
size of plane
Front view - A line inclined to XY-line

PROJECTION OF SOLID:-
• A solid has three dimension (i.e.-length breadth and thickness)
TYPES OF SOLID
(1) Polyhedral (2) Solids of revolution
A polyhedron is defined as a solid Ex.- Cylinder , Cone , Sphere
bonded by planes called faces.
Ex - Tetrahedron, Cube, Prism,
Pyramid, Octahedron, Dodecahedron
Icosahedraon etc.

(UPSSSC Mandi Parishad Draftsman 2022)

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Tetrahedron :-A Solid having four equal equilateral triangular face is called a
tetrahedron. (Punjab Jr-Draftsman 2017)

Prism :- Prism is a 'Polyhedron' having two identical end faces

• The top and bottom base surfaces are joined by parallelograms or rectangular
faces
• Prisms are generally designated according to the shape of face
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Pyramids :-Pyramids are polyhedra solids, having a base surface whose shape
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may be triangular, square or polygon.

• All the slant triangular faces join at a common point called APEX
• Imaginary line joining the centre of base to apex is called AXIS.
• In a pyramid, there is a polygonal face for the base which is connected at the
edges to a number of triangular faces equal to the number of sides of the base.
• All the adjacent triangular faces are of isosceles triangular in shape and joined
to teach others at the common edge and all the triangular faces meet at a point.
The point is called the apex of the pyramid.
• The triangular faces are called as slant faces or lateral faces. The edges of the
slant face meeting at the apex are called a slant edge.

frustum :-When a pyramid or cone is cut parallel to its base, the remaining
portion is called a frustum. (UPSSSC Mandi Parishad Draftsman 2022)

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 truncated cone :-When a cone is cut inclined to the axis or base, it is called
truncated cone.

Polygon:-Polygon is a plane figure bounded by many (usually five or more)

straight lines.When all the sides and included angles are equal, it is called as a
regular polygon.
Properties of polygon:
• All corners of a regular polygon lie on the circle.
• The sides of a regular polygon will be tangential to the circle drawn in side.
• The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is equal to (2n - 2) x rt angle,
where n is the number of sides.
• The sum of exterior angles of a polygon is equal to 360°.
• The sum of the interior angle and the corresponding external angle is 180°.

Name No. of Sides

Pentagon Five sides
Hexagon Six sides
Heptagon Seven sides
Octagon Eight sides
Nonagon Nine sides
Decagon Ten sides
Undecagon Eleven sides
Duodecagon Twelve sides

Rhombus–Its four sides are equal and the angle is not a right angle (90°).

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Parallelogram– Each angle is not a right angle but the opposite side are parallel
and equal.

PROJECTION OF SOLIDS –
When the axis of solid perpendicular to one plane, it is
parallel to the other:-
Projection of a solid on the plane to which its axis is
perpendicular , will show the true shape and size of its
base.

(i) When the axis of solid is perpendicular to the

H.P. the top view should be drawn first and front
view projected from it.
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(ii).When the axis of solid is perpendicular to

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V.P. beginning should be made with front view,

top view should be projected from it.

(iii). When the axis is parallel to both the H.P

and the V.P., neither the top view nor the front
view, will show the actual shape of the base.

When the axis is parallel to both the H.P. and V.P., an auxiliary plane (side view)
will show the actual shape of the base.

Note : -

1. The part of the object between the cutting plane and the observer is assumed
to be removed and the view is then shown in section.
2. The surface produced by cutting the object by the section plane is called the
section.
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3. It is indicated by thin section lines uniformly spaced and inclined at 45 o.
4. The projection of the section along with the remaining portion of the object is
called a sectional view.
5. Point tell exact position of any object there is no length , width, thickness and
diameter, it does not have any dimension.
6. A half section has the advantage of showing both inside and outside
configurations. It is frequently used for symmetrical objects.

Guidelines :-The line which are used to regulate the height and inclination to the
letters are known as guidelines. Guidelines are draw to maintain the height of
letter, spacing, and uniformity. (RIICO 2021)

Engineering Drawing Civil ki Goli