Measurements and

instrumentations

A.K SHAWNEY: MEASUREMENTS AND

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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 syllabus

 MODULE 1: General principles of measurements-

measurement systems-measurement standards
–characteristics-errors in measurements-calibration of
meters-significance of IS standards of instruments
E S
 Classification of meters- operating . I N
forces-essentials of
U N O T
K T
indicating instruments- deflecting, damping and
controlling torque

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 Ammeters and voltmeters- moving iron and moving coil-
constructional details and operating, principles shunt and
multipliers-extension range.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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 Measurements

 An act or result of comparison between the quantity.

 Process by which one can convert physical
parameters to a meaningful numbers.
 Property of a system or object under Nconsideration is
compared to an accepted T E S . I
KTU NOstandard unit.

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 Methods of Measurements

 Direct methods
 Indirect methods
Direct methods:- unknown quantity is directly
compared against a standards.S . I N
O T E
The results is K TUN in numerical numbers.
expressed
Eg: Length,mass and time.
Direct methods are not always possible, feasible
and practicable. – involve human errors- less
sensitive.

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 In engineering applications Mesaurement
systems are used which require need of indirect
methods.
 Mechanical , electrical and electonic instruments.
E S . I N
 Mechanical :- reliable
U N for
O Tstatic and stable
K T
conditions, major disadvantage – unable to respond
rapidly to dynamic and transient conditions.

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 Electrical :- indicting the output of detectors are
more rapid than mechanical methods.
 Depends upon mechanical meter movement as
indicating device.
S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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 Classifications of instruments

 Absolute instruments and secondary instruments.

Absolute instruments:- quantity under measurements
gives magnitude in terms of physical constants of the
instruments.
S . I N
eg: tangent galvanometer.NOTE
K T U
Secondary instruments:- quantity being measured can
only be measured by observing the output indicated by the
instrument.

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 These instruments are calibrated by comparison with
an absolute instruments.
 Deflection type instruments:
- measured quantity produce some I physical
N effect
which deflects or produces T E S .
a mechanical
T U N O
displacement. K
- opposing effect is built in instrument which tries to
oppose the mechanical displacement

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 S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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 Deflection type

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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 Balance is achieved when opposing effect equals to
cause producing mechanical displacements.

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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 Td = deflecting torque
Td = GI.
Tc = controlling torque
= KØ . I N
OT E S
under balancing Td
TU=NTc
K

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 Null type instruments:
Zero or null indication leads to determination of
magnitude.
in contrast to deflection type, it tries toIN
maintain the
T
deflection at zero by application E S .
of effect opposing that
T U N O
generated. K
it requires 1) effect produced by measured quantity 2)
opposing effect 3) detector

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 Null type

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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 comparison

 Null type instruments are more accurate than

deflection type
 Null type are highly sensitive than deflection type
 Deflection type are more suitable for Ndynamic
E S . I
conditions, while null N OT
type the response is slow
KTU

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 Errors in measurements

 True value and static error

 True value refers to a value obtained if the quantity
under measurement were measured agreed upon with
accuracy.
E S . I N
 Accuracy of an instrumentO
U N is T
measured in terms of error.
K T
 Static error is defined as difference between measured
and true value. (δA)

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 δA = Am-At
£o = absolute static error = δA
Static correction (δc) = At-Am = - δA
S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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 Q1.A meter reads 127.50v and the true value
of voltage is 127.43v. Determine static error
and static correction?
 Q2. A thermometer reads 95.450c and the
static correction given is E
– S .
0.08I N0c. Determine
U N O T
KT
the true value?

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 Q1. δA = Am-At
= 0.07V
(δc) = At-Am = - δA = -0.07V
S . I N
Q2) At = Am + δc;T= N C
U95.37 OTo E
K

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 Q3) A voltage has a true value of 1.50V. An
analog instrument with a scale range of 0-
2.50V shows a voltage of 1.46v. What are the
values of absolute error and correction.
E S .
Express the error as a fraction I N
of true value
U N O T
and full scaleK
deflection?
T

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 Types of errors

 Gross errors:
- mainly covers human errors while reading, recording
and calculating measurements.
 can be avoided by
- great care during reading S
and
E . I N
recording.
U N O T
- taking two K T
or more reading at a time.
 Systematic errors
a) instrumental error b) environmental errors
c) observational errors

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 Instrumental errors
- i) Due to inherent shortcoming of instrument
ii) Due to misuse of instrument
iii) Due to loading effects of instruments.
.IN
OT E S
K T U N
i) Due to inherent shortcoming of instrument
- Inherent in system due to its structure
- may be due to its construction, calibration or operation
- error may cause to read too low or too high.

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 This error can be reduced to a great extent by
following method.
i) procedure of measurement must be carefully planned.
ii) correctional factor to be applied after
I Ndetermining
instrumental error. T E S .
T U N O
K
iii) substitution or calculation against standards must be
used
iv) instrument may be recalibrated

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 ii) Due to misuse of instrument
- Good instrument used in an unintelligent way gives
erroneous result.
- may be failure to adjust the zero Iof
N the instrument.
T E S .
- using leads of too U
T N O
a high resistance.
K
- overloading and overheating.

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 iii) Due to loading effects
“ the incapacity of system to faithfully measure, record
or control the input signal ( measurand) in undistorted
form is called loading effect”
E S . I N
- common errors committed
U N O Tby beginners.
K T
- Eg: Voltmeter connected across high resistance gives
misleading voltage, while connected across low resistance
gives dependable reading.

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 A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1000 Ω/V reads 100 V
on its 150 V scale when connected across an unknown
resistor in series with milli-ammeter.
when the milli-ammeter reads 5 mA, calculate
E S . I N
U N O T
i) apparent resitance of unknown resistor;
K T
ii) actual resistance of unknown resistor, and
iii) error due to loading effect

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 What happens when milli-ammeter reads 800mA
and the voltmeter reads 40V on its 150V scale?

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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 Environmental errors.
- errors due to conditions external to measuring device.
- conditions surrounding area of measurement.
- due to temperature, pressure, humidity,
. I N dust etc..
O T E S
Corrective measures
K T U N
employed to reduce this errors
- (i) arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as
nearly as constant.
Eg; equipment in temperature controlled enclosure

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 (ii) using equipment which is immune to these effects
Eg: choose instrument having low temperature resistance
coefficient for measuring for resistance varying with
temperature.
E S . I N
(iii) Employ techniques N
U which
O Teliminate these disturbance.
K T
(iv) magnetic and electrostatic field should be provided
for instrument susceptible to electric and magnetic field.

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 Observational errors:
 there are many causes of observational error
- PARALLAX Error: when the pointer lies above the
surface of scale, PARALLAX error may I Noccur if the line
of vision of observer is not T E S
exactly
.
above the pointer.
T U N O
K
This error can be minimized by using accurate meters with
measured glass.

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 Random ( residual error):
- quantity being measured are influenced by many factors
- Happenings or disturbances which are unaware are
lumped together and called random orINresidual error.
E S .
KTU NOT

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 Analog instruments

 Analog device is one which output or display is a

continuous function of time.
 Bears constant relation to its input
 Eg: Ammeter and Voltmeter N
T E S . I
i) d.c instrument ii)U
T A.C
N O
instrument iii) D.C/A.C
K
instrument--- universal instruments

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 Indicating instruments

 Indicating instruments
 Indicates magnitude of a quantity being measured

 They are of two types . I N

OTE S
K T U N
 i) electromechanical instruments, ii) electronic
instruments
electronic instruments are constructed by addition of
electronic circuits to electromagnetic indicators in order to
increase sensitivity and input impedence

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Recording instruments
 Gives continuous record of quantity being measured over
a specified period.
 Variation of quantity being measured by Na pen attached to
the instrument. T E S . I
T U N O
K
 Eg: recording voltmeter in substation which keeps the
record of voltage variation.

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Integrating instruments
 Totalize events for a specified period of time
 Summation they give is the product of time and electrical
quantity.
E S . I N
 Eg; energy meter N O T
KTU

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 i) Direct measuring instrument
- convert energy of measurand directly into energy that
actuates the instrument and the value of unknown quantity
is measured or displayed or recorded directly.
S . I N
Eg: ammeter, voltmeter NOTE
K T U
ii) comparison instruments
- measures the unknown quantity by comparison with a
standardridges
Eg: dc and ac bridges

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 Principle of operation

 The effects they utilize are

i) magnetic effect ii) electrostatic effect iii)heating
effect iv) electromagnetic effect v) hall effect

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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 Magnetic effect

S . I N
T U N OTE
K

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Force of attraction or repulsion

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T U N OTE
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 Coil and magnet (PMMC)

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Between two coil (Dynamometer type)

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 Thermal effect
- current to be measured is passed through a small
element which heats it.
- temp rise is converted to an EMFIby
N a
thermocouple attached E S .
T element.
KTU NtoOthe

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 Electrostatic effect
- when two plates are charged , force is exerted
between them, which is used to move one of plates.
-instrument working on this principle
I N is called
E S .
NOT
electrostatic instruments.
KTU

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 HALL EFFECT

S . I N
T U N OTE
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