GCU1 : GENERALITIES ON A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Introduction
Our lifestyles have changed considerably with the advancement in technology especially in the field of computers.
Computers are an integral part of our lifestyles today and are found at offices, homes, schools, colleges, hotels,
shops etc. This advance in technology has made our lives easy and comfortable. For instance, we can execute a
number of activities using computer-based systems- we can write a draft on word processor and email it, make
calculations using an electronic spreadsheet and incorporate graphics, create a database of friends with their phone
numbers, addresses and e-mail ids etc. It is an arduous process to perform these activities using existing traditional
methods.

OVERVIEW ON COMPUTER
A Computer is an electronic device capable of receiving, processing and store data automatically. The four basic
operations of a computer are then: input, processing, output and storage. Computers accept data (input), process
the data according to specified rules (processing), produce results (output) and store the results for future use
(storage). The computer is made up into two main parts: a physical part called Hardware and a logical part called
Software. The functional diagram of a computer can be represented as follow:

Input Processor Output

devices Data Information
devices

Storage
devices

Common words and expressions related to computer are:

Data: is what we feed into the computer. There are raw facts (text, image, sound, …) that still need to be processed
(organized and arranged) into a form that can be understood and used, and later stored. Examples: population
statistics, blood samples in a hospital, pictures, …
Data processing: This is the term used when a computer follows the directives of programs installed in it to
transform the input data to obtain meaningful output. The processing is handled mainly by the processor of the
computer system
Information: This is meaningful and useful material that is derived from the processing of data. Information is
what comes out as output. Example: Result of laboratory test, the percentage of success on GCE, …The
relationship between data and information can be given as follows:

Data Information
(Raw facts) + Data transformation = (Useful and relevant knowledge)

Relationship between data and information

Computing: This is the act of developing and using the computer to perform an activity. It includes the designing
and building of hardware and software systems for a wide range of purposes, processing and managing various
kind of information, doing scientific studies using computers, …
Computer science: It is the study of computers and their applications, including their design, operation, and use
in processing information.

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ICT: stands for Information and Communication Technologies. It is the application of modern communications,
computing and digital technologies to create, store, exchange and use information in it various forms.
Program: Set of instructions that enable a computer to perform a given task.
Computer Literacy: It is the knowledge and ability to use computers and technologies efficiently.

Advantages of computers
Compared to traditional systems, computers offer many noteworthy advantages. This is one reason that
traditional systems are being replaced rapidly by computer-based systems. The main advantages offered by
computers are as follows:
 High speed: Computers have the ability to perform routine tasks at a greater speed than human beings. They
can perform millions of calculations in seconds.
 Accuracy: Computers are used to perform tasks in a way that ensures accuracy.
 Storage: Computers can store large amount of information.
 Automation: Computers can be instructed to perform complex tasks automatically and repeatedly (which
increases the productivity).
 Diligence: Computers can perform the same task repeatedly & with the same accuracy without getting tired.
 Versatility: Computers are flexible to perform both simple and complex tasks.
 Cost effectiveness: Computers reduce the amount of paper work and human effort, thereby reducing costs.

Limitations of computers
 Computers need clear & complete instructions to perform a task accurately. If the instructions are not clear
& complete, the computer will not produce the required result.
 Computers cannot think.
 Computers cannot learn by experience.

Disadvantages of computer
 Unemployment
 Hacking and Viruses
 Sicknesses (eyepain, backpain, …)
 Laziness and Dependency
 …

EVOLUTION OF MACHINES
Computers of today are quite powerful, sophisticated and very fast. They were not so in their earlier stages. In
fact they have travelled a long distance from primitiveness to sophistication. Before the invention of the computer,
many other devices were used for calculation. The evolution of the computer can be divided into two main eras:
The mechanical era and the electronic era.

Earliers calculation machines (mechanical era)

These are some machine used for calculation before the invention of computer:

Abacus emerged around 5000 years ago in Asia Minor and it is still in use in some parts of the world today.
Napier Bones: It has been invented by John Napier, a Scottish mathematician, in 1614. This device enabled
multiplication in a fast manner, if one of the numbers was of one digit only (for example, 6 × 6745).
Pascaline: In 1642, Blaise Pascal, a French mathematician, scientist and philosopher, invented the first functional
automatic calculator. However, the usage of this device was limited to addition and subtraction only

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Leibniz Calculator: In 1694, Von Leibniz, a German mathematician, built a more advanced calculating
machine. It was a calculation device which could perform additions and subtractions along with multiplication
and division
Jacquard’s Loom: In 1801, Joseph Jacquard invented a new type of loom for weaving cloth. Punched cards were
used to control the operation of the loom.
Difference Engine: In 1822, Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics, devised a calculating machine
known as difference engine, which could be used to mechanically generate mathematical tables.
Analytical Engine: Analytical engine is considered to be the first general-purpose programmable computer. It
was invented in 1835 by Charles Babbage.
Hollerith's Tabulator: Herman Hollerith invented the punched-card tabulating machine to process the data
collected in the United States'. This electronic machine was able to read the information on the cards and process
it electronically. In 1896, Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine Company, which was later named as IBM
(International Business Machines).

Some earlier computers (electronic era)

These well-known computers of the past are considered to be predecessors of modern computers.

MARK-I Computer: From the year 1937 to 1944, Howard Aiken, an American mathematician, developed
MARK-I. It was essentially a serial collection of electromechanical calculators and had many similarities to
Babbage's analytical
ABC Computer: At the end of 1939, John Vincent Atansoft and Clifford Berry built the first electronic
computer named as ABC (Atansoft Berry Computer). It is considered the first computing machine, which
introduced the idea of binary arithmetic, regenerative memory and logic circuits.
Colossus: In 1944, Alan Mathison Turing, a British mathematician, created a computer called the colossus,
which comprised 1800 vacuum tubes. It was one of the world's earliest working programmable electronic digital
computers.
ENIAC: In 1946, John Eckert and John Mauchly developed Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
(ENIAC). ENIAC consisted of 18,000 vacuum tubes, which required around 160 KWof electricity and weighed
nearly 30 tons.
EDVAC: John Eckert and John Mauchly also proposed the development of Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer (EDVAC). EDVAC was completed by 1946 and came into existence only in 1949. EDVAC
contained approximately 4000 vacuum tubes and 10,000 crystal diodes.
UNIVAC: The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) was the first commercially available electronic
computer. It was manufactured by the Eckert Mauchly Corporation in 1951 and its implementation marked the
real beginning of the computer era.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Computer being an electronic device, its size, capabilities and power at any time are greatly influenced by the
existing state of electronics of that time. The evolution of computer can be better understood if we put it in terms
of the different generations of computers.

First generation (1940–1956)

First generation computers were voluminous in size. They were made using vacuum tubes. Their memories
were made of thin tubes of liquid mercury and magnetic drums. Some of first-generation computers are ENIAC,
EDVAC and UNIVAC I etc.
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Second generation (1956–1963)
Transistor was invented as a smaller and more reliable successor of the vacuum tube. The transistor was more
reliable, less expensive, and smaller than the smallest vacuum tube. It consumed very little power and produced
much less heat. This development brought the computers very close to man and made it a very popular machine.
Some of the names of second-generation computers are IBM series, UNIVAC III, CDC 1400 series, Honeywell
etc.

Third generation (1964–early 1970s)

The development of integrated circuit (semiconductor devices with several transistors built into one physical
component) was another milestone in the history of computer science. The first ICs were based on small-
scale integration (SSI) circuits, which had around 10 devices per circuit (or ‘chip’), and evolved to the use of
medium-scale integrated (MSI) circuits, which had up to 100 devices per chip. These computers had better
storage devices and improved input/output devices, such as Visual Display Unit (VDU), Magnetic Ink
Character Reader (MICR) and high-speed line printers. These computers used operating system. Some of
the popular computers of this generation are IBM 360 series, 370 series, UNIVAC, HOG 9000 series etc

Fourth generation (early 1970s–present)

The development of microprocessor chip that contains entire central processing unit (CPU) on a single
silicon chip led to the invention of fourth generation computers. Large scale integration (LSI - 1000 devices
per chip) and very large scale integration (VLSI - 100,000 devices per chip) were used in the construction of the
fourth generation computers. graphical user interface (GUI) was introduced. In a graphical user interface, users
interact with programs that run in their own sizeable windows.

Fifth generation (present and beyond)

Fifth generation computers are dreams of Japanese scientists. They are expected to combine very-large-scale
integration (VLSI) with sophisticated approaches to computing, including Artificial Intelligence. These
computers will have Knowledge Information Processing System (KIPS) rather than the present Data/Logic
Information Processing System. Japan has chosen the PROLOG (Programming in logic) language as its
operating software and plans to have the final machine, which will talk with human beings, see and
deliver pictures and hear man’s natural language.

SUMMARY
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
Generation Years Circuitry Technology Main characteristics
First (1940–1956) Vacuum tubes Difficult to program voluminous in size

Second (1956–1963) Transistors more reliable, less expensive, consumed very

little power and produced much less heat
Third (1964–1970) Integrated circuits SSI and MSI VDU and GUI

Fourth (1970–present) Microprocessor LSI and Development of GUI

VLSI
Fifth (present and Artificial Communicate with human being and hear
future) Intelligence human natural language

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TYPES OF COMPUTERS
These days, computers are available in many sizes and types. Some computers can fit in the palm of the hand,
while some can occupy the entire room. Computers also differ based on their data-processing abilities. Based on
the physical size, performance and application areas, we can generally divide computers into four major
categories: microcomputer, minicomputer, mainframe computer and supercomputers.

Figure 1. Classification of Computers

Microcomputers
Microcomputer is the smallest category of computers, in which single microchip is used for two basic units i.e.
Arithmetic and Logical Unit (ALU) and Control Unit. This microchip is often referred to as microprocessor.
Microcomputers are further classified into following categories:

- Desktop computers also known as the PC (Personal Computer), is principally intended for stand-alone use
by an individual
- Laptop computers A laptop is a portable computer that a user can carry around. Since the laptop resembles a
notebook, it is also known as the notebook computer
- Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) A hand-held computer such as a PDA is a portable computer that can
conveniently be stored in a pocket (of sufficient size) and used while the user is holding it.

Minicomputers
A minicomputer (sometimes called a mid-range computer) is designed to meet the computing needs of several
people simultaneously in a small-to medium-sized business environment. It is capable of supporting from four to
about 200 simultaneous users. It serves as a centralized storehouse for a cluster of workstations or as a network
server. Minicomputers are usually multi-user systems so these are used in interactive applications in industries,
research organizations, colleges and universities. Some of the widely used minicomputers are PDP 11, IBM (8000
series) and VAX 7500.

Mainframes
A mainframe is an ultra-high performance computer made for high-volume, processor-intensive computing. It
consists of a high-end computer processor, with related peripheral devices, capable of supporting large volumes
of data processing, high-performance online transaction processing, and extensive data storage and retrieval.
Normally, it is able to process and store more data than a minicomputer and far more than a microcomputer.
Mainframes can usually execute many programs simultaneously at a high speed, whereas supercomputers are
designed for a single process.

Supercomputers
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Supercomputers are the special-purpose machines, which are especially designed to maximize the numbers of
floating point operations per second (FLOPS). A supercomputer can process a great deal of data and make
extensive calculations very quickly. It can resolve complex mathematical equations in a few hours, which
would have taken many years when performed using a paper and pencil or using a hand calculator. It is the
fastest, costliest and most powerful computer available today.

COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
Computers are used in a vast number of areas or applications such as:
 Business and Commerce: To keep records of stock control or daily sales.
 Hospitals: To keep a patient’s records and control specific devices.
 Libraries: To keep records of books and borrowers.
 School: To keep personal records, records of students’ attendance and their performance, teachers’
schedules, and examination questions.
 Banking: For allowing customers to find out their account balances or for clerks to record transactions.
 Pharmacies or Chemists: To keep stock of medicines, cash tellers, and controlling of stock.
 Reservation Systems: To check whether there is free space in a bus, flight, free rom in hotel.
 Offices: To process reports and outgoing mail.
 Home: For playing games, storing pictures and information, playing music etc.
 Manufacturing Industries: To control the process in manufacturing.

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COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
I. Hardware
Computer hardware refers to the physical or tangible parts of a computer system. They are the components of
the computer which can be seen and touched. These physical components that make up the computer are: central
processing unit (CPU), computer memory, motherboard, ports, buses, hard disk, input devices and output devices.
Software is the collection of computer programs and data that run on a computer, and which make the hardware
useful. It refers to the intangible components of the computer system. The standard architecture used in designing
computer is the Von Neumann’s architecture.
1. The Von Neumann’s Computer Architecture
The Von Neumann architecture is a design model for a stored-program digital computer. A stored-program
computer is one which stores program instructions in electronic memory. This model was designed by the
Hungarian born Mathematician, John Von Neumann. Its main characteristic is a single separate storage structure
(the memory) that holds both program and data. This ensures that by altering the stored program, the computer
can perform a different task. Neumann divided the computer into five primary groups: CPU, input, output,
working storage and permanent storage.

The Von Neumann architecture model

A computer with a Von Neumann architecture stores program data and instruction data in the same memory. One
of the other architectures called the Harvard architecture has separate memories for storing program and data.

1.1. The Central Processing Unit

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the part of the computer that coordinates and controls the activities of all
other units in the computer system. It executes program instructions and manipulates data in accordance with the
instructions. It is referred to as the brain of the computer. All computers, large and small, must have a central
processing unit. The CPU consists of two parts: the control unit and the arithmetic-logic unit.

a. The Control Unit

The control unit acts like supervisor seeing that things are done as they ought to. It locates and retrieves program
instructions from memory, interprets them and ensures that program instructions are followed in proper sequence.
It also ensures that data is selected from memory as necessary and information is stored correctly as well as.

b. The Arithmetic-Logic Unit

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The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic and logic operations. It contains arithmetic circuits that
perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and logic circuits that
perform comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, greater than or equal to and less than or equal to.

c. Registers
Registers are special storage locations within the CPU that offer an advantage of speed. They work under the
direction of the control unit to accept and hold data that is being processed. Since the CPU uses registers for the
processing of data, the number of registers in a CPU and the size of each register affect the power and speed of
the CPU. Registers are grouped into two: special purpose registers and general-purpose registers. Special purpose
registers are dedicated to specific tasks like:
o the accumulator, which collects the result of computations,
o the memory address register (MAR), which keeps track of where a given instruction or piece of data is
stored in memory
o the memory data register (MDR) which holds data values
o the program counter (PC), which keeps the address of the next instruction to be executed.
o the instruction register (IR) which holds the current instruction being executed.
General purpose registers on the other hand have no specific function; they are used according to the need of the
program being executed.

d. System Clock
The CPU has an internal clock that ticks continuously at a regular rate to synchronize all computer operations.
Clock speed is measured in megahertz (Hz) or gigahertz (GHz) and refers to the number of cycles per second that
the CPU runs at. During each cycle, one instruction is processed. 1 MHz means 1 million cycles per second or
one million instructions can be performed in one second and 1 GHz means one billion instructions per second.
The faster the clock speed, the more the more the instructions that can be processed in a given period of time.
Clock speed is the same as CPU speed.

e. The Machine or Instruction Cycle

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The machine or instruction cycle describes how machine instructions are repeatedly fetched, decoded and
executed, one machine instruction at a time, until an instruction to HALT is encountered. Before an instruction
can be fetched, it must be placed into memory as well as related data, from an input or secondary storage device.
Once the necessary data and instructions are in memory, the central processing unit performs the following four
steps for each instruction:
1. The control unit fetches (gets) data and instructions from memory.
2. The control unit decodes the instructions i.e. determines what they mean, and directs that the necessary
data be moved to the arithmetic-logic unit.
3. The arithmetic-logic unit then executes the instruction on the data. That is, the ALU is given control and
performs the actual operation on the data.
4. The arithmetic-logic unit stores the result of this operation in memory or in a register.

The Instruction Cycle

Steps 1 and 2 together are called instruction time or I-time and steps 3 and 4 together are called execution time
or E-time. The combination of I-time and E-time is called the machine or instruction cycle or the fetch-decode-
execute cycle. The length of time taken to fetch-decode-execute an instruction is measured in clock cycles.

f. System Bus
A computer bus is a set of parallel lines that interconnects various components inside the computer, allowing the
exchange of data between them. It is the pathway between these components, enabling data to be transferred from
one component to another. The width of a bus is determined by the number of lines it has. The system bus is
made up of three types of bus: the data bus, the address bus and the control bus.
 The Data Bus: the data bus carries data between the CPU and memory or peripherals. During a write
operation, data is carried from the CPU and during a read operation, data is carried into the CPU. This
means that the data bus is bidirectional. The width of the data determines the maximum number of bits,
which can be transferred simultaneously between two modules.
 Address bus: is used to specify a physical memory address. This can include primary memory (e.g. RAM
and ROM) secondary memory (e.g. hard disk drives) and any other connected devices. Monitors, printers,
scanners, and keyboards will all be mapped to memory. The width of the address bus determines the
amount of memory that can be addressed. A 32-bit bus can address 4,294,967,296 (2 ^ 32) bytes of
memory. This explains the 4 GB memory restriction on 32-bit operating systems.
 Control bus: Control bus carries commands from and returns status signals to the microprocessor. These
lines are used for the transmission of commands and timing signals (which validate data and address)
between the system modules.
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The CPU communicates with I/O devices through bus interfaces connected to the system bus. These bus interfaces
also called expansion buses or slots are found on the motherboard. Standard bus interfaces are PCI, ISA, and
AGP.
o PCI: Peripheral Component Interconnect
o ISA: Industry Standard Architecture
o SIMM: Single Inline Memory Module
o DIMM: Dual Inline Memory Module

1.2. Memory
Computer memory consists of components that hold programs and data for use in the computer. Computer
memory can be classified basically into two: primary memory and secondary memory.

1.2.1. Primary Memory

Primary memory is memory that is directly accessible to the CPU. It holds programs and data that the CPU is
currently working with. Primary memory is also called internal memory, immediate access memory or primary
storage. Primary memory consists of RAM, ROM and Cache.

a. Random Access Memory

Random access memory also called “main memory” is the temporary storage space that a computer loads
programs and user data into when it is running. It is the computer’s working space. It is read/write meaning that
data can be read from and written onto it. RAM is also volatile meaning that everything held in it is lost when
power is switched off. Two types of RAM exist: Static RAM and dynamic RAM.
 Static RAM (SRAM) holds data as long as power is on. It does not need to be refreshed.
 Dynamic RAM (DRAM) on the other hand needs to be refreshed every 2ms otherwise the contents will
be lost.
Static RAM is faster and more expensive than dynamic RAM. Due to its cost it is not used as main memory but
rather for cache memory. Main memory is therefore dynamic RAM.

b. Read Only Memory

Read only memory is a kind of memory whose contents can only be read by the computer. Data found in ROM
is written by the manufacturer and cannot be modified by the user. It is useful for holding data that never changes
like the “boot” or start-up program which is run when the computer is switched on. ROM is non-volatile. There
are three types of ROM:
 PROM: Programmable ROM is a type of ROM whose content is written once.
 EPROM: Erasable Programmable ROM is a type of programmable ROM which can be erased by strong
ultraviolet light and new data burnt into it.
 EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM is a type of ROM whose content can be erased
electrically using special software.
An example of ROM on a PC is the BIOS software (Basic Input Output System) that enables the computer to
start up and allows components to communicate with each other.
c. Cache Memory
Cache memory is a smaller and faster memory between the CPU and main memory, which stores copies of data
from the most frequent memory locations. It stores copies of data that is frequently used by the CPU, hereby

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reducing the average time to access memory. Cache is static RAM and is usually organized in levels: Level 1
(L1) cache, Level 2 and Level 3 cache.
Level 1 cache is closest to the CPU or within it. L2 and L3 cache are outside it.
When the CPU needs to access memory, cache memory is examined. If the data is found in cache, it is read from
it. Otherwise, main memory is accessed. When the CPU refers to memory and finds the data in cache, it is said to
be a HIT. Otherwise, it is a MISS.
1.2.2. Secondary Memory
Secondary memory is memory which is not directly accessible to the CPU. It is used to store programs and data
for future use. It could be placed within the computer or connected externally. Programs and data from secondary
memory must be transferred to primary memory for execution. Secondary memory is also called mass storage,
backing storage or external storage. Different types of secondary memory can be divided into magnetic storage,
optical storage and solid-state storage.

a. Magnetic Storage
Magnetic storage devices store data as electromagnetic charges on the magnetic surfaces of the storage units.
Examples are floppy disks, hard disks and magnetic tape.

b. Optical Storage
Compact Disc, Digital Versatile (Video) Disc, Blu-ray Disc

c. Solid State Storage

Solid state storage devices store computer data on non-volatile "flash" memory chips rather than by changing the
surface properties of a magnetic or optical spinning disk. With no moving parts solid state drives (SSDs) -- are
also very much the future for almost all forms of computer storage. Example of such devices include:
Flash Drive, Memory Card, Secure Digital Disk:

1.2.3. Memory Hierarchy

Memory is characterized on the basis of two key factors: capacity and access time. Capacity is the maximum
amount of data that a memory can store while access time is the time interval between the read/write request and
the availability of data. The computer. The hierarchy of the different memory types is shown below. The speed
increases as we go up the pyramid with registers being fastest and backing storage devices like hard disks, Flash,
CDs and DVDs being slowest.

Memory Hierarchy Pyramid

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1.3. Input/Output or peripheral Devices

The computer system essentially consists of three components: input devices, central processing unit and output
devices. In the computer terminology, a device can be referred as a unit of hardware, which is capable of providing
input to the computer or receiving output or both.
An input device can be defined as an electromechanical device that allows the user to feed data into the computer
for analysis and storage, and to give commands to the computer. Some of the commonly used input devices are
keyboard, pointing devices like mouse and joystick, speech recognition system, digital camera, scanners etc.
An output device is an electromechanical device, which converts machine-readable information into human-
readable form. Some of the commonly used output devices are Printer, plotter (a pen-based output device that is
used to draw high resolution charts, graphs, blueprints, maps, circuit diagrams and other line-based diagrams),
monitor, projector, headphone/headset (A headset is a combination of one or two speakers and a microphone)

1.4. The other component of the system unit

Most computers contain thes devics inside the case
A motherboard: the largest and most important circuit board in the computer; also called the main board or the system
board. It contains the CPU and other components
A power supply: with power cords supplying electricity to all devices inside the case
Adapter cards: also called expension cards or simply cards, are installed in long narrow expansion slots on the
motherboard and are used by the CPU to communicate with devices inside and outside the case
Cables: data cables connecting devices to one another and power cables or power cords supplying power to adapter cards
and the motherboard ; the two common cable types are SATA cables and IDE cables
Hard drive and optical drive (CD or DVD): used for permanent storage
Chipset: that supports the processor by controlling many motherboard activities; it is a group of microchips on the
motherboard that control the flow of data and instructions to and from the processor.
Fans: that keep the processor and the power supply cool
BIOS : it’s a special ROM chip that stores data and instructions needed on the I/O to start the computer
CMOS battery : it supply energy to the CMOS RAM or simply the CMOS that stored the settings (such as date and time) of
the motherboard on a firmware (term that designates a software embedded into hardware) chip

2. Processor Architecture
An instruction set is the totality of recognized commands that a processor accepts as valid. Instructions perform
primitive operations such as "add 2 to register R1", "store contents of R6 into memory location 0xFF32", etc.
There are two types of fundamental CPU architectures based on the instruction set: complex instruction set
computers and reduced instruction set computers.

2.1. Complex Instruction Set Computers

CISC is a CPU design with a large number of complex machine language instructions. In CISC processors, the
control unit contains a number of micro-electronic circuitry to generate a set of control signals and each micro-
circuitry is activated by a microcode. Complex instructions are first decoded and the corresponding microcode
routine dispatched to the execution unit.
The standard features of CISC processors are:
o a large amount of different and complex instructions.
o the use of complex addressing modes (an addressing mode refers to the way in which the processor locates
the data (also called an operand) associated with an instruction).
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o the use micro-program control unit.
o limited number of registers.
o variable length instruction encoding
o direct memory access
Examples of CISC processors are: Intel 386, 486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Motorola’s
68000, 68020, 68040, etc.

2.2. Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RSIC)

RISC is a CPU design with a small number of basic and simple machine language instructions, from which more
complex instructions can be composed. RISC instructions are hardwired. That is, they are built into the chip with
hardware rather than programming. Hardware implementation of instructions is much faster and uses less silicon.
The standard features of RISC processors are:
o a small and limited number of instructions.
o the use of hardwired control unit.
o consumption of less power and high performance
o instructions are very simple and consistent
o the use of simple addressing modes
o fixed length instructions (easier to decode)
Examples of RISC processors are: IBM RS6000, MC88100, DEC’s Alpha 21064, 21164 and 21264 processors,
Motorola/IBM PowerPC
Examples of modern processor
Intel has been making class leading processors for computers for a long time now. They overcame a period where
AMD reigned as king by releasing their line of Core 2 processors in 2006. Now Intel has a new line of processors
called the Core I series. The i3, the i5 and the i7 are the new kids on the block.
CORE i3 is a basic level processor type of the new generation launched by Intel. All Core i3s are dual-core
processors. They have a Clock speeds ranging from 2.93 to 3.06 GHz. They possess 3MB of cache.
CORE i5
– i5-Dual core has a 32 nm fabrication? 4 MB cache is present in i5. The range of their clock speeds is between
3.2 to 3.6 GHz for Dual cores.
– i5–Quad Core. Quad cores clock speeds of 2.4 and 2.66 GHz. Turbo Boost technology Supported, don’t
support Hyperthreading and don’t have an Integrated Graphics Processor. They have 6MB - 8MB of cache
CORE i7-High end processor. They are also the fastest and the most expensive in the lot. Total 4 Cores are
present as they are quad core. The range of clock speeds is 1.06 GHz to 3.20 GHz, 8MB of cache is given. The
IGP [Integrated Graphics] on Core i7 processors can also reach a higher maximum clock speed of 1350 MHz
Presentation and roles of programs, their applications.

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II. Software Program
Computer programs, known as software, are instructions that tell a computer what to do. A program is a series
of step-by-step instructions that provides a solution to a particular problem and directs the computer on what to
do exactly. Software is all around you, even in devices that you might not think would need it. Of course, you
expect to find and use software on a personal computer, but software also plays a role in running airplanes, cars,
cell phones, and even toasters. On a personal computer, you use software such as word processors to write
documents, Web browsers to explore the Internet, and e-mail programs to send messages. Computers do not
understand human languages, so programs must be written in a language a computer can use. There are
hundreds of programming languages, and they were developed to make the programming process easier for
people. However, all programs must be converted into a language the computer can understand.

Machine or Binary language: A computer’s native language, which differs among different types of computers,
is its machine language (a set of built-in primitive instructions). These instructions are in the form of binary
code, so if you want to give a computer an instruction in its native language, you have to enter the instruction as
binary code. For example, to add two numbers, you might have to write an instruction in binary code, like this:
1101101010011010
Assembly Language: Programming in machine language is a tedious process. Moreover, programs written in
machine language are very difficult to read and modify. For this reason, low-level languages or assembly
language was created in the early days of computing as an alternative to machine languages. Assembly language
uses a short descriptive word, known as a mnemonic, to represent each of the machine-language instructions. For
example, the mnemonic add typically means to add numbers and sub means to subtract numbers. To add the
numbers 2 and 3 and get the result, you might write an instruction in assembly code like this: add 2, 3, result
Assembly languages were developed to make programming easier. However, because the computer cannot
understand assembly language, another program—called an assembler—is used to translate assembly-language
programs into machine code.
High-Level Language: In the 1950s, a new generation of programming languages known as high-level
languages emerged. They are platform-independent, which means that you can write a program in a high-level
language and run it in different types of machines. High-level languages are English-like and easy to learn and
use. The instructions in a high-level programming language are called statements. Here, for example, is a high-
level language statement that computes the area of a circle with a radius of 5: area = 5 * 5 * 3.1415
There are many high-level programming languages, and each was designed for a specific purpose.

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Regardless of the distribution model, computer software has two major categories namely system software and
application software.

1. System Software
System software control and coordinate computer resources so that the computer user and applications can
smoothly interact. System software functions as a bridge between computer system hardware and the application
software. Without system software, a modern digital computer would be virtually impossible to use. Examples
include: Operating systems, system BIOS, utility programs, device drivers and programming tools.

1.1. Operating System

An operating system is software that manages the computer’s resources both hardware and software, and provides
an interface through which a human can interact with the computer. It also provides a platform that allows
application programs to interact with system resources like the CPU, memory and input/output resources. The
operating system is the most important software for a computer system. Without an operating system, every
computer program would have to contain instructions telling the hardware each step the hardware should take to
do its job, such as storing a file on a disk or accessing an I/O device. The operating system containing these
instructions, any program can call on the operating system when a service is needed. The most common OS are
Windows (XP, Vista, 7 and 8), Mac OS x and Linux.

1.2. Device Driver

A device driver is software that allows interaction between the operating system and a hardware device. It is an
interface for communicating with the device through the specific computer bus that the hardware is connected to.
Without an appropriate device driver the system cannot communicate with a device, rendering the device useless.
Installation of device drivers usually happens automatically when hardware is connected, or from a CD provided
with the device. Sometimes a driver needs to be updated to stay functional.

1.3. Utility Programs

Utility programs are programs that are used to enhance the operating system, or in some other way improve the
usefulness of the system. They help analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer. Rather than
providing user-oriented or output-oriented functionality, utility software focus on how the computer infrastructure
operates. Most major operating systems come with several pre-installed utilities. Examples of utility software
include: disk defragmenters, backup utilities, disk compression utilities, disk cleaners, file managers and virus
checkers.
o Disk defragmenters: detect computer files whose contents are broken across several locations on the hard
disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
o Disk cleaners: find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up considerable amounts of
space. Disk cleaners help users decide what to delete when their hard disk is full.
o Backup utilities: make copies of all information stored on a disk, and restore either the entire disk (e.g. in an
event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).
o Disk compression utilities: reduce the space that a file takes up on disk, increasing the capacity of the disk.
o File managers: provide a convenient method of performing routine data management tasks, such as deleting,
renaming, moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying data sets.
o Disk partition utilities: divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file system
which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.
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o Disk formatters:
o Virus checkers: prevent, detect, and remove malware.
o

1.4. Programming Software

Programming software provide tools to assist a programmer in writing computer programs. These tools include:
• Compilers: translate instructions written in a high-level language into machine language instructions
• Interpreters: translates and executes instructions written in a high-level language into machine language
instructions one line at a time.
• Debuggers: detect and remove bugs. A bug is an error in a computer program.
• Linkers: link parts of a computer program together.

2. Application Software
Application software directs the computer to perform useful work for end users. They are used to carryout
productive work like typing a letter, designing and invitation card, surfing the Internet, listening to music or
watching a movie. Application software includes a variety of programs that can be subdivided into general
purpose software, special purpose software and custom-written software.

2.1. General Purpose Software

General purpose software is designed for a variety of tasks. It is not limited to one particular function. They also
called generic software and can be found off-the-shelf. That is, they can be bought from the market:
Word Processors like MS Word, Word Perfect
Spreadsheets like MS Excel and Lotus 1-2-3
Database Software like MS Access, dBase, MySQL and Oracle.
Presentation software like MS PowerPoint, HyperStudio and Digital Chisel, O O Impress
Desktop Publishing (DTP) software like MS Publisher, and Adobe PageMaker

2.2. Special Purpose Software

Special purpose software is created to execute a specific task. Examples are web browsers, game applications,
weather forecasting applications, media players etc.

2.3.Custom-Written software
Custom-written software is designed for a specific user and purpose. It is created specifically for the needs of a
user or organization. It is tailored to their exact requirements. It is also called tailor made software or bespoke
software.

3. Operating System Platforms and Interfaces

In computing, a platform is an underlying computer system on which application programs can run. It consists of
an operating system, which in turn is built on the instruction set for a processor or microprocessor, and the
hardware that performs logic operations and manages data movement in the computer. The operating system must
be designed to work with the particular processor’s set of instructions. For example, Microsoft's Windows is built
to work with a series of microprocessors from the Intel Corporation that share the same or similar sets of
instructions. Other operating system platforms are Apple’s Macintosh OS, AmigaOS, Solaris, FreeBSD, OS/2

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Linux for computers and Android, BlackberryOS, Windows Mobile, FirefoxOS and Palm OS for mobile and
handheld devices.
Regardless of their platforms, operating systems provide the environment through which computer users
communicate with the computer. This means of communication is called a user interface. There are different types
of interface, which are useful in different situations and for different types of user.

3.1. Form Based Interface

A form based interface is one that allows the user to communicate with the computer through forms displayed on
the screen. The characteristics of a form based interface are
 It has specified areas for data to be entered
 it has a cursor which moves to the next box to be filled in, sometimes the box is highlighted to make it
clear to the operator where the data is to be inserted
 some of the boxes are more important than others and the cursor will not move on until some data has
been supplied
 it checks that what has been input is sensible for that box before moving on to the next.

3.2. Command Line Interface

A command line interface is one that allows the user to type in the commands for the computer to carryout. The
user types the commands using a command prompt. It is also called a text based user interface. A command line
interface can be found in MS Disk Operating System and OS/2.

3.3. Menu based Interface

A menu based interface is one that provides the user with a list of commands (menus) from which to choose. The
menus may contain submenus which in turn contain other submenus. It is also called graphical character based
interface. Examples of such interfaces are found in mobile phones.

3.4. Graphical User Interface

A graphical user interface (GUI) also called WIMP interface is one that uses graphical objects (pictures) to ease
the users operation. Commands are issued by using a pointing device to point and click on icons, buttons and
select items from menus. Examples are found in Microsoft Windows, Apple Macintosh and Linux.

3.5. Natural Language Interface

A natural language interface is one that allows the user to give verbal commands to the computer. The user
communicates with the computer through speech. It is also referred to as conversational or speech recognition
interface.

4. Software Distribution License

There are five types of software licenses: Public domain, freeware, shareware and all rights reserved
 Public Domain License
Public domain software has no owner and is not protected by copyright law. It was either created with public
funds, or the ownership was forfeited by the creator. Public domain software can be copied, sold, and/or modified.
It is often is of poor quality or unreliable.
 Freeware License
Freeware is copyrighted software that is licensed to be copied and distributed without charge. Freeware is free,
but it is still under the owner’s control. Examples are Eudora Light and Netscape.
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 Shareware License
A shareware software license allows you to use the software for a trial period, but you must pay a registration fee
to the owner for permanent use. Some shareware trials expire on a certain date. Purchasing (the right to use) the
software may also get you a version with more powerful features and published documentation.
 Open Source License
Open source software is software whose source code is published so that a variety of people can add contributions.
 All Rights Reserved License
All rights reserved licensed software may be used by the purchaser according to the exact details spelled out in
the license agreement.

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