Module 1: Introduction to Networking:

Module 1.1: What is a Network?

Welcome to the exciting world of networking! This module will introduce you to the fundamental
concept of networks, starting with a historical perspective on communication and culminating in
the technology that underpins our connected world today.

1.1.1 Communication Throughout History:

Imagine life before the internet, email, or even telephones. Humans have always sought ways to
connect and share information, and these methods have evolved dramatically over time:

• Early Communication: Cave paintings, smoke

signals, drums, and messengers served as long-
distance communication methods in ancient
civilizations.
• The Printing Press: Invented in the 15th century,
the printing press revolutionized information
sharing by enabling mass production of books and
documents.
• The Telegraph: This electrical device, developed
in the 19th century, allowed for rapid transmission
of messages over long distances via coded
pulses.
• The Telephone: Invented in the late 19th century,
the telephone enabled real-time voice
communication over wires, transforming global
interaction.

1.1.2 The Digital Revolution:

The 20th century ushered in the age of digital
technology, leading to the development of:

• Computers: From early mainframes to modern

laptops and smartphones, computers transformed
information processing and storage.
• The Arpanet: Established in the 1960s as a
research project, the Arpanet laid the foundation
for the internet by connecting computers across
different locations.
• The Internet: This global network of
interconnected computers revolutionized
communication and information access, enabling instant sharing of data across the world.

1.1.3 Understanding Networks:

A network is a collection of interconnected devices that can share resources and communicate
with each other. Devices communicate by sending and receiving data packets through network
devices like routers and switches.

Imagine a network as a highway system. Cars (devices) travel on roads (network cables) to
reach different destinations (other devices). Traffic lights (routers) direct the flow of cars,
ensuring smooth communication.

Benefits of Networks:

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

1
 • Resource Sharing: Printers, files, and internet access can be shared efficiently among
multiple users.
• Communication: Networks enable instant communication through email, messaging,
and video calls.
• Collaboration: Teams can work together on projects regardless of location, using shared
documents and online tools.
• Information Access: The internet provides access to a vast amount of information and
resources.

Assignment:

Individually, search for and report on 5 most important historical trivia about networking
that were not discussed in this module. Avoid duplicating information with other students as
this will be presented during recitation. Write it in a 1 whole yellow pad paper.

Example:

Trivia: The first email was sent by Ray Tomlinson in 1971, choosing the '@' symbol to
denote a user's location in a specific machine.

Module 1.2: Network Communication Models (OSI and

TCP/IP)
In the world of computer networks, communication models are essential to understand how data
is transmitted and received. Two widely used models are the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model and the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model.

1.2.1 The OSI Model:

The OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in the late 1970s. It aimed to provide a
standardized framework for network communication, promoting
interoperability between different systems.

Imagine a complex recipe with multiple steps, each focusing on a

specific ingredient or technique. Similar to a recipe, the OSI model
divides network communication into seven layers, each with its
own responsibility:

1. Physical Layer: Deals with the physical transmission of data

through cables or wireless signals. Picture it as the foundation
of the communication cake, ensuring the physical connection.

2. Data Link Layer: Packages data into manageable units called

frames and manages error detection and correction. Think of it
as preparing the ingredients (data) and ensuring they're not
spoiled (errors).

3. Network Layer: Routes data packets across networks through

the most efficient paths. Imagine a skilled chef routing
ingredients (data) to different stations (network devices) in the
kitchen.

4. Transport Layer: Breaks down large data into smaller

segments, ensures reliable delivery, and manages flow control.
Picture it as portioning the prepared ingredients (data) for
easier handling and delivery.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

2
5. Session Layer: Establishes, manages, and terminates
communication sessions between devices. Think of it as
coordinating the cooking process between different chefs
(devices) to avoid confusion.

6. Presentation Layer: Handles data encryption, decryption, and

formatting for different devices and applications. Imagine it as
adapting the final dish (data) to the preferences of different
diners (applications).

7. Application Layer: Provides network services to applications

like email, web browsing, and file sharing. Think of it as the
applications themselves, using the prepared dish (data) for
various purposes.

1.2.2 The TCP/IP Model:

The TCP/IP model was developed by the United States Department
of Defense in the 1970s to create a robust, interconnected network
- the precursor to the modern Internet.

The TCP/IP model, commonly used in the internet, has a four-layer structure:

1. Network Access Layer: Combines the functionalities of the OSI's Physical and Data
Link layers, handling physical transmission and addressing.
2. Internet Layer: Similar to the OSI's Network Layer, it routes data packets across
networks using IP addresses.
3. Transport Layer: Similar to the OSI's Transport Layer, it ensures reliable data delivery
and manages flow control, but uses protocols like TCP and UDP.
4. Application Layer: Similar to the OSI's Application Layer, it provides services to
applications like email, web browsing, and file sharing.

1.2.3 Comparing the Models:

The OSI model provides a theoretical foundation with its seven-layer structure, offering a
comprehensive understanding of network communication. In contrast, the TCP/IP model, with
its more streamlined four layers, is widely embraced for its practicality and efficiency in real-
world networks, particularly on the Internet.

While the OSI model is intricate and conceptual, the TCP/IP model's simplicity has led to its
extensive adoption, making it the standard for modern networking. The choice between them
hinges on specific needs and practical considerations, showcasing the balance between
theoretical understanding and practical implementation.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

3
Module 1.3: Unveiling the Different Network Types
Welcome to the exciting world of networks! This module dives into the diverse range of network
types, each with its own purpose, size, and security considerations. Get ready to explore and
understand the unique characteristics of each network architecture!

1.3.1 Local Area Network (LAN):

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that connects
computers, devices, and resources within a limited
geographical area, such as a single building, office,
school, or home.
Imagine a bustling office environment where computers,
printers, and other devices share resources seamlessly.
This is the essence of a LAN, connecting devices in a
limited physical space, typically within a single
building or campus.

• Key Features:
o Covers a small geographical area (e.g., office,
school, home)
o Offers high speeds and low latency (delay)
o Enables easy sharing of resources like printers
and files
o Requires separate internet access for each LAN

1.3.2 Wide Area Network (WAN):

A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that spans a
large geographical area, connecting multiple LANs or
individual devices across cities, countries, or even
globally.

Now imagine connecting offices located in different

cities or even countries. This is where a WAN comes in,
spanning a large geographical area to connect
multiple LANs or individual devices dispersed across
vast distances.

• Key Features:
o Covers a wide geographical area (e.g., state,
country, globe)
o Connects users and resources geographically dispersed
o Enables remote access to resources
o May have lower speeds and higher latency compared to LANs
o Requires specialized equipment and connections

1.3.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers a medium-
sized geographical area, typically within a city or town,
connecting multiple LANs within a defined region

Think of a university campus bustling with activity. A

MAN covers a medium-sized geographical area,
typically within a city or town, connecting multiple LANs
within a defined region.

• Key Features:

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

4
 o Covers a medium geographical area (e.g., city, municipality)
o Offers higher speed and capacity than WANs within a defined area
o Connects multiple LANs
o Requires specialized infrastructure

1.3.4 Other Network Types:

The fascinating world of networks extends beyond these three primary types. Let's explore
some additional variations:

• Personal Area Network (PAN): A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a network that connects
personal devices like smartphones, headsets, and fitness trackers within close proximity,
typically using wireless technologies like Bluetooth. PANs enable communication and data
sharing among personal devices.

Connects personal devices like smartphones, headsets, and fitness trackers within close
proximity using technologies like Bluetooth.

• Virtual Private Network (VPN): A Virtual Private Network (VPN) is a secure network that
creates a private and encrypted communication tunnel over a public network, often the
internet. VPNs allow remote devices to connect securely, ensuring the confidentiality and
integrity of data during transmission.

Creates a secure tunnel over a public network like the internet, allowing remote devices to
connect securely.

• Storage Area Network (SAN): A Storage Area Network (SAN) is a high-speed network
dedicated to connecting storage devices for centralized data access. SANs are commonly
used in data centers to provide efficient and reliable storage solutions, facilitating the sharing
and management of large volumes of data.

High-speed network dedicated to connecting storage devices for centralized data access,
typically used in data centers.

Module 1.4: Network Devices and Their Roles

Welcome to Module 1.4, where we'll explore the essential network devices and their distinct
roles. Understanding the functions, applications, and real-world scenarios of routers, switches,
firewalls, hubs, and other devices will provide you with a comprehensive grasp of networking.

1.4.1 Routers:

A router is a network device that connects different networks, directing

data packets between them. It operates at the network layer of the OSI
model.

Use and Application:

• Routers are used in homes, businesses, and internet service providers (ISPs).
• Routers analyze the network landscape, considering factors like traffic congestion and
distance, to determine the most efficient route for each packet to reach its intended
destination.
• Routers are essential whenever you need to connect to the internet, manage multiple
networks (like having a separate network for guests), or establish secure connections
between different network segments.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

5
Real-World Scenario: In a home network, a router connects various devices like computers,
smartphones, and smart home devices to the internet. It manages data flow between the
devices and the internet, ensuring seamless connectivity.

1.4.2 Switches:

A switch is a network device that connects devices within the same

network, allowing them to communicate directly. It operates at the data
link layer of the OSI model.

Picture a bustling office building where employees need to communicate

efficiently. A switch acts like a secretary, directing messages to the right
recipient within the same network.

Use and Application:

• Switches are commonly used in LANs within homes, offices, and data centers.
• Switches forward data only to the specific device it's intended for, reducing network
congestion and enhancing performance.
• Switches are ideal when you have multiple devices within a network that need to
communicate frequently and efficiently, like computers, printers, and servers in an office
setting.

Real-World Scenario: In an office network, a switch connects computers, printers, and other
devices. When one computer sends data to another, the switch ensures that the data reaches
its intended destination directly, improving network speed.

1.4.3 Firewalls:

A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls incoming

and outgoing network traffic, based on predetermined security rules.

Think of a firewall as a security guard for your network, monitoring and

controlling incoming and outgoing traffic like a vigilant gatekeeper. It uses
predetermined security rules to decide whether to allow or block data packets, safeguarding
your network from cyber threats.

Use and Application:

• Firewalls are crucial in homes, businesses, and data centers to protect against
unauthorized access.
• They inspect and filter data packets, blocking or allowing traffic based on security
policies.
• Firewalls are used continuously to safeguard networks from cyber threats.

Real-World Scenario: In a corporate environment, a firewall protects the internal network from
external threats. It examines incoming and outgoing data, preventing unauthorized access and
ensuring the security of sensitive information.

1.4.4 Hubs:

A hub is a basic networking device that connects multiple devices in a

LAN, broadcasting data to all connected devices. It operates at the
physical layer of the OSI model.

Imagine a town crier announcing news to everyone in the marketplace. A

hub is similar, broadcasting data to all connected devices in a LAN, regardless of the intended
recipient.

Use and Application:

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

6
 • Hubs are considered outdated but were once used in small home or office networks.
• They broadcast data to all connected devices, lacking the selective forwarding
capabilities of switches.
• Hubs are rarely used today due to their limited efficiency and security concerns.

Real-World Scenario: In a small home network, a hub might have been used in the past to
connect a few computers. However, due to their limitations, switches are now preferred for
better performance and security.

Other Networking Devices:

Beyond the mentioned devices, other essential networking tools include:

• Modems: Convert digital data from a computer into a form suitable for transmission over
telephone or cable lines.
• Access Points: Facilitate wireless communication, allowing devices to connect to a
wired network using Wi-Fi.
• Bridge: Connects two or more network segments and operates at the data link layer,
reducing overall network traffic.
• Repeater: Extends the range of a network by amplifying and retransmitting signals.

Ranking of Devices:

• Smartest Device: Routers are typically considered the smartest among the three. They
make intelligent decisions about the best paths for data, ensuring efficient and secure
communication between networks.
• Intermediate Device: Switches are intermediate devices, facilitating efficient
communication within a single network but without the decision-making complexity of
routers.
• Basic Device: Hubs are considered the most basic among the mentioned devices,
broadcasting data without the ability to make intelligent forwarding decisions. They are
rarely used in modern networks.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

7
Module 2: Network Media and
Connectivity:
Welcome to Module 2, where we'll delve into the world of network media and
connectivity. In this module, we'll explore the fundamental building blocks that connect
devices and allow them to communicate seamlessly. We'll cover both wired and
wireless technologies, equipping you with the knowledge to understand how data
travels across networks.

Module 2.1: Wired and Wireless Network Technologies

Introduction:

This module delves into the world of network media and connectivity, exploring both
wired and wireless technologies that enable devices to communicate and share
information. Understanding these technologies is crucial for anyone involved in setting
up, managing, or troubleshooting networks.

2.1.1. Wired Network Technologies:

Wired networks transmit data over physical cables, offering reliable and secure
connections. Let's explore some common types:

• Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable:

o Most widely used type of wired network cable.
o Consists of four pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce
interference.
o Categorized by grades (Cat 5, Cat 6, Cat 6a, etc.) with higher grades offering
faster speeds and improved resistance to interference.
o Suitable for short- to medium-distance connections within buildings.
• Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable:
o Similar to UTP but with an additional foil or braided shield around each pair of
wires for better interference protection.
o More expensive than UTP but may be necessary in environments with high
electromagnetic interference.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

8
• Coaxial Cable:
o Single copper wire surrounded by insulation, shielding, and outer jacket.
o Offers higher bandwidth than twisted-pair but is thicker and more expensive.
o Used for cable TV, satellite internet, and some older network installations.
• Fiber Optic Cable:

o Uses thin glass or plastic fibers to transmit light pulses, offering the fastest
speeds and longest distances.
o Immune to electromagnetic interference and ideal for high-bandwidth
applications.
o More expensive than copper cables but becoming increasingly popular.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

9
• Cross-Over and Straight-Through Cables:

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

10
• Cross-Over Cable:
o A special type of UTP cable with the transmit (TX) and receive (RX) pins
reversed on one end.
o Used to connect two similar devices directly, like two computers or two switches.
o Typically used in older network setups.
• Straight-Through Cable:
o The standard UTP cable with TX and RX pins in the same order on both ends.
o Used to connect a computer to a network device like a switch or router.
o Most commonly used in modern network setups.
• RJ-45
o an 8-pin Ethernet connector.
o Used for networking with twisted pair cables.
o Follows TIA/EIA-568-B wiring standard.
o Common in home and office networks.
o Supports Ethernet and Fast Ethernet.
o Modular design for easy termination.
o Keyed for proper alignment during insertion.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

11
T-568A Straight-Through Ethernet Cable

T-568B Straight-Through Ethernet Cable

RJ-45 Crossover Ethernet Cable

• Cabling Standards:
Several industry standards define the specifications and performance
characteristics of network cables. Knowing these standards is essential for
ensuring compatibility and reliability. Here are some key standards:

• TIA/EIA-568: Developed by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)

and Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA), this standard defines the physical and

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

12
 electrical characteristics of twisted-pair cabling for data transmission. Common
sub-standards include:
o TIA/EIA-568-C.2: Specifies the performance requirements for balanced
twisted-pair cabling, including categories 5e, 6, 6a, and 7.
o TIA/EIA-568-C.3: Specifies the performance requirements for optical fiber
cabling.
• ISO/IEC 11801: Similar to TIA/EIA-568, this international standard defines
cabling requirements for data and telecommunications applications.
• National Electrical Code (NEC): Establishes electrical safety standards for
building wiring, including network cabling installations.

2.1.2 Wireless Network Technologies:

Wireless networks transmit data using radio waves or infrared waves, providing mobility
and flexibility. Here are some key technologies:

• Wi-Fi:
o Most popular wireless networking technology, operating in the 2.4 GHz and 5
GHz bands.
o Offers varying speeds and ranges depending on the standard (802.11n,
802.11ac, etc.).
o Commonly used for home, office, and public Wi-Fi hotspots.
• Bluetooth:
o Short-range wireless technology for connecting devices like smartphones,
headphones, and printers.
o Uses lower power consumption than Wi-Fi and suitable for data transfer and
peripheral connections.
• Cellular Networks:
o Mobile network technology used by smartphones and other devices for internet
access on the go.
o Offers varying speeds and coverage depending on the generation (3G, 4G, 5G).
o Requires a subscription to a mobile service provider.

Choosing Between Wired and Wireless:

The choice between wired and wireless depends on several factors, including:

• Speed: How much data needs to be transferred?

• Range: How far apart are the devices?
• Cost: What is the budget for the network infrastructure?
• Security: How sensitive is the data being transmitted?
• Mobility: Do devices need to move freely?

Network Security:

Securing both wired and wireless networks is crucial to protect against unauthorized
access, data breaches, and other threats.

Network Devices and Connectivity

Data doesn't travel through cables or airwaves on its own. Network devices play a
crucial role in connecting devices, managing data flow, and ensuring smooth
communication. Some key devices include:

• Network Interface Cards (NICs): Installed in devices like computers and laptops, NICs
enable them to connect to the network.
• Switches and Routers: Forward data packets between devices and networks, directing
them to the correct destination.
• Access Points (APs): Create wireless networks by broadcasting Wi-Fi signals.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

13
 • Modems: Connect networks to the wider internet, translating signals between different
media types.

Remember, this module provides a basic overview. As you delve deeper into the world
of networking, you'll discover a vast and exciting field with endless possibilities.

Module 2.2: Network Topologies

Introduction:

Now that we've explored the different types of network media, let's delve deeper into
how these devices are interconnected. Network topologies describe the physical or
logical arrangement of devices and connections within a network. Understanding these
topologies is crucial for designing, implementing, and troubleshooting efficient network
systems.

2.2.1. Common Network Topologies:

Several network topologies exist, each with its own unique characteristics:

• Bus Topology:
o All devices are connected to a single shared cable, similar to a daisy chain.
o Simple to set up and cost-effective for small networks.
o Failure of one device or cable can disrupt the entire network.
o Not suitable for large networks or high-traffic environments.

• Star Topology:
o Each device is connected to a central hub or switch, creating a star-like pattern.
o Easy to manage and troubleshoot, as each device has its own dedicated
connection.
o Failure of the central device can bring down the entire network.
o Requires more cabling than bus topology.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

14
• Ring Topology:
o Devices are linked in a closed loop, with data passing from one device to the
next.
o Offers ordered data flow and redundancy, as data can travel in both directions.
o More complex to set up and troubleshoot compared to bus or star.
o Failure of one device can disrupt the entire ring.

• Mesh Topology:
o Devices are interconnected with multiple pathways, creating a web-like structure.
o Highly reliable and fault-tolerant, as data can take alternate routes if one path
fails.
o Complex to design and manage due to the numerous connections.
o More expensive to implement than other topologies.

• Tree Topology:
o Combines elements of bus and star topologies, with central hubs or switches
connected in a hierarchical structure.
o Offers scalability and flexibility, allowing for expansion and growth.
o Increased complexity compared to simpler topologies.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

15
 o Potential bottlenecks at higher levels of the hierarchy.

• Hybrid Topology:
o Combines multiple topologies to suit
specific network needs.
o Offers flexibility and customization
to address unique requirements.
o Increased complexity in design and
management.
o Requires careful planning and
implementation.

2.2.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Network Topologies:

Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Single point of failure, limited scalability,

Bus Simple setup, low cost
prone to congestion

Easy management, reliable, Single point of failure (central device),

Star
scalable higher cabling cost

Ordered data flow, redundant Single point of failure, complex setup

Ring
paths and troubleshooting

Complex design and management, high

Mesh Highly reliable, fault-tolerant
cost

Increased complexity, potential

Tree Scalable, flexible
bottlenecks

Customizable, adaptable to Complex design and management,

Hybrid
specific needs requires careful planning

Choosing the Right Topology:

The best topology for your network depends on several factors, including:

• Size and complexity of the network: Larger networks may benefit from more scalable
topologies like tree or mesh.
• Performance requirements: High-traffic environments may require topologies that
minimize congestion, like star or mesh.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

16
 • Budget constraints: Simpler topologies like bus or star may be more cost-effective for
smaller networks.
• Security needs: Fault-tolerant topologies like mesh can offer enhanced security in
critical environments.

Conclusion:

Understanding network topologies is essential for designing and managing efficient and
effective networks. By carefully considering the advantages, disadvantages, and
specific requirements of your network, you can choose the topology that best suits your
needs.

Module 2.3: Network Adapters and Connectivity

Issues
Now that we've explored network media and topologies, let's delve deeper into the
individual components that enable devices to connect: network adapters. These
crucial pieces of hardware allow computers and other devices to send and receive data
over the network. However, network connectivity isn't always smooth sailing. This
module will discuss network adapters, common connectivity issues, and troubleshooting
techniques.

2.3.1 Types of Network Adapters:

Different types of network adapters cater to various

connection needs:

• Ethernet Adapter:
o Most commonly used for wired connections,
utilizing Ethernet cables and ports.
o Offers high speeds and reliable performance
for desktops, laptops, and network devices.

• Wireless Adapter:
o Enables wireless connections to Wi-Fi
networks, using radio waves for data
transmission.
o Provides mobility and flexibility for laptops,
tablets, and smartphones.

• Powerline Adapter:
o Uses existing electrical wiring in a building to
transmit network data.
o Useful for connecting devices in areas with
limited cable access or Wi-Fi coverage.

• USB Network Adapter:

o External adapter connected via USB port,
offering wired or wireless connectivity
options.
o Portable and convenient for adding network capabilities to devices lacking built-in
adapters.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

17
2.3.2 Common Connectivity Issues:

Several factors can disrupt network connectivity:

• Hardware Issues:
o Faulty network adapters, cables, or network devices can cause connection
problems.
o Check for physical damage, loose connections, or outdated drivers.
• Software Issues:
o Incorrect network configurations, outdated drivers, or software conflicts can
interfere with connectivity.
o Verify settings, update drivers, and troubleshoot software conflicts.
• Network Issues:
o Problems with your router, internet service provider (ISP), or network
infrastructure can disrupt connections.
o Contact your ISP or network administrator for assistance.

2.3.3 Troubleshooting Techniques:

When facing connectivity issues, follow these steps:

• Identify the Problem:

o Observe symptoms like error messages, slow internet speeds, or lost
connections.
o Gather information about the affected device, network type, and recent changes
made.
• Check Hardware:
o Ensure cables are securely connected and not damaged.
o Verify the network adapter is functioning correctly and drivers are updated.
• Examine Software:
o Check network settings for accuracy and conflicts.
o Consider recent software updates or installations that might impact connectivity.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

18
 • Restart Devices:
o Reboot the computer, router, and modem to clear temporary glitches.
• Contact Support:
o If self-troubleshooting fails, consult your ISP or network administrator for further
assistance.

2.3.4 Maintaining Reliable Connections:

To prevent connectivity issues:

• Update Drivers:
o Regularly update network adapter drivers to ensure compatibility and security.
• Secure Your Network:
o Use strong passwords, enable encryption, and implement security measures to
protect your network.
• Monitor Performance:
o Regularly check network performance and troubleshoot potential issues
proactively.
• Invest in Quality Hardware:
o Use reliable network adapters, cables, and routers to minimize hardware-related
problems.
• Plan for Expansion:
o Choose network solutions that can adapt to future growth and changing needs.

Conclusion:

Understanding network adapters, common connectivity issues, and troubleshooting

techniques empowers you to maintain reliable network connections. By following these
guidelines and seeking assistance when needed, you can ensure your devices stay
connected and productive.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

19
Module 3: IP Addressing and
Subnetting:

3.1: Introduction to IP Addressing

Overview of IP Addressing:

In computer networking, IP (Internet Protocol) addressing is a method used to assign unique

identifiers to devices participating in a network. These identifiers are crucial for routing data
packets across networks, ensuring they reach their intended destinations.

Every device connected to a network, whether it's a computer, smartphone, or server, requires
an IP address to communicate with other devices. IP addressing provides a standardized way to
identify each device within a network and across the internet.

Explanation of IPv4 and IPv6 Address Structure:

• IPv4 Addressing: IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) addresses are 32-bit numerical
addresses expressed in four octets, separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.0.1). Each octet
can range from 0 to 255, providing approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. However,
the rapid growth of the internet has led to IPv4 address exhaustion.

• IPv6 Addressing: IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) addresses are 128-bit addresses
represented in hexadecimal notation (e.g.,2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
IPv6 was developed to address the limitations of IPv4 and provide an exponentially
larger address space, accommodating the increasing number of devices connected to
the internet.

Differentiating Between Public and Private IP Addresses:

1. Public IP Addresses:
• Public IP addresses are globally unique and routable on the internet.
• They are assigned to devices directly connected to the internet, such as routers,
servers, and public-facing devices.
• Public IP addresses are allocated by Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and are
registered in public IP address registries.
• Example: When you access a website from your home computer, your computer
uses a public IP address assigned by your ISP to communicate with the
website's server.
2. Private IP Addresses:
• Private IP addresses are used for internal networks, such as home or office
networks.
• They are not routable on the internet and are meant for private use within a local
network.
• Private IP addresses are defined in specific ranges reserved for private networks,
as specified in RFC 1918.
• Examples of private IP address ranges include:
• 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (Class A)
• 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (Class B)
• 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (Class C)
• Private IP addresses enable devices within a local network to communicate with
each other without directly accessing the internet.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

20
Key Takeaways:

• IP addressing provides unique identifiers for devices in a network.

• IPv4 addresses consist of four octets, each ranging from 0 to 255.
• Public IP addresses are routable on the internet and globally unique.
• Private IP addresses are used for internal networks and are not routable on the internet.

3.2 Classful and Classless Addressing

Classful Addressing:
Classful addressing was the original method for assigning IP addresses and dividing the IPv4
address space into distinct classes: A, B, and C. Each class had predefined ranges of IP
addresses and subnet masks:

1. Class A Addresses:
• Class A addresses start with a binary 0 as their first bit.
• They have a default subnet mask of 255.0.0.0 (/8).
• Class A addresses allocate the first octet for network identification and the
remaining three octets for host addresses (N.H.H.H).
• Range: 1.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 or 1-127.

2. Class B Addresses:
• Class B addresses start with binary 10 as their first two bits.
• They have a default subnet mask of 255.255.0.0 (/16).
• Class B addresses allocate the first two octets for network identification and the
remaining two octets for host addresses (N.N.H.H).
• Range: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255 or 128-191

3. Class C Addresses:
• Class C addresses start with binary 110 as their first three bits.
• They have a default subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 (/24).
• Class C addresses allocate the first three octets for network identification and the
remaining octet for host addresses (N.N.N.H).
• Range: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255 or 192-223

4. Class D Addresses (Multicast):

• Class D addresses start with binary 1110 as their first four bits.
• They are reserved for multicast addresses, used for one-to-many
communication.
• Class D addresses range from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 or 224-239.
• Example: Multicast streaming applications and routing protocols use Class D
addresses.

5. Class E Addresses (Reserved):

• Class E addresses start with binary 1111 as their first four bits.
• They are reserved for experimental or future use and are not intended for general
deployment.
• Class E addresses range from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 or 240-255.

Classful addressing was rigid and led to inefficient use of IP address space, especially for
organizations that required varying numbers of hosts per network. This led to the development
of classless addressing.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

21
Classless Addressing:
Classless addressing, also known as Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR), introduced a
more flexible approach to IP address assignment by allowing for the allocation of non-
contiguous blocks of IP addresses. It eliminated the strict class boundaries defined in classful
addressing.

In CIDR notation, the subnet mask is represented by a slash followed by the number of bits set
to 1 in the subnet mask. For example:
• /8 represents a subnet mask of 255.0.0.0
• /16 represents a subnet mask of 255.255.0.0
• /24 represents a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0

CIDR allows for the allocation of variable-sized subnets, enabling more efficient use of IP
address space and addressing the limitations of classful addressing.

Key Differences Between Classful and Classless Addressing:

1. Flexibility:
• Classful addressing has fixed boundaries for network classes (A, B, C), while
classless addressing allows for variable-sized subnets.

2. Efficiency:
• Classless addressing is more efficient in allocating IP addresses, as it eliminates
the need to adhere to fixed class boundaries.

3. CIDR Notation:
• CIDR notation is used in classless addressing to represent subnet masks and
network prefixes, providing a concise way to specify network addresses and their
sizes.

Conclusion:
Understanding the differences between classful and classless addressing is essential for
designing and managing modern IP networks. Classless addressing, with its flexibility and
efficiency, has largely replaced classful addressing in contemporary network implementations.

Key Takeaways:
• Classful addressing divides the IPv4 address space into fixed classes (A, B, C).
• Classless addressing (CIDR) allows for variable-sized subnets and more efficient use of
IP address space.
• CIDR notation represents subnet masks and network prefixes using a slash followed by
the number of bits.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

22
3.3 Subnetting Basics
Definition and Importance of Subnetting:
Subnetting is the process of dividing a single, large network into multiple smaller networks,
known as subnets. It involves splitting an IP network into smaller, manageable segments to
improve network performance, security, and efficiency.

Understanding Network and Host Portions of IP Addresses:

In IP addressing, each IP address consists of two main parts: the network portion and the host
portion.

1. Network Portion:
• The network portion of an IP address identifies the network to which the device
belongs.
• It specifies the network address and remains constant for all devices within the
same subnet.
• Subnetting involves dividing the network portion into smaller subnetworks, each
with its own subnet address.
2. Host Portion:
• The host portion of an IP address identifies the specific device within the
network.
• It varies for each device within the same subnet.
• Subnetting allows for efficient allocation of host addresses within each subnet,
reducing IP address wastage and optimizing address utilization.

Subnetting Advantages and Use Cases:

1. Optimized Network Performance:
• Subnetting reduces network congestion by breaking a large network into smaller
segments. This reduces the broadcast domain, limiting the scope of broadcast
traffic and improving network performance.
• Smaller broadcast domains result in faster data transmission and reduced
latency.

2. Improved Network Security:

• Subnetting enhances network security by isolating different parts of the network
into separate subnets.
• Network traffic between subnets can be controlled and monitored more
effectively using routers and firewalls, reducing the risk of unauthorized access
and security breaches.

3. Efficient Resource Management:

• Subnetting enables efficient allocation of IP addresses by allowing organizations
to allocate address space based on their specific requirements.
• It helps avoid IP address exhaustion and conserves address space by allocating
only the necessary number of addresses to each subnet.

4. Scalability and Growth:

• Subnetting facilitates network expansion and scalability by providing a modular
approach to network design.
• As the organization grows, additional subnets can be easily added without
disrupting the existing network infrastructure.

5. Departmental or Functional Segmentation:

• Subnetting allows organizations to segment their network based on departments,
functions, or geographic locations.
• Each subnet can be managed independently, allowing for tailored network

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

23
 configurations and policies based on specific departmental requirements.

Conclusion:
Subnetting is a fundamental concept in IP networking, essential for optimizing network
performance, enhancing security, and efficiently managing network resources. Understanding
subnetting basics is crucial for network administrators and engineers in designing and
maintaining robust and scalable networks.

Key Takeaways:
• Subnetting divides a large network into smaller subnetworks, known as subnets.
• IP addresses consist of a network portion and a host portion.
• Subnetting advantages include improved network performance, enhanced security,
efficient resource management, scalability, and departmental segmentation.
• Understanding subnetting basics is essential for network optimization and effective
network management.

3.4 How to solve Custom Subnet Mask

Step 1: Determine Requirements

Identify the needed subnets or usable hosts along with the network address.

Step 2: Address Class and Default Subnet Mask

Check the network address to determine its class and default subnet mask.

Step 3: Custom Subnet Mask Plotting

Plotting Steps:
1. Write the network address and turn each zero into 8 bits.
2. Write binary values above zeros from right to left, starting with 1 and doubling the
number.
3. Write the number of subnets from left to right, starting with 2 doubling the
number.
4. Write the number of hosts from right to left, starting with 2 and doubling the
number.
5. Identify the partition line based on needed subnets or hosts.
6. Sum the binary values within the partition line to get the custom subnet mask.

Step 4: Total Number of Subnets

Find the closest number to the partition line in the Number of Subnets.

Step 5: Total Number of Host Addresses

Find the closest number to the partition line in the Number of Hosts.

Step 6: Number of Usable Addresses

Subtract 2 from the total number of hosts to account for network and broadcast
addresses.

Step 7: Number of Bits Borrowed

Count the number of bits included in the partition line.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

24
3.5 How to Perform Subnetting

Step 8: Find the nth Subnet Range

The binary value of the last borrowed bit determines the range. For example, if the
network address is 192.10.10.0 and the range is 16, the subnet range is from
192.10.10.0 to 192.10.10.15.

Step 9: Find the Subnet Number for the nth Subnet

The first IP address in the range is the subnet number. For instance, if the nth subnet is
the 1st, the subnet number is 192.10.10.0.

Step 10: Find the Subnet Broadcast Address for the nth Subnet
The last IP address in the range is the subnet broadcast address. For example, if the
nth subnet is the 1st, the broadcast address is 192.10.10.15.

Step 11: Find the Assignable/Usable Addresses for the nth Subnet
Remove the subnet number and broadcast address from the range to find the
assignable addresses. For instance, if the nth subnet is the 1st, the assignable
addresses range from 192.10.10.1 to 192.10.10.14.

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

25
 Partition Line

Total Number of Subnets Total Number of Host Addresses

Number of bits borrowed Subnet Range

1st Subnet Range

Subnet Number Subnet Broadcast Address

UA-TLMC, College of Computer Studies ⚫ INFOT 3 – Networking 1 ⚫ Instructor: Jessie H. Tacuyan

26