DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Dr G.Ravi Kumar
February 13, 2025

Unit-I

1 Fundamentals of Digital Systems

Introduction
A
digital signal is a representation of data using discrete values, typically binary (0 and
1), to encode information. Unlike analog signals, which vary continuously, digital signals
switch between distinct levels, making them the backbone of modern computing and
communication technologies.

Characteristics of Digital Signals

ˆ Discrete Levels: Digital signals have specific, predefined levels. The most common
is binary encoding, where 0 represents a LOW state, and 1 represents a HIGH state.
Each state corresponds to a voltage level in hardware systems.
ˆ Square Wave Representation: A digital signal is often visualized as a square
wave, alternating between its two levels over time. The transitions represent changes
in the data being transmitted or processed.
ˆ Time Synchronization: Digital systems rely on clock signals to synchronize tran-
sitions, ensuring accurate interpretation of the data.
ˆ Noise Immunity: Digital signals are robust against noise. Even if the signal is
slightly distorted, the discrete nature of the levels helps the system correctly identify
0 or 1.

Advantages of Digital Signals

ˆ Precision: Digital signals are highly accurate because they use discrete levels,
minimizing errors caused by small distortions or noise.
ˆ Ease of Manipulation: Digital signals are easy to process, store, and transmit.
Techniques such as error correction and data compression are straightforward in
digital systems.

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 ˆ Reliable Transmission: Digital data can be transmitted over long distances with
minimal loss. Signal regenerators or repeaters can restore the signal to its original
form.

ˆ Compatibility: Digital signals integrate seamlessly with computers, microproces-

sors, and other digital systems, making them ideal for modern technology.

Applications of Digital Signals

ˆ Communication Systems: Digital signals are used in mobile phones, Wi-Fi, and
satellite communication to transmit voice, video, and data.

ˆ Data Storage: Storage devices like SSDs, HDDs, and optical discs rely on binary
data representation.

ˆ Multimedia: Audio and video are encoded digitally for applications like streaming,
CDs, and DVDs.

ˆ Embedded Systems: Microcontrollers and embedded devices rely heavily on dig-

ital signals for operations and interfacing.

Digital circuits are the backbone of modern electronics, enabling the design and
operation of systems that rely on discrete binary signals. These circuits process and store
data in binary form, where 0 and 1 correspond to specific voltage levels. Digital circuits
are integral to computing devices, communication systems, and embedded systems.

Key Components of Digital Circuits

ˆ Logic Gates: Basic building blocks of digital circuits that perform logical oper-
ations like AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, and XNOR. They combine to
implement complex logic functions.

ˆ Flip-Flops: Used for storage and synchronization. They maintain a binary state
(0 or 1) until changed by an input signal. Commonly used in registers, counters,
and memory devices.

ˆ Combinational Circuits: Outputs depend only on the current inputs. Examples

include adders, multiplexers, and encoders.

ˆ Sequential Circuits: Outputs depend on current inputs and the history of inputs
(stored state). Examples include counters, shift registers, and finite state machines.

ˆ Microprocessors and Microcontrollers: Combine multiple digital components

to process data and control systems.

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Characteristics of Digital Circuits
ˆ Discrete Signals: Operate using binary logic (0 and 1) represented by distinct
voltage levels, reducing ambiguity.

ˆ Noise Immunity: Less susceptible to noise compared to analog circuits.

ˆ Scalability: Easy to scale for complex operations by combining basic components.

ˆ High Reliability: Provide consistent and error-free performance.

Advantages of Digital Circuits

ˆ Precision and Accuracy: Binary representation reduces errors and ensures con-
sistent output.

ˆ Ease of Design: Modular design simplifies implementation and troubleshooting.

ˆ Integration: Millions of components can be integrated into a single chip (VLSI

technology).

ˆ Reprogrammability: Digital circuits can support software-based reconfigura-

tions.

Applications of Digital Circuits

ˆ Computing: Found in CPUs, GPUs, and other computational devices.

ˆ Communication Systems: Used in modems, routers, and wireless communica-

tion systems.

ˆ Data Storage: Integral to SSDs, RAM, and hard drives.

ˆ Consumer Electronics: Power smartphones, TVs, and gaming consoles.

ˆ Control Systems: Used in robotics, automation, and embedded systems.

Comparison with Analog Circuits

Feature Digital Circuits Analog Circuits

Signal Type Discrete (Binary: 0 and 1) Continuous
Noise Resistance High Susceptible to noise
Design Modular and programmable Complex and fixed
Applications Computing, communication, storage Audio, RF systems, sensors

Table 1: Comparison of Digital and Analog Circuits

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Introduction
In digital logic, logical operations are fundamental for performing computational tasks.
The most commonly used logical operations are AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and
Exclusive-OR (XOR). These operations form the basis of many circuits and computa-
tional systems.

Logical Operations
AND Operation: The AND operation outputs 1 only when both inputs are 1, other-
wise, it outputs 0. This is a basic operation in digital electronics.
A·B =Y

A B A AND B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Figure 1: AND Gate Figure 2: Truth Table for AND

OR Operation: The OR operation outputs 1 if at least one input is 1. It only

outputs 0 if both inputs are 0. A + B = Y

A B A OR B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Figure 3: OR Gate
Figure 4: Truth Table for OR

NOT Operation: The NOT operation inverts the value of the input. If the input
is 1, it becomes 0, and vice versa.
A=Y

A NOT A
0 1
1 0

Figure 6: Truth Table for NOT

Figure 5: NOT Gate

NAND Operation: The NAND operation is the inverse of the AND operation. It
outputs 1 in all cases except when both inputs are 1.
A·B =Y
NOR Operation: The NOR operation is the inverse of the OR operation. It outputs
0 in all cases except when both inputs are 0.
A+B =Y

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 A B A NAND B
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Figure 7: NAND Gate
Figure 8: Truth Table for NAND

A B A NOR B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Figure 9: NOR Gate
Figure 10: Truth Table for NOR

Universal Gates: These operations have become very popular and are widely used,
the reason being the only one type of gates, either NAND or NOR are suffi cient for the
realisation of any logical expression. Because of this reason, NAND and NOR gates are
known as universal gates.

Figure 11: Realisation of Basic Logic Operations Using NOR Gates (a) NOT (b) OR (c)
AND

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Figure 12: Realisation of Basic Logic Operations Using NANDOR Gates (a) NOT (b)
OR (c) AND

Exclusive-OR (XOR) Operation: The XOR operation outputs 1 when the inputs
are different, and 0 when they are the same.
A⊕B =Y

A B A XOR B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Figure 13: XOR Gate Figure 14: Truth Table for XOR

Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra is a branch of algebra that deals with binary variables and logical oper-
ations. It is fundamental to the design and operation of digital circuits, logic gates, and
computer systems.

Basic Operations
Boolean algebra includes three basic operations:

1. AND Operation (A · B): The result is 1 only if both A and B are 1.

2. OR Operation (A + B): The result is 1 if either A or B is 1.

3. NOT Operation (A): The result is the negation of A.

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 (
1 if A = 1 and B = 1
A·B =
0 otherwise
(
1 if A = 1 or B = 1
A+B =
0 if both A = 0 and B = 0
(
1 if A = 0
A=
0 if A = 1

Derived Operations
1. NAND Operation (A NAND B): The negation of the AND operation.
2. NOR Operation (A NOR B): The negation of the OR operation.
3. XOR Operation (A ⊕ B): The output is 1 if and only if A and B are different.

A NAND B = A · B
A NOR B = A + B
A⊕B =A·B+A·B

Laws of Boolean Algebra

The following laws help simplify Boolean expressions:
ˆ Identity Law: A · 1 = A, A + 0 = A

ˆ Null Law: A · 0 = 0, A + 1 = 1

ˆ Domination Law: A · A = A, A + A = A

ˆ Complement Law: A · A = 0, A + A = 1

ˆ Idempotent Law: A · A = A, A + A = A

ˆ Double Negation Law: A = A

ˆ Distributive Law: A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C, A + (B · C) = (A + B) · (A + C)

Applications of Boolean Algebra

Boolean algebra is widely used in:
ˆ Digital Circuit Design: For designing logic gates like AND, OR, NOT, and
complex systems like adders, multiplexers, etc.
ˆ Computer Science: In algorithms, decision-making, data structures, and search
engines.
ˆ Error Detection and Correction: Used in communication systems to detect
and correct errors in data transmission.

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Problem 1: Simplifying Boolean Expressions
Simplify the following Boolean expression using Boolean algebra laws:

(A + B) · (A + B)

Solution:

ˆ Step 1: Apply the Distributive Law :

(A + B) · (A + B) = A · A + A · B + B · A + B · B

ˆ Step 2: Apply the Idempotent Law :

=A+A·B+B·A+B·B

ˆ Step 3: Apply the Complement Law :

=A+A·B+B·A

ˆ Step 4: Factor out A:

= A · (1 + B + B)

ˆ Step 5: Apply the Complement Law :

= A · (1 + 1) = A · 1

ˆ Step 6: Apply the Identity Law :

=A

Thus, the simplified Boolean expression is A.

Problem 2: Finding the Output of a Boolean Expres-

sion
Given the Boolean expression:

F = (A + B) · (A + C)

Find the output for the following inputs:

1. A = 0, B = 1, C = 1

2. A = 1, B = 0, C = 0
Solution:
For the first case A = 0, B = 1, C = 1:

(A + B) = 0 + 1 = 1
A=0=1

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 (A + C) = 1 + 1 = 1
F = (A + B) · (A + C) = 1 · 1 = 1
For the second case A = 1, B = 0, C = 0:

(A + B) = 1 + 0 = 1
A=1=0
(A + C) = 0 + 0 = 0
F = (A + B) · (A + C) = 1 · 0 = 0
Thus, the output is: - For A = 0, B = 1, C = 1, the output is 1. - For A = 1, B =
0, C = 0, the output is 0.

Problem 3: Constructing a Truth Table

Construct the truth table for the Boolean expression:
F = A · (B + C)
Solution:
The truth table for the Boolean expression F = A · (B + C) is as follows:

A B C B + C A · (B + C)
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1

Problem 4: Solving a Boolean Equation

Solve the Boolean equation for X:
X =A·B+A·C
Given A = 1, B = 0, C = 1.
Solution:
1. Evaluate A · B:
A·B =1·0=0
2. Evaluate A:
A=1=0
3. Evaluate A · C:
A·C =0·1=0
4. Now, evaluate the final result:
X =A·B+A·C =0+0=0
Thus, the value of X is 0 when A = 1, B = 0, C = 1.

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Problem 5: Boolean Expression with Multiple Vari-
ables
Simplify the following Boolean expression:

F = A · (B + C) + A · (B + C)

Solution:
1. Factor out (B + C):
F = (A + A) · (B + C)
2. Apply the Complement Law :
A+A=1
3. Simplify the expression:
F = 1 · (B + C) = B + C
Thus, the simplified Boolean expression is F = B + C

Number Systems in Digital Electronics

Number systems are essential in digital electronics, as computers and other digital systems
primarily operate on binary. The main number systems used are binary, signed binary,
octal, and hexadecimal. Below is a breakdown of each number system.

1. Binary Number System

ˆ Base: 2

ˆ Digits Used: 0 and 1

ˆ Description: The binary number system uses only two digits, 0 and 1. It is the
foundation of all digital systems. In binary, each digit represents a power of 2.

Example:
Decimal: 9 Binary: 10012
Converting Decimal 9 to Binary:

910 = 1 × 23 + 0 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 10012

2. Signed Binary Numbers

ˆ Base: 2

ˆ Digits Used: 0 and 1 (with a sign bit)

ˆ Description: Signed binary numbers are used to represent both positive and neg-
ative values. The most common method is to use two’s complement representa-
tion, where the leftmost bit (sign bit) indicates whether the number is positive (0)
or negative (1).

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 Example: Converting -9 to Signed Binary (in 8 bits)
1. Convert 9 to binary: 00001001
2. Invert all bits: 11110110
3. Add 1: 11110111
Thus, −9 in signed binary (8 bits) is 111101112 .

Decimal Binary (Two’s Complement)

+9 00001001
−9 11110111
+5 00000101
−5 11111011

3. Octal Number System

ˆ Base: 8

ˆ Digits Used: 0 to 7

ˆ Description: The octal number system uses eight digits, ranging from 0 to 7. It is
commonly used in computing as a more compact representation of binary numbers.
Every group of 3 binary digits (bits) can be represented by one octal digit.

Example:
Decimal: 65 Octal: 1018
Converting Decimal 65 to Octal:
1. 65 ÷ 8 = 8 remainder 1
2. 8 ÷ 8 = 1 remainder 0
3. 1 ÷ 8 = 0 remainder 1
Thus, 6510 = 1018 .

Power of 8 Octal Representation

80 1
1
8 10
82 100
83 1000
84 10000

4. Hexadecimal Number System

ˆ Base: 16

ˆ Digits Used: 0-9 and A-F (where A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14, F=15)

ˆ Description: The hexadecimal number system uses sixteen digits, 0-9 and A-F.
It is widely used in computing as a more compact representation of binary data.
Every group of 4 binary digits (bits) can be represented by one hexadecimal digit.

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 Example:
Decimal: 254 Hexadecimal: F E16
Converting Decimal 254 to Hexadecimal:

1. 254 ÷ 16 = 15 remainder 14 (14 is represented as F)

2. 15 ÷ 16 = 0 remainder 15 (15 is represented as F)

Thus, 25410 = F E16 .

Power of 16 Hexadecimal Representation

160 1
161 10
162 100
3
16 1000
164 10000

Summary of Conversions
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal
9 10012 118 916
65 10000012 1018 4116
254 111111102 3768 F E16

Binary Arithmetic
1. Binary Addition
Rules:
0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, 1 + 1 = 10 (carry 1).
Example:
10112 + 11012 = 110002

2. Binary Subtraction
Rules:
0 − 0 = 0, 1 − 0 = 1, 1 − 1 = 0, 0 − 1 = 1 (borrow 1).
Example:
11012 − 10112 = 102

One’s and Two’s Complement Arithmetic

One’s Complement
One’s complement is obtained by flipping all bits:

Binary: 10102 One’s Complement: 01012

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Two’s Complement
Two’s complement is obtained by adding 1 to the one’s complement:

Binary: 10102 One’s Complement: 01012 Two’s Complement: 01102

Codes
1. Excess-3 Code
Excess-3 code is obtained by adding 3 to the binary representation:

Decimal: 5 Binary: 01012 Excess-3: 10002

Decimal Binary Excess-3 Code

0 0000 0011
1 0001 0100
2 0010 0101
3 0011 0110
4 0100 0111
5 0101 1000

2. Gray Code
Gray code is obtained where two successive values differ by only one bit:

Binary: 10102 Gray Code: 11112

Binary Gray Code

0000 0000
0001 0001
0010 0011
0011 0010
0100 0110
0101 0111

Error Detecting and Correcting Codes

1. Error Detecting Codes
Parity Check
Parity bits are added to data to detect errors:
ˆ Even Parity: Ensures the total number of 1’s (including the parity bit) is even.

ˆ Odd Parity: Ensures the total number of 1’s (including the parity bit) is odd.

Example:

Data: 1010 Parity Bit (Even): 1 Transmitted Code: 10101

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Checksum
The checksum is calculated by summing binary data values and appending the result to
the transmitted data. The receiver recalculates the checksum to verify integrity.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC uses polynomial division to detect errors. A checksum is generated by dividing the
data polynomial by a generator polynomial.
—

2. Error Correcting Codes

Hamming Code
Hamming codes detect and correct single-bit errors. The number of parity bits p is
determined using:
2p ≥ m + p + 1
Where m is the number of data bits.
Example: For 4 data bits (m = 4):
Data: 1011 Parity Bits: P 1, P 2, P 4
Encoded as:
P 1, P 2, D1, P 4, D2, D3, D4

Reed-Solomon Code
Reed-Solomon codes are block-based error correction codes capable of correcting burst
errors. They are used in CDs, DVDs, and QR codes.

BCH Code
BCH codes can detect and correct multiple errors, making them suitable for advanced
communication systems.

Convolutional Code
Convolutional codes encode data streams in real-time by convolving the input data with
a fixed code.
—

Comparison of Codes
Code Type Error Detection Error Correction
P arityCheck Yes No
Checksum Yes No
HammingCode Yes Single-Bit
Reed − Solomon Yes Burst Errors
BCHCode Yes Multiple Errors
ConvolutionalCode Yes Real-Time

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Digital IC Characteristics, Logic Families, and Re-
lated Topics
1. Characteristics of Digital ICs
ˆ Speed: Measured by propagation delay (tpd ), typically in nanoseconds (ns).

ˆ Power Dissipation: Power consumed during operation, measured in milliwatts

(mW).
ˆ Noise Margin: The maximum noise voltage a circuit can tolerate.

ˆ Fan-In: Number of inputs a gate can handle.

ˆ Fan-Out: Number of output connections a gate can drive.

ˆ Logic Levels: Voltage ranges for logic ”0” and ”1.”

ˆ Integration Level: SSI, MSI, LSI, VLSI.

2. Digital Logic Families

ˆ Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL): Fast, reliable, commonly used in 74XX
series.
ˆ CMOS Logic: Low power, high noise immunity, used in 4000 series.

ˆ Schottky TTL: Improved speed with Schottky diodes.

ˆ Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL): High speed, high power consumption.

ˆ BiCMOS: Combines benefits of BJTs and CMOS.

3. TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic)

ˆ Voltage Levels: Logic ”1” (2.4 − 5V ), Logic ”0” (0 − 0.8V ).

ˆ Advantages: Robust, widely available.

ˆ Limitations: Higher power consumption compared to CMOS.

4. Schottky TTL
ˆ Features: Enhanced speed with Schottky diodes, lower propagation delay.

ˆ Applications: High-speed digital circuits.

5. CMOS Logic
ˆ Features: Low power consumption, wide operating voltage, high noise immunity.

ˆ Advantages: Suitable for battery-powered devices.

ˆ Limitations: Slower than TTL at high frequencies.

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6. Interfacing CMOS and TTL
ˆ Challenges: Different voltage levels for logic ”1” and ”0.”

ˆ Solutions: Use pull-up resistors or level-shifting circuits.

7. Tri-State Logic
ˆ Features: Three states: logic ”1,” logic ”0,” and high-impedance (Z).

ˆ Applications: Used in bus systems for microprocessors and memory.

2 Question Bank
Q1: What is a digital signal?
Answer: A digital signal is a signal that represents data as discrete levels, typically in
binary form (0s and 1s), rather than a continuous range of values.
Q2: Compare digital signals and analog signals.
Answer:

ˆ Digital Signals: Discrete, less affected by noise, easier to process and store, sup-
ports encryption.

ˆ Analog Signals: Continuous, more susceptible to noise, harder to process, used

for natural data like sound and video.

Q3: What is the truth table for an AND gate?

Answer:
Input A Input B Output (A AND B)
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Q4: Write the Boolean expression and symbol for an XOR gate.
Answer: The Boolean expression is A ⊕ B = A · B + A · B. Symbol: A curved plus sign
within a circle (⊕).
Q5: Simplify the Boolean expression AB + AB + AB.
Answer: AB + AB + AB = A + B.
Q6: State De Morgan’s Theorems.
Answer:

1. A + B = A · B.

2. A · B = A + B.

Q7: Convert (45)10 to binary, octal, and hexadecimal.

Answer:

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 ˆ Binary: 1011012
ˆ Octal: 558
ˆ Hexadecimal: 2D16
Q8: Perform binary addition: 10112 + 11012 .
Answer: 10112 + 11012 = 110002 .
Q9: What is the 2’s complement of 11012 ?
Answer: The 2’s complement is found by inverting the bits (0010) and adding 1: 00112 .
Q10: Convert (25)10 to Excess-3 code.
Answer: Convert 2510 to binary: 110012 , then add 3 in binary (011): 11001 + 0011 =
11010. Final Excess-3 code: 11010.
Q11: Explain Gray Code with an example.
Answer: Gray code is a binary numbering system where two successive values differ in
only one bit. Example: Binary 100 → Gray Code: 110.
Q12: What are the main characteristics of digital ICs?
Answer:
ˆ Speed (propagation delay)
ˆ Power consumption
ˆ Noise margin
ˆ Fan-in and fan-out
ˆ Operating temperature range
Q13: Compare TTL and CMOS logic families.
Answer:
ˆ TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic): High speed, high power consumption, lim-
ited fan-out.
ˆ CMOS (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor): Low power con-
sumption, high noise immunity, slower speed than TTL.
Q14: What is Schottky TTL?
Answer: Schottky TTL uses Schottky diodes to reduce propagation delay by preventing
transistors from saturating.
Q15: How can CMOS and TTL be interfaced?
Answer: Use a pull-up resistor or a level-shifting circuit to match voltage levels since
CMOS typically operates at higher voltage levels than TTL.
Q16: What is tri-state logic?
Answer: Tri-state logic has three states: HIGH (1), LOW (0), and High Impedance (Z).
The High Impedance state effectively disconnects the circuit from the bus.
Q17: What is the application of tri-state logic?
Answer: Used in bus systems where multiple devices share the same data lines but need
to operate without interfering with each other.

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Essay Questions
Q1: Explain the concept of digital signals and discuss the advantages of digital circuits
over analog circuits in modern electronics. Provide examples to illustrate your points.
Q2: Describe the operation of basic logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR)
with their truth tables and symbolic representations. Explain their importance in digital
circuit design.
Q3: Simplify the Boolean expression A + AB + AB using the laws of Boolean algebra
and describe the real-world application of such simplifications.
Q4: Discuss the significance of different number systems (binary, octal, decimal, and hex-
adecimal) in digital electronics. Provide examples of conversions between these systems
and their applications in computer systems.
Q5: Explain the concept of one’s and two’s complement in binary arithmetic and their
role in signed number representation and operations.
Q6: Write an essay on the importance of error-detecting and correcting codes in digital
communication. Include explanations of parity bits, Hamming codes, and checksum
techniques.
Q7: Compare and contrast Excess-3 and Gray Code, explaining their use cases in digital
systems. Include examples of conversions and explain why certain applications prefer
these codes.
Q8: Discuss the characteristics of digital integrated circuits (ICs) such as speed, power
consumption, noise margin, and fan-out. Compare the performance of TTL and CMOS
logic families with examples.
Q9: Explain the advancements in Schottky TTL and its impact on the performance of
digital circuits.
Q10: Explain the challenges in interfacing CMOS and TTL logic families. Discuss the
methods used to overcome these challenges and ensure compatibility.
Q11: Write an essay on tri-state logic, its operation, and its applications in bus systems
and shared data lines in digital electronics.

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 Unit-II

3 Combinational Digital Circuits

Standard representation for logic functions, K-map representation, simplification of logic
functions using K-map, don‘t care conditions, Adders, Subtractors, BCD arithmetic,
carry look ahead adder, serial adder, Multiplexer, De Multiplexer, digital comparator,
parity checker/ generator, code converters, priority encoders, decoders/drivers for display
devices, Q-M method of function realization.

Standard Representations of Logic Functions

1. Sum of Products (SOP)
- The logic function is expressed as a sum (OR) of multiple product (AND) terms. -
Each product term contains all the input variables in either true or complemented form.
Example: For the truth table:
A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
The SOP representation is:
F (A, B) = AB + AB + AB.

2. Product of Sums (POS)

- The logic function is expressed as a product (AND) of multiple sum (OR) terms. -
Each sum term contains all the input variables in either true or complemented form.
Example: For the same truth table:
The POS representation is:
F (A, B) = (A + B)(A + B)(A + B).

3. Canonical Forms
Logic functions can also be expressed in their canonical form:
ˆ Canonical SOP: Every product term includes all variables, either in true or com-
plemented form.
ˆ Canonical POS: Every sum term includes all variables, either in true or comple-
mented form.
Example for Canonical SOP:
F (A, B) = AB + AB + AB.
Example for Canonical POS:
F (A, B) = (A + B)(A + B)(A + B).

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4. Truth Table Representation
A tabular form that lists all possible input combinations and their corresponding outputs.
Example:
A B F
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

5. Karnaugh Map (K-map)

A graphical representation of a logic function used for simplification by grouping 1s.
Example: For F (A, B) = AB + AB, the K-map is:

A\B 0 1
0 0 1
1 0 1

6. Logic Circuit Representation

A graphical representation of logic gates arranged to implement a specific Boolean func-
tion.
Example: The logic function F (A, B) = A · B + A · B can be represented using an
AND gate, an OR gate, and a NOT gate.

Circuit Diagram: (Not shown in this document, could be drawn with software like TikZ for LaTeX.)

K-map Representation
A Karnaugh Map (K-map) is a graphical representation used to simplify Boolean func-
tions by grouping adjacent cells containing ones (1s) in the truth table.

Example: 2-Variable K-map

Given the function F (A, B) = AB + AB, the truth table is as follows:

A B F (A, B)
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1
The corresponding K-map is:

A\B 0 1
0 0 1
1 0 1

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Example: 3-Variable K-map
For a 3-variable function F (A, B, C), the K-map layout is organized as follows:

AB\C 00 01 11 10
00 F (0, 0, 0) F (0, 0, 1) F (0, 0, 11) F (0, 0, 10)
01 F (0, 1, 0) F (0, 1, 1) F (0, 1, 11) F (0, 1, 10)
11 F (1, 1, 0) F (1, 1, 1) F (1, 1, 11) F (1, 1, 10)
10 F (1, 0, 0) F (1, 0, 1) F (1, 0, 11) F (1, 0, 10)

Steps for Simplification Using K-maps

1. Plot the values from the truth table onto the K-map. 2. Group adjacent 1s into rect-
angles of size 2n , where n is an integer. 3. Write the simplified expression by identifying
common variables in each group.

Example of Simplification
Given F (A, B, C) = Σ(1, 3, 5, 7), the K-map representation is:

AB\C 00 01 11 10
00 0 1 0 0
01 0 1 0 0
11 0 1 1 1
10 0 0 0 1
Simplify by grouping adjacent 1s:

F (A, B, C) = B · C + A · B.

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 Unit-III

4 Sequential circuits and systems

Subsections can help organize your work.

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 Unit-IV

5 A/D and D/A Converters

Subsections can help organize your work.

6 Semi-conductor memories
Summarize your work.

7 Programmable logic devices

Summarize your work.

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