Operating system

What is an Operating System?

A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer
hardware.
An operating System is a collection of system programs that together control the operations of
a computer system. Some examples of operating systems are UNIX, Mach, MS-DOS, MS-
Windows, Windows/NT, Chicago, OS/2, MacOS, VMS, MVS, and VM.
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier.
Make the computer system convenient to use.
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.

Operating System Definitions

Resource allocator – manages and allocates resources.
Control program – controls the execution of user programs and operations of I/O devices .
Kernel – The one program running at all times (all else being application programs).
Components of OS:
OS has two parts. (1)Kernel.(2)Shell.
(1) Kernel is an active part of an OS i.e., it is the part of OS running at all times. It is a programs
which can interact with the hardware. Ex: Device driver, dll files, system files etc.
(2) Shell is called as the command interpreter. It is a set of programs used to interact with the
application programs. It is responsible for execution of instructions given to OS (called
commands).
Operating systems can be explored from two viewpoints:
the user and the system.
User View: From the user’s point view, the OS is designed for one user to monopolize its
resources, to maximize the work that the user is performing and for ease of use.
System View: From the computer's point of view, an operating system is a control program that
manages the execution of user programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer. It
is concerned with the operation and control of I/O devices.

Functions of Operating System:

Process Management A process is a program in execution. A process needs certain resources,
including CPU time, memory, files, and I/O devices, to accomplish its task. The operating
system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process management.
✦ Process creation and deletion.
✦ process suspension and resumption.
✦ Provision of mechanisms for: process synchronization process communication

1.Main-Memory Management
Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each with its own address. It is a repository of quickly
accessible data shared by the CPU and I/O devices. Main memory is a volatile storage device.
It loses its contents in the case of system failure. The operating system is responsible for the
following activities in connections with memory management:
Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom.
Decide which processes to load when memory space becomes available.
Allocate and de-allocate memory space as needed.
2 File Management
A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator. Commonly, files represent
programs (both source and object forms) and data. The operating system is responsible for the
following activities in connections with file management:
✦ File creation and deletion.
✦ Directory creation and deletion.
✦ Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories.
✦ Mapping files onto secondary storage.
✦ File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media.

3 I/O System Management

The I/O system consists of:
✦ A buffer-caching system
✦ A general device-driver interface
✦ Drivers for specific hardware devices

4 Secondary-Storage Management
Since main memory (primary storage) is volatile and too small to accommodate all data and
programs permanently, the computer system must provide secondary storage to back up main
memory. Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-line storage medium, for
both programs and data. The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with disk management:
✦ Free space management
✦ Storage allocation
✦ Disk scheduling

5 Networking (Distributed Systems)

A distributed system is a collection processors that do not share memory or a clock. Each
processor has its own local memory. The processors in the system are connected through a
communication network. Communication takes place using a protocol. A distributed system
provides user access to various system resources. Access to a shared resource allows:
✦ Computation speed-up

6 Protection System
Protection refers to a mechanism for controlling access by programs, processes, or users to
both system and user resources. The protection mechanism must:
✦ distinguish between authorized and unauthorized usage.
✦ specify the controls to be imposed.
✦ provide a means of enforcement.

7 Command-Interpreter System
Many commands are given to the operating system by control statements which deal with:
✦ process creation and management
✦ I/O handling
✦ secondary-storage management
✦ main-memory management
 ✦ file-system access
✦ protection
✦ networking
The program that reads and interprets control statements is called variously:
✦ command-line interpreter
✦ shell (in UNIX) Its function is to get and execute the next command statement

Operating System Services

Following are the five services provided by operating systems to the convenience of the users.
1. Program Execution The purpose of computer systems is to allow the user to execute
programs. So the operating system provides an environment where the user can conveniently
run programs. Running a program involves the allocating and deallocating memory, CPU
scheduling in case of multiprocessing.
2. I/O Operations Each program requires an input and produces output. This involves the use of
I/O. So the operating systems are providing I/O makes it convenient for the users to run
programs.
3. File System Manipulation The output of a program may need to be written into new files or
input taken from some files. The operating system provides this service.
4. Communications The processes need to communicate with each other to exchange
information during execution. It may be between processes running on the same computer or
running on the different computers. Communications can be occur in two ways:
(i) shared memory or
(ii) message passing
5. Error Detection An error is one part of the system may cause malfunctioning of the complete
system. To avoid such a situation operating system constantly monitors the system for detecting
the errors. This relieves the user of the worry of errors propagating to various part of the system
and causing malfunctioning.
Following are the three services provided by operating systems for ensuring the efficient
operation of the system itself.
1. Resource allocation When multiple users are logged on the system or multiple jobs are
running at the same time, resources must be allocated to each of them. Many different types of
resources are managed by the operating system.
2. Accounting The operating systems keep track of which users use how many and which kinds
of computer resources. This record keeping may be used for accounting (so that users can be
billed) or simply for accumulating usage statistics.
3. Protection When several disjoint Protection involves ensuring that all access to system
resources is controlled. Security of the system from outsiders is also important. Such security
starts with each user having to authenticate him to the system, usually by means of a password,
to be allowed access to the resources.

Types of Operating System

1. Batch Operating System

This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly. There is an operator
which takes similar jobs having the same requirements and groups them into batches. It is the
responsibility of the operator to sort jobs with similar needs. Batch Operating System is
designed to manage and execute a large number of jobs efficiently by processing them in
groups.

Batch Operating System

Advantages of Batch Operating System

● Multiple users can share the batch systems.

● The idle time for the batch system is very less.
● It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems.

Disadvantages of Batch Operating System

● Batch systems are hard to debug.

● It is sometimes costly.
● The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails.
● In batch operating system the processing time for jobs is commonly difficult to
accurately predict while they are in the queue.

Examples of Batch Operating Systems: Payroll Systems, Bank Statements, etc.

2. Multi-Programming Operating System

Multiprogramming Operating Systems can be simply illustrated as more than one program is
present in the main memory and any one of them can be kept in execution. This is basically
used for better utilization of resources.
Advantages of Multi-Programming Operating System

● Multi Programming increases the Throughput of the System.

● It helps in reducing the response time.

Disadvantages of Multi-Programming Operating System

● There is not any facility for user interaction of system resources with the system.

3. Multi-Processing Operating System

Multi-Processing Operating System is a type of Operating System in which more than one CPU
is used for the execution of resources. It betters the throughput of the System.

Multiprocessing Ope rating System

Advantages of Multi-Processing Operating System

● It increases the throughput of the system.

● As it has several processors, so, if one processor fails, we can proceed with another
processor.

Disadvantages of Multi-Processing Operating System

● Due to the multiple CPU, it can be more complex and somehow difficult to
understand.

4. Multi-Tasking Operating System

Multitasking Operating System is simply a multiprogramming

Operating System with having facility of a Round-Robin
Scheduling Algorithm. It can run multiple programs

simultaneously.
Multitasking Operating System

Advantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System

● Multiple Programs can be executed simultaneously in Multi-Tasking Operating

System.
● It comes with proper memory management.

Disadvantages of Multi-Tasking Operating System

● The system gets heated in case of heavy programs multiple times.

5. Time-Sharing Operating Systems

Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each user gets the
time of the CPU as they use a single system. These systems are also known as Multitasking
Systems. The task can be from single user or different users also.

Time-Sharing OS

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS

● Each task gets an equal opportunity.

● Fewer chances of duplication of software.
● CPU idle time can be reduced.
● Resource Sharing: Time-sharing systems allow multiple users to share hardware
resources such as the CPU, memory, and peripherals, reducing the cost of hardware
and increasing efficiency.
● Improved Productivity: Time-sharing allows users to work concurrently, thereby
reducing the waiting time for their turn to use the computer. This increased
productivity translates to more work getting done in less time.
● Improved User Experience: Time-sharing provides an interactive environment that
allows users to communicate with the computer in real time, providing a better user
experience than batch processing.

Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS

● Reliability problem.
● One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user programs and data.
● Security Risks: With multiple users sharing resources, the risk of security breaches
increases. Time-sharing systems require careful management of user access,
authentication, and authorization to ensure the security of data and software
Computer Network

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that share resources and

information. These devices can include computers, servers, printers, and other hardware.
Networks allow for the efficient exchange of data, enabling various applications such as email,
file sharing, and internet browsing.
Basics building blocks of a Computer network are Nodes and Links. A Network Node can be
illustrated as Equipment for Data Communication like a Modem, Router, etc., or Equipment of a
Data Terminal like connecting two computers or more. Link in Computer Networks can be
defined as wires or cables or free space of wireless networks.

● Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are connected

together to enable communication and data exchange.
● Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can include
computers, Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches, and other devices.
● Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data is
transmitted over a network. Examples of protocols include TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
● Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of nodes
on a network. The common network topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree.
● IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned to every
device on a network. IP addresses are used to identify devices and enable
communication between them.
● DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to translate
human-readable domain names (such as www.google.com) into IP addresses that
computers can understand.
● Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control incoming
and outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect networks from unauthorized
access and other security threats.

Types of Computer Networks

There are five main types of Computer Networks:

1. LAN (Local Area Network) –

● Systems connected in a small network like in a building or a small office
● It is inexpensive
● It uses Ethernet or Token-ring technology
● Two or more personal computers can be connected through wires or cables
acting as nodes
 ● Transfer of data is fast and is highly score
2. PAN (Personal Area Network) –
● The smallest computer network
● Devices may be connected through Bluetooth or other infra-red enables devices
● It has a connectivity range of upto 10 metres
● It covers an area of upto 30 feet
● Personal devices belonging to a single person can be connected to each other
using PAN
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) –
● A network that can be connected within a city, for example, cable TV Connection
● It can be in the form of Ethernet, ATM, Token-ring and FDDI
● It has a higher range
● This type of network can be used to connect citizens with the various
Organisations
4. WAN (Wide Area Network) –
● A network which covers over a country or a larger range of people
● Telephonic lines are also connected through WAN
● Internet is the biggest WAN in the world
● Mostly used by Government Organisations to manage data and information
5. VPN (Virtual Private Network): –
● A network which is constructed by using public wires to connect to a private
network
● There are a number of systems which enable you to create networks using the
Internet as a medium for transporting data
● These systems use encryptions and other security mechanisms to ensure only
authorised users can access

Network Devices

● Network Repeater – Used to generate incoming electrical, wireless or optical signals

● Network Hub – It is a small network device. It joins multiple computers together to form
a single network segment. On this segment, all computers can interact with each other
● Network Switch – It is a small hardware device which joins multiple computers together
with a single LAN
● Network Router – This device interfaces in multiple networks whose task is to copy
packages from one network to another. It provides connectivity inside enterprises,
between Enterprises and the Internet and within an ISP
● Network Bridge – It reads the outermost section of the data packet to tell where the
message is going. It reduces the traffic on other network segments.
● Modem – This device converts digital signals into analog signals. It is always placed
between a telephone and a computer system

Network Topology
The Network Topology is the layout arrangement of the different devices in a network. Some
types of network topologies are:
 ● Bus Topology: In bus topology all devices are connected to a single central cable
called a bus. Data is sent along this cable and all devices share the same
connection. Simple and cheap to set up but if the main cable fails the whole
network goes down.
● Star Topology: In star topology all devices are connected to a central node called
hub or switch. The hub controls the flow of data between devices. If one device fails
the rest of the network is unaffected. But, if the central hub fails the whole network
stops working.
● Ring Topology: In ring topology devices are connected in a circular loop with each
device connected to two others. Data travels in one direction (or sometimes both)
passing through each device until it reaches its destination. A failure in one device
can affect the whole network.
● Mesh Topology: In mesh topology every device is connected to every other device
in the network. It provides multiple paths for data so if one path fails another can
take over.
● Tree Topology: Tree topology is the combination of star and bus topology. Tree
topology is good for organizing large networks and allows for easy expansion.
● Hybrid Topology: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more different
topologies (like star and mesh). It is flexible and can be customized based on the
network’s specific needs.

Network Topology

Network Security
Ensuring the security of a network is crucial to protect data and resources from unauthorized
access and attacks. Key aspects of network security include:

● Firewalls: Devices or software that monitor and control incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on security rules.
● Encryption: The process of encoding data to prevent unauthorized access.
Commonly used in VPNs, HTTPS, and secure email.
● Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): Tools that monitor network traffic for
suspicious activity and potential threats.
● Access Control: Mechanisms that restrict access to network resources based on
user identity and role.
● Regular Updates and Patching: Keeping software and hardware up to date to
protect against vulnerabilities.
 Why Use Computer Networks?
Computer network play a important role in modern life. Here are some key benefits of
computer networks:

● Fast and Easy Communication: Networks enable all types of digital

communication, like emails, messaging, file sharing, video calls, and streaming.
● More Storage Space: Suppose if we don’t have a cloud storage then we have to
store data in physical files that will consume a physical space so computer network
provide a storage for storing data.
● Easier Sharing of Information: Networks make it simpler for users and teams to
share resources and information. Teams can collaborate more easily, and users get
faster response from network devices.
● Better Security: Well designed networks are more reliable and give businesses
more options for keeping data safe. They come with built-in security features like
encryption and access controls to protect sensitive information from cyber threats.