Foundational

Mathematics
Worksheet 5 : Algebraic structures
November,26-28
Fall 2024
Évariste Galois (1811–1832)

Founder of Group theory

 Exercise 1
Placeholder

x+y
1. x ⋆ y = 1+xy , G =] − 1, 1[
To prove that (G, ⋆) is a group:
1. Let us check the closure. Suppose x, y ∈ G, then x ⋆ y ∈ G.
t+y
• Let y ∈ G =] − 1, 1[. The function f (t) = 1+ty is differentiable in t ∈] − 1, 1[. Its
derivative is:
1 − y2
f ′ (t) = > 0, ∀t ∈] − 1, 1[,
(1 + ty)2
since y ∈] − 1, 1[.

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Then, f (t) is strictly increasing. We have:

f (−1) < x ⋆ y < f (1)

With f (−1) = −1 and f (1) = 1, then:

x ⋆ y ∈] − 1, 1[, so x ⋆ y ∈ G.
x+y
1. x ⋆ y = 1+xy , (G, ⋆), G =] − 1, 1[
2. Associativity**: We verify associativity:
x+y y+z
1+xy +z x+ 1+yz
(x ⋆ y) ⋆ z = x+y , x ⋆ (y ⋆ z) = y+z .
1+ 1+xy z 1+ x 1+yz

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Both simplify to:
x + y + z + xyz
x⋆y⋆z= .
1 + xy + xz + yz
Thus, associativity holds.
3. The identity element of G is e = 0, since:

x+0 0+x
x⋆e= = x, e⋆x= = x.
1+x·0 1+0·x

4. Each element x ∈ G has an inverse x−1 , such that:

x ⋆ x−1 = e = 0.

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Solve for x−1 in:
x + x−1
= 0 =⇒ x−1 = −x.
1 + x · x−1
Since x ∈] − 1, 1[, we also have −x ∈] − 1, 1[.
Thus, (G, ⋆) is a group.

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2. (R+ , ·): R+ is not a group because 0 has not an inverse.

3. G = {f : R → R, f (x) = ax + b, a ̸= 0, b ∈ R}, composition law ◦:

a. Closure: Let f1 (x) = a1 x + b1 and f2 (x) = a2 x + b2 , then:

(f1 ◦ f2 )(x) = f1 (a2 x + b2 ) = a1 (a2 x + b2 ) + b1 = (a1 a2 )x + (a1 b2 + b1 ).

Since a1 , a2 ̸= 0, f1 ◦ f2 ∈ G, so closure holds.

b. Associativity: Composition of functions is associative by definition:

f1 ◦ (f2 ◦ f3 ) = (f1 ◦ f2 ) ◦ f3 .

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 c. Identity: The identity is the function id(x) = x, i.e., f (x) = 1 · x + 0. For all
f (x) = ax + b:
f ◦ id(x) = f (x), id ◦ f (x) = f (x).
d. Inverse: For f (x) = ax + b, the inverse is g(x) = cx + d, satisfying:

f ◦ g(x) = a(cx + d) + b = acx + (ad + b) = x.

We solve:
c = 1a
 
ac = 1
⇒
ad + b = 0 d = − ab
the inverse is g(x) = 1a x − ab
Thus, (G, ◦) is a group.

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 Exercise 2
Placeholder

Clearly, {0} is a subgroup of Z. Let H be a subgroup of Z other than {0}, then there
exists a nonzero integer a ∈ H . Since H is a subgroup, −a ∈ H . Hence, H contains at
least one positive integer. By the Well-Ordering Principle, there exists a smallest
positive integer k ∈ H .
Claim: H = kZ
Since k ∈ H and H is a subgroup, it implies all integral multiples of k ∈ H , which in turn
implies kZ ⊆ H . Now, we show that H − kZ = ∅, which would imply that H = kZ.

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If possible, assume H − kZ ̸= ∅. Then there exists x ∈ H − kZ, meaning x is not a
multiple of k. By the division algorithm, there exist integers q, r such that

x = kq + r, 0 < r < k.

This implies r = x − kq ∈ H , since x ∈ H and kq ∈ H (as k, q ∈ Z and H is a subgroup).

Therefore, H contains a positive integer r < k, which is a contradiction as k is the least
positive integer in H . Hence, H − kZ = ∅ =⇒ H = kZ. Therefore, subgroups of Z are
{0} and nZ.

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 Exercise 3
Placeholder

We define in G =] − 2, 2[ a binary operation “∗” by:

4a + 4b
∀a, b ∈ G, a∗b= .
4 + ab

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1. Show that (G, ∗) is a commutative group.
a. Closure:
4x+4b
Let p(x) = 4+xb .

16 − 4b2
p′ (x) is always positive. p′ (x) = .
(4 + xb)2
Then, p(x) is an increasing function since 16 − 4b2 > 0.
Thus:
f (−2) < x ∗ b < f (2)
With f (−2) = 2 and f (2) = 2
so x ∗ b ∈ G, G is closed under ∗.

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b. Associativity: Assume (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).
Compute (a ∗ b) ∗ c:

4a + 4b 4 4a+4b
4+ab + 4c
a∗b= , (a ∗ b) ∗ c = (4a+4b)c
.
4 + ab 4+ 4+ab

Compute a ∗ (b ∗ c):

4b + 4c 4a + 4 4b+4c
4+bc
b∗c= , a ∗ (b ∗ c) = 4b+4c
.
4 + bc 4+a· 4+bc

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Verifying:
4a + 4bc + 4b + 4c + 16 4a + 4bc + 4b + 4c + 16
=
4 + 4a + 4b + 4C + bc + ab 4 + 4a + 4b + 4C + bc + ab
Thus, (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c) holds.
c. Identity element: The identity element e∗ is 0.
Verify:
4a + 4.0
a∗0=0∗a= = a,
4+a·0
d. Inverse element: Find an inverse b for a such that a ∗ b = 0.
Solve:
4a + 4b
a ∗ (b) = = 0 ⇒ b = −a.
4 + ab
with −a ∈ G
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e. Commutativity:
Let a, b ∈ G:
4a + 4b 4b + 4a
a∗b= = = b ∗ a.
4 + ab 4 + ba
Therefore, the operation is commutative.
Conclusion: (G, ∗) is a commutative group.
2+x
2. Show that the function f (x) = 2−x is a homomorphism from (G, ∗) to (R+ , ·),
where:
4a + 4b
G =] − 2, 2[, a∗b= .
4 + ab
Proof:
Let f (x) = 2+x
2−x . To prove f is a homomorphism, we must show:
f (a ∗ b) = f (a) · f (b), ∀a, b ∈ G.
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Compute f (a ∗ b):
4a + 4b
a∗b= .
4 + ab
Then,
4a+4b
2+ 4+ab
f (a ∗ b) = 4a+4b
.
2− 4+ab
Simplify the numerator and denominator:

2(4+ab)+4a+4b
4+ab 2(4 + ab) + 4a + 4b
f (a ∗ b) = 2(4+ab)−4a−4b
= .
2(4 + ab) − 4a − 4b
4+ab

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Expand terms:
8 + 2ab + 4a + 4b
f (a ∗ b) = .
8 + 2ab − 4a − 4b
Compute f (a) · f (b):
2+a 2+b
f (a) = , f (b) = .
2−a 2−b
2+a 2+b (2 + a)(2 + b)
f (a) · f (b) = · = .
2−a 2−b (2 − a)(2 − b)
Expand the numerator and denominator:

4 + 2a + 2b + ab
f (a) · f (b) = .
4 − 2a − 2b + ab

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 Observe that f (a ∗ b) = f (a) · f (b):

8 + 2ab + 4a + 4b 4 + 2a + 2b + ab
f (a ∗ b) = = = f (a) · f (b).
8 + 2ab − 4a − 4b 4 − 2a − 2b + ab
Therefore, f (x) = 2+x
2−x is a homomorphism.
Kernel of f
The kernel of f , denoted as ker f , is defined as:

ker f = {x ∈ G : f (x) = Id(R∗+ ,.) = 1}.

We solve the equation f (x) = 1:

2+x
f (x) = .
2−x

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Set f (x) = 1:
2+x
= 1.
2−x
Cross-multiply:
2 + x = 2 − x.
Simplify:
x + x = 0 =⇒ x = 0.
Thus, the kernel of f is:
ker f = {0}.
f is injective because ker f = {0} = {Id(G,∗) }

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3. Is f Group Isomorphism?
Isomorphism=Homomorphism + bijective
We proved that f is homomorphism and is injective, we need to show that f is
surjective:
To show that f is surjective, let y ∈ R∗+ . Solve f (x) = y for x:
2+x 2+x
f (x) = =⇒ y = .
2−x 2−x
Cross-multiply:
y(2 − x) = 2 + x.
Expand and rearrange:
2y − yx = 2 + x =⇒ 2y − 2 = yx + x =⇒ x(y + 1) = 2(y − 1).

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Solve for x:
2(y − 1)
x= .
y+1
Since G =] − 2, 2[, we check whether x ∈ G.
We aim to show that:
2(y − 1)
−2 < < 2, for y > 0.
y+1
Start with the inequality:
2(y − 1)
< 2.
y+1
Multiply through by y + 1 > 0 (since y > 0), keeping the inequality direction
unchanged:
2(y − 1) < 2(y + 1).
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Simplify both sides:
2y − 2 < 2y + 2.
Cancel 2y from both sides:
−2 < 2.
2(y−1)
This inequality is always true, so the condition y+1 < 2 holds for all y > 0.
2(y−1)
Prove −2 < y+1
Start with the inequality:
2(y − 1)
−2 < .
y+1
Multiply through by y + 1 > 0, keeping the inequality direction unchanged:
−2(y + 1) < 2(y − 1).

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Simplify both sides:
−2y − 2 < 2y − 2.
Add 2y to both sides:
−2 < 4y − 2.
Add 2 to both sides:
0 < 4y.
2(y−1)
Since y > 0, this inequality is always true. Thus, the condition −2 < y+1 holds for all
y > 0.
Both parts are true. Therefore, we have shown that:
2(y − 1)
−2 < < 2, for y > 0.
y+1

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so x ∈ G.
Thus, f is surjective.
n o
2n+1 −2
5. Let H = 2n +1 , n ∈ Z Show that (H, ∗) is subgroup of (G, ∗).
H is a subgroup of G
• e∈H
• x, y ∈ H, x ∗ y ∈ H
• ∀x ∈ H, x−1 ∈ H
we check:
• Do we have identity element of G which is 0 in H ? yes: 0 ∈ H , (forn = 0)

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 n+1
−2 −2 m+1
• let: x = 22n +1 and y = 22m +1 in H,
n+1 −2 m+1 −2
4 2 2n +1 +4 2 2m +1 2n+m+1 −2
x∗y= n+1−2 2 m+1−2
= 2n+m +1
with n + m ∈ Z
4+ 2 2n +1 . 2m +1
so x ∗ y ∈ H
n+1
−2 m+1
−2
• Let a = 22n +1 b = 22m +1 be the inverse of a such that a ∗ b = 0 we solve :
2n+m+1 −2
2n+m +1
= 0 ⇒ 2n+m+1 = 2 ⇒ n + m = 0 ⇒ m = −n
1−n
−2
Thus b = 22−n +1 with −n ∈ Z so b ∈ H .
Conclusion: (H; ∗) is subgroup of (G, ∗).

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 Exercise 4
Placeholder

Let G be a group and H and K be two subgroups of G. If H ∪ K is also a group, show that
either H ⊆ H or K ⊆ H .
Proof by Contradiction:
K
Suppose that neither H ⊆ X H nor K ⊆ H. Then there exists h ∈ H and h ∈ / K and there is
k ∈ K and k ∈/ H. Since H ∪ K is a subgroup, then hk ∈ H ∪ K , it follows that hk ∈ H or
hk ∈ K
In the first case, if hk ∈ H then h−1 hk ∈ H (since h−1 ∈ H ) then k ∈ H : Contradiction. In
the second case,if hk ∈ K then hkk−1 ∈ K (since k−1 ∈ K ) then h ∈ K : Contradiction.
In both cases, we get a contradiction.
Therefore, either H ⊆ H or K ⊆ H .

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 Exercise 5
Placeholder

Key Properties of Z/6Z:

- Z/6Z is a cyclic group of order 6
- Subgroups of a cyclic group are also cyclic, and their orders divide the order of the
group (by Lagrange’s Theorem).
Possible Orders of Subgroups:
The divisors of 6 are ; 1, 2, 3, 6 so Z/6Z has 4 subgroups of these orders. the subgroups
of Z/6Z are:
- The trivial subgroup {0} (of order 1) -
The entire group {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} (of order 6).
- The subgroups generated by 2 is {0, 2, 4} (of order 3)
- The subgroup generated by 3, which is {0, 3} (of order 2).

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To write down the subgroups of Z/6Z, we can start by listing out all the possible
elements inZ/6Z, which are {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Then, we can group these elements
together based on their common factors.
The trivial subgroup is always present in any group, which is the subgroup containing
only the identity element (in this case, 0).
Next, we can consider the subgroups generated by each element in the group. For
example, the subgroup generated by 1 would be {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} since we can add 1 to
any element in the group and still get a valid element in the group.
Similarly, the subgroup generated by 2 would be {0, 2, 4} since adding 2 repeatedly
will only cycle through those three elements. We can continue this process for each
element in the group.

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So, the subgroups of Z/6Z are:
- The trivial subgroup {0}
- The entire group {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
- The subgroups generated by 2 {0, 2, 4}.
- The subgroup generated by 3, which is {0, 3}.

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 Exercise 6
Placeholder

Let G be a group. Show that if for all x ∈ G, x2 = e, then G is commutative. If x2 = e

then x = x−1 (property of G).
let x, y ∈ G then xy = (xy)−1 = y−1 x−1 = yx so G is commutative.

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 Exercise 7
Placeholder
Definition: A ring is a set R equipped with two binary operations:
• An addition operation + : R × R → R,
• A multiplication operation · : R × R → R,
such that the following axioms hold:
1. (R, +) is an abelian group:
1.1 (Associativity) For all a, b, c ∈ R,
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
1.2 (Identity element) There exists an element 0 ∈ R such that, for all a ∈ R,
a + 0 = a.
1.3 (Inverse element) For all a ∈ R, there exists −a ∈ R such that
a + (−a) = 0.

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 1.4 (Commutativity) For all a, b ∈ R,

a + b = b + a.

2. (Multiplicative associativity) For all a, b, c ∈ R,

(a · b) · c = a · (b · c).

3. (Distributive laws) For all a, b, c ∈ R,

a · (b + c) = (a · b) + (a · c),
(a + b) · c = (a · c) + (b · c).

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A ring is called commutative if a · b = b · a for all a, b ∈ R. A ring is called a ring with unity
if there exists an element 1 ∈ R such that, for all a ∈ R,

a · 1 = a and 1 · a = a.

1. We define the binary operations on R2 as follows:

(x, y) ⊕ (x′ , y′ ) = (x + x′ , y + y′ ), (x, y) ⊗ (x′ , y′ ) = (xx′ − yy′ , xy′ + yx′ ).

Step 1: Check commutative ring axioms.

1. Additive commutativity (⊕):

(x, y) ⊕ (x′ , y′ ) = (x + x′ , y + y′ ) = (x′ + x, y′ + y) = (x′ , y′ ) ⊕ (x, y).

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2. Additive associativity (⊕): For (x, y), (x′ , y′ ), (x′′ , y′′ ) ∈ R2 ,

[(x, y) ⊕ (x′ , y′ )] ⊕ (x′′ , y′′ ) = (x + x′ + x′′ , y + y′ + y′′ ),

which is equal to
(x, y) ⊕ [(x′ , y′ ) ⊕ (x′′ , y′′ )].
3. Additive identity (⊕): The additive identity is (0, 0) because

(x, y) ⊕ (0, 0) = (x + 0, y + 0) = (x, y).

4. Additive inverses (⊕): The additive inverse of (x, y) is (−x, −y) because

(x, y) ⊕ (−x, −y) = (x − x, y − y) = (0, 0).

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5. Multiplicative commutativity (⊗):
(x, y) ⊗ (x′ , y′ ) = (xx′ − yy′ , xy′ + yx′ ) = (x′ x − y′ y, x′ y + y′ x) = (x′ , y′ ) ⊗ (x, y).
6. Multiplicative associativity (⊗): For (x, y), (x′ , y′ ), (x′′ , y′′ ) ∈ R2 ,
[(x, y) ⊗ (x′ , y′ )] ⊗ (x′′ , y′′ ) = (xx′ − yy′ , xy′ + yx′ ) ⊗ (x′′ , y′′ ),
which simplifies to:
((xx′ − yy′ )x′′ − (xy′ + yx′ )y′′ , (xx′ − yy′ )y′′ + (xy′ + yx′ )x′′ ).
Similarly,
(x, y) ⊗ [(x′ , y′ ) ⊗ (x′′ , y′′ )] = (x, y) ⊗ (x′ x′′ − y′ y′′ , x′ y′′ + y′ x′′ ),
which gives the same result. Thus, ⊗ is associative.

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7. Distributive laws: For (x, y), (x′ , y′ ), (x′′ , y′′ ) ∈ R2 ,

(x, y) ⊗ [(x′ , y′ ) ⊕ (x′′ , y′′ )] = (x, y) ⊗ (x′ + x′′ , y′ + y′′ ),

which simplifies to:

(x(x′ + x′′ ) − y(y′ + y′′ ), x(y′ + y′′ ) + y(x′ + x′′ )).

Similarly,

(x, y) ⊗ (x′ , y′ ) ⊕ (x, y) ⊗ (x′′ , y′′ ) = (xx′ − yy′ , xy′ + yx′ ) ⊕ (xx′′ − yy′′ , xy′′ + yx′′ ),

which is the same. Thus, ⊗ distributes over ⊕.

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 8. Identity element of ⊗:
we find (a, b) such that
(x, y) ⊗ (a, b) = (a, b) ⊗ (x, y) = (xa − yb, xb + ya) = (x, y), we solve:

xa − yb = x
⇒ a = 1, b = 0
xb + ya = y (1,0)
So the identity element is (0, 1) ∈ R2
Conclusion: (R2 , ⊕, ⊗) is a commutative ring.

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b. is it a field ?
Let (x, y) ∈ R2 \ {(0, 0)}. We seek (a, b) ∈ R2 such that

(x, y) ⊗ (a, b) = (1, 0).

Expanding the product:

(xa − yb, xb + ya) = (1, 0).
This gives the system of equations:

xa − yb = 1,
xb + ya = 0.

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From the second equation, solve for b in terms of a:
ya
b=− .
x
Substitute this into the first equation:
 ya 
xa − y − = 1,
x
y2 a
xa + = 1,
x

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 y2
 
a x+ = 1,
x
x
a= 2 .
x + y2
ya
Using b = − x , we find:
y
b=− .
x2 + y2
Thus, the inverse of (x, y) is
 
−1 x y
(x, y) = 2 2
,− 2 .
x +y x + y2
Since every nonzero element of (R2 , ⊕, ⊗) has an inverse, it is a field.

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2. Show that there exists an injective homomorphism from (R, +, ·) to (R2 , ⊕, ⊗).
Define f : R → R2 by:
f (a) = (a, 0).
Step 1: Homomorphism properties.
1. Additive homomorphism: For a, b ∈ R,

f (a + b) = (a + b, 0), f (a) ⊕ f (b) = (a, 0) ⊕ (b, 0) = (a + b, 0).

2. Multiplicative homomorphism: For a, b ∈ R,

f (a · b) = (ab, 0), f (a) ⊗ f (b) = (a, 0) ⊗ (b, 0) = (ab − 0 · 0, a · 0 + 0 · b) = (ab, 0).

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Step 2: Injectivity. If f (a) = f (b), then (a, 0) = (b, 0), which implies a = b. Hence, f is
injective. Let
an o
D= a ∈ Z, n ∈ N .
10n
1. Show that (D, +) is a subgroup of (Q, +).
• Let d = 10a n and d′ = 10bm with a, b ∈ Z and n, m ∈ N. Then:
a b a10m + b10n
d + d′ = + = , a10m + b10n ∈ Z, 10n+m ∈ N.
10n 10m 10n+m
Therefore, d + d′ ∈ D.
• 0 ∈ D because for a = 0 and any n ∈ N:
0
0 = n.
10

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 −a
• The inverse of d = 10a n is −d = 10n . Since −a ∈ Z, it follows that −d ∈ D.

2. Yes, (D − {0}, .) is a subgroup of (Q − {0}, .).

3. (D, +) is a group. We conclude that (D, +) is associative, includes the identity 0, and
contains inverses for all d ∈ D.
a. Let d, d′ , d′′ ∈ D. Then:
 
′ ′′ a b c a bc abc
d · (d · d ) = n · m
· p = n
· m+p = n+m+p .
10 10 10 10 10 10

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Similarly:

 
′ ′′ a b c ab c abc
(d · d ) · d = · · = n+m · p = n+m+p .
10n 10m 10p 10 10 10

Thus:

d · (d′ · d′′ ) = (d · d′ ) · d′′ .

So . is associative.
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b.To check distributivity of · over +:
Let d = 10a n , d′ = 10bm , and d′′ = 10c p . Then:

a b10p + c10m a(b10p + c10m )

 
′ ′′ a b c
d · (d + d ) = n · m
+ p = · = .
10 10 10 10n 10m+p 10n+m+p

On the other hand:

a b a c ab ac ab10p + ac10m
(d · d′ ) + (d · d′′ ) = · + · = + = .
10n 10m 10n 10p 10n+m 10n+p 10n+m+p

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Thus:

d · (d′ + d′′ ) = (d · d′ ) + (d · d′′ ).

For the identity element of ·, note that the identity element of · in D is 1. If d = 10a n ,
then:

a 1 a
d·1= n
· 0 = n.
10 10 10

Hence, 1 ∈ D.
So it is a subring.
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4. Let d = 10a n , d′ = 10bm , and d · d′ = 101 0 = 1. Then:

10n
d′ = .
a
3
But a is not always = 10n , so D is not a field. For example, if d = 10 , then d′ = 10 / D.
3 ∈
Thus, inverses are not always in D. si it is not a subfield.

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 Exercise 9
Placeholder

The units of Z/20Z are integers a such that:

gcd(a, 20) = 1, a ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . , 19}.

The integers relatively prime to 20 are:

{1, 3, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19}.

Find the inverse of each unit

The inverse of a ∈ Z/20Z is an integer b such that:

a·b≡1 (mod 20).

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We compute the inverse for each unit:

1. For 1:

1·1≡1 (mod 20).

The inverse of 1 is 1.

2. For 3: Solve 3b ≡ 1 (mod 20):

3 · 7 = 21 ≡ 1 (mod 20).

The inverse of 3 is 7.
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3. For 7: Solve 7b ≡ 1 (mod 20):

7 · 3 = 21 ≡ 1 (mod 20).
The inverse of 7 is 3.
4. For 9: Solve 9b ≡ 1 (mod 20):

9 · 9 = 81 ≡ 1 (mod 20).
The inverse of 9 is 9.
5. For 11: Solve 11b ≡ 1 (mod 20):

11 · 11 = 121 ≡ 1 (mod 20).

The inverse of 11 is 11.

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6. For 13: Solve 13b ≡ 1 (mod 20):

13 · 17 = 221 ≡ 1 (mod 20).

The inverse of 13 is 17.
7. For 17: Solve 17b ≡ 1 (mod 20):

17 · 13 = 221 ≡ 1 (mod 20).

The inverse of 17 is 13.
8. For 19: Solve 19b ≡ 1 (mod 20):

19 · 19 = 361 ≡ 1 (mod 20).

The inverse of 19 is 19.

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 Exercise 10
Placeholder

Let (F, +, ·) be a commutative field. Then the only ideals of F are F and {0}.
Proof
Let I be an ideal of F. By definition, I is a subset of F such that:
1. I is closed under addition: a, b ∈ I =⇒ a + b ∈ I ,
2. I is closed under scalar multiplication: a ∈ I and r ∈ F =⇒ r · a ∈ I .

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We will prove that I is either F or {0}:
1. Case 1: If I = {0}, then clearly I is an ideal because it is closed under both
addition and scalar multiplication:

0 + 0 = 0 and r · 0 = 0 ∀r ∈ F.

Thus, I = {0} is an ideal.

2. Case 2: Suppose I ̸= {0}. Then there exists some nonzero element a ∈ I such that
a ̸= 0. Since F is a field, a has a multiplicative inverse a−1 ∈ F. Consider any
arbitrary element r ∈ F. By the closure of I under scalar multiplication, we have:

r · a ∈ I.
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Multiply this equation by a−1 (which exists in F):

(r · a) · a−1 = r · (a · a−1 ) = r.

Thus, r ∈ I . Since r ∈ F was arbitrary, it follows that I = F.

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 Exercise 11
Placeholder

To show that (P(E), ∆, ∩) is a commutative ring, we verify the following properties:

1. (P(E), ∆) is an abelian group.
2. (P(E), ∩) is a commutative semigroup.
3. The operation ∩ distributes over ∆.

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Step 1: (P(E), ∆) is an abelian group
• Identity element: The identity element for ∆ is the empty set ∅, as:

A∆∅ = (A \ ∅) ∪ (∅ \ A) = A ∪ ∅ = A, for all A ⊆ E.

• Inverse element: Each subset A ⊆ E is its own inverse under ∆, since:

A∆A = (A \ A) ∪ (A \ A) = ∅.

• Commutativity: For all A, B ⊆ E,

A∆B = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A) = B∆A.

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 • Associativity: For all A, B, C ⊆ E,

(A∆B)∆C = A∆(B∆C).

Therefore, (P(E), ∆) is an abelian group.

Step 2: (P(E), ∩) is a commutative semigroup
• Associativity: For all A, B, C ⊆ E,

(A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C).

• Commutativity: For all A, B ⊆ E,

A ∩ B = B ∩ A.
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 • Identity element: The identity element for ∩ is the universal set E, as:

A ∩ E = A, for all A ⊆ E.

Thus, (P(E), ∩) is a commutative semigroup.

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Step 3: ∩ distributes over ∆
We verify that for all A, B, C ⊆ E,

A ∩ (B∆C) = (A ∩ B)∆(A ∩ C).

Proof:
• By definition of ∆, B∆C = (B \ C) ∪ (C \ B).
• Therefore:
A ∩ (B∆C) = A ∩ ((B \ C) ∪ (C \ B)).
Using the distributive property of ∩ over ∪,

A ∩ (B∆C) = (A ∩ (B \ C)) ∪ (A ∩ (C \ B)).

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Simplifying each term:

A ∩ (B \ C) = (A ∩ B) \ C, A ∩ (C \ B) = (A ∩ C) \ B.

Hence:
A ∩ (B∆C) = ((A ∩ B) \ C) ∪ ((A ∩ C) \ B),
which is exactly (A ∩ B)∆(A ∩ C).
Thus, ∩ distributes over ∆.
Since (P(E), ∆) is an abelian group, (P(E), ∩) is a commutative semigroup, and ∩
distributes over ∆, the structure (P(E), ∆, ∩) is a commutative ring.

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 Exercise 12
Placeholder
A Boolean ring is a ring R where every element satisfies x2 = x. This property imposes
the following special behaviors on the ring operations:
1. Addition in a Boolean Ring
• Addition in a Boolean ring is idempotent, meaning:
x + x = 0, ∀x ∈ R.
This implies that every element x is its own additive inverse:
−x = x.
• Addition in a Boolean ring is equivalent to the bitwise XOR operation when
interpreted over binary sets:
0 + 0 = 0,
1 + 1 = 0,
0 + 1 = 1, 55 / 66
2. Multiplication in a Boolean Ring
• Multiplication in a Boolean ring is commutative, meaning:
xy = yx, ∀x, y ∈ R.
This follows because:
xy + yx = 0 =⇒ xy = yx.
• Multiplication behaves similarly to the logical AND operation when interpreted
over binary sets:
0 · 0 = 0,
1 · 1 = 1,
0 · 1 = 0,
1 · 0 = 0.
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3. Key Properties of Boolean Rings
• For any x ∈ R, we have:
x + x = 0 and x2 = x.
• Addition and multiplication in a Boolean ring correspond to the operations XOR
(exclusive OR) and AND (logical conjunction) in binary arithmetic.
We are solving the given exercise for a Boolean ring R, where for all x ∈ R, it holds that
x2 = x.

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Show that ∀x ∈ R, x = −x.
Proof:
1. Recall that in any ring, the additive inverse of x, denoted −x, satisfies:

x + (−x) = 0,
where 0 is the additive identity.
2. From the property of a Boolean ring, we know that:

x2 = x ∀x ∈ R.
3. Consider the additive operation x + x:

(x + x)2 = x + x (using x2 = x).

So x + x = 0 ⇒ x = −x
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4. Expanding (x + x)2 using the distributive property, we have:
(x + x)2 = x2 + x2 + x2 + x2 = 4x2 .
Since x2 = x, this simplifies to:
(x + x)2 = 4x.
5. From x + x = 2x, we observe that in a Boolean ring, all additive operations are
modulo 2. Thus:
x + x = 0.
6. Therefore:
x = −x.
Conclusion: In a Boolean ring, every element is its own additive inverse:
∀x ∈ R, x = −x.
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Show that R is commutative.
Proof:
1. In any ring, the distributive property holds. Consider (x + y)2 :

(x + y)2 = x2 + xy + yx + y2 .

2. Using the property x2 = x and y2 = y in a Boolean ring, this simplifies to:

x + y = x + xy + yx + y.
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3. Canceling x + y on both sides:
0 = xy + yx.
(or xy = −yx and using the property x = −x we get xy = −yx and −yx = yx so xy = yx.
4. In a Boolean ring, xy + yx = 0 implies xy = yx because addition in the ring is modulo
2.
Conclusion: The multiplication operation in a Boolean ring is commutative:

∀x, y ∈ R, xy = yx.

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 Exercise 13
Placeholder

will show that every nonzero element of R has a multiplicative inverse, making R a field.
Step 1: Properties of an integral domain
By definition, R is an integral domain, so:
1. R is a commutative ring with unity (1),
2. R has no zero divisors: if a, b ∈ R and a · b = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0.

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Step 2: Show R is a field Let a ∈ R be a nonzero element. Consider the map:

fa : R → R, fa (x) = a · x,

where x ∈ R. We claim that fa is injective (one-to-one):

• Suppose fa (x1 ) = fa (x2 ), i.e., a · x1 = a · x2 .
• Subtracting gives a · (x1 − x2 ) = 0.
• Since R has no zero divisors and a ̸= 0, it follows that x1 − x2 = 0, or x1 = x2 .
Thus, fa is injective.

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Since R is finite, an injective map from R to itself is also surjective (bijective). Therefore,
there exists y ∈ R such that:
fa (y) = a · y = 1.
This shows that y is the multiplicative inverse of a.
Every nonzero element a ∈ R has a multiplicative inverse, so R is a field.

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Example: The Field Z/3Z
Definition
The set Z/3Z consists of the integers {0, 1, 2} with addition and multiplication modulo
3. For example:
1+2=0 (mod 3), 2·2=1 (mod 3).

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Verification We show that Z/3Z is a field by verifying the necessary properties:
1. No Zero Divisors
For any a, b ∈ Z/3Z, if a ̸= 0 and b ̸= 0, then a · b ̸= 0 (mod 3). For example:

1 · 1 = 1, 1 · 2 = 2, 2 · 2 = 1 (mod 3).

Thus, Z/3Z has no zero divisors.

2. Existence of Multiplicative Inverses
Each nonzero element of Z/3Z has a multiplicative inverse:

1 · 1 = 1 (so 1−1 = 1), 2 · 2 = 1 (so 2−1 = 2).

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Since Z/3Z has no zero divisors and every nonzero element has a multiplicative
inverse, it satisfies the properties of a field. Therefore, Z/3Z is a finite field.

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