Clippers

• Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a portion of

an input signal without distorting the remaining part of the applied
waveform.
• There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel.

The series configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series with the
load, whereas the parallel variety has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.
Series clipper:
Series clipper with a dc supply

• The added dc supply V will oppose that applied voltage and try to keep the diode in
the “off” state.
• The result is that any supply voltage greater than V volts will turn the diode on and
conduction can be established through the load resistor.
• We are dealing with an ideal diode for the moment, so the turn-on voltage is simply
0 V.
 For the “on” region, the diode is replaced by a short-circuit equivalent,

and the output voltage is defined by

For the “off” region, the diode is an open circuit, ID =0 mA, and the output voltage is
Q. Determine the output waveform for the sinusoidal input
• Step 1: The output is again directly across the resistor R.
• Step 2: The positive region of vi and the dc supply are both applying “pressure” to
turn the diode on. The result is that we can safely assume the diode is in the “on”
state for the entire range of positive voltages for vi. Once the supply goes
negative, it would have to exceed the dc supply voltage of 5 V before it could turn
the diode off.
• Step 3: the transition from one state to the other will occur when
• Step 4: For voltages less than 25 V the diode is in the open-circuit
state and the output is 0V,
using Kirchhoff’s voltage law
: vo = vi + 5 V
Parallel clipper:
Q. Determine vo for the network

 when the diode is on the output will be 4 V.

Other than that, when the diode is an open circuit, the current through the series network will be
0 mA and the voltage drop across the resistor will be 0 V.
 That will result in vo = v i whenever the diode is off.
• the transition level is drawn along with vo = 4 V when the diode is on.
• For vi ≥ 4 V, vo = 4 V, and the waveform is simply repeated on the
output plot.
CLAMPERS
• A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a resistor, and a
capacitor that shifts a waveform to a different dc level without
changing the appearance of the applied signal.
• Clamping networks have a capacitor connected directly from input
to output with a resistive element in parallel with the output signal.
The diode is also in parallel with the output signal but may or may
not have a series dc supply as an added element.
Step 1: Start the analysis by examining the response of the portion of the input signal
that will forward bias the diode.
Step 2: During the period that the diode is in the “on” state, assume that the capacitor
will charge up instantaneously to a voltage level determined by the surrounding
network.
Step 3: Assume that during the period when the diode is in the “off” state
the capacitor holds on to its established voltage level.
Step 4: Throughout the analysis, maintain a continual awareness of the
location and defined polarity for vo to ensure that the proper levels are
obtained.
Step 5: Check that the total swing of the output matches that of the input.
Q. Determine vo for the network for the input indicated
frequency is 1000 Hz, resulting in a period of 1 ms and an interval of 0.5 ms between levels.
The analysis will begin with the period t1 to t2 of the input signal since the diode is in its short-circuit
state.
For this interval the network will appear as shown

The result is vo = 5 V for this interval.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the input loop results in
-20 V + VC - 5 V = 0
and VC = 25 V
 applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law

the period t2 t3 the network will appear as

The time constant of the discharging network is determined by the product

RC and has the magnitude

The total discharge time is

Zener diode
Zener diode
• Zener diodes are special semiconductor devices that exhibit a
unique voltage regulation characteristic. Their ability to maintain
a constant voltage under reverse bias conditions makes them
essential components in various electronic circuits.
V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode
Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode
The first quadrant in the graph represents the forward characteristics of a Zener
diode.

Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

• When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener voltage, a small reverse
saturation current Io flows across the diode.
• This current is due to thermally generated minority carriers. As the reverse
voltage increases, at a certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse current
increases drastically and sharply.
• This is an indication that the breakdown has occurred. We call this voltage
breakdown voltage or Zener voltage, and Vz denotes it.
Zener Diode: R everse Bias Breakdown
Breakdown Voltage
R everse Bias

Unlike standard diodes, zener diodes are When reverse bias voltage exceeds a specific
designed to operate in reverse bias, where the value, called the Zener voltage (Vz), the diode
negative terminal is connected to the higher enters a breakdown region.
voltage.
Zener diode
• Zener breakdown, will contribute to the sharp change in the
characteristic. It occurs because there is a strong electric field in the
region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces within the
atom and “generate” carriers.
• Although the Zener breakdown mechanism is a significant contributor
only at lower levels of VBV, this sharp change in the characteristic at
any level is called the Zener region, and
• diodes employing this unique portion of the characteristic of a p–n
junction are called Zener diodes.
Application of Zener Diode
• Zener diode as a voltage regulator:
The zener diode is used as a Shunt voltage regulator for regulating voltage across small
loads.
The Zener diode is connected parallel to the load to make it reverse bias, and once the
Zener diode exceeds knee voltage, the voltage across the load will become constant.
The breakdown voltage of Zener diodes will be constant for a wide range of currents.
• Zener diode in over-voltage protection:
When the input voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the voltage across
the resistor drops resulting in a short circuit, this can be avoided by using the Zener
diode.
• Zener diode in clipping circuits:
Zener diode is used for modifying AC waveform clipping circuits by limiting the parts of
either one or both the half cycles of an AC waveform.
Opto-Electronic Devices – LEDs
• The light-emitting diode is a diode that gives off visible or invisible
(infrared) light when energized. In any forward-biased p–n junction
there is, within the structure and primarily close to the junction, a
recombination of holes and electrons.
• This recombination requires that the energy possessed by the
unbound free electrons be transferred to another state. In all
semiconductor p–n junctions some of this energy is given off in the
form of heat and some in the form of photons.
In Si and Ge diodes the greater percentage of the energy converted during recombination at the
junction is dissipated in the form of heat within the structure, and the emitted light is insignificant.
For this reason, silicon and germanium are not used in the construction of LED devices.
On the other hand:
Diodes constructed of GaAs emit light in the infrared (invisible) zone during the
recombination process at the p–n junction.
• The wavelength of 869 nm places GaAs in
the wavelength zone typically used in
infrared devices.
• For a compound material such as GaAsP
(Gallium arsenide phosphide) with a band
gap of 1.9 eV the resulting wavelength is
654 nm, which is in the center of the red
zone, making it an excellent compound
semiconductor for LED production.

The wavelength and frequency of light of a specific

color are directly related to the energy band gap of
the material
Standard response curve of the human eye, showing
the eye’s response to light energy peaks at green and
falls off for blue and red.
Photodiode: The photodiode is a semiconductor p–n junction device
whose region of operation is limited to the reverse-bias region.

(b) symbol.

(a) basic biasing arrangement and

construction;
 Photodiode characteristics

The dark current is that current that will

exist with no applied illumination.
Note that the current will only return to
zero with a positive applied bias equal
to VT.
Applications of photodiode

1. Alarm System:
• Photodiode is employed in an alarm
system.
• The reverse current Iʎ will continue
to flow as long as the light beam is
not broken.
• If the beam is interrupted, Iʎ drops
to the dark current level and sounds
the alarm
2. Counter
• A photodiode is used to count items on a conveyor belt.
• As each item passes, the light beam is broken, Iʎ drops to the dark
current level, and the counter is increased by one.