Cell Division Notes

1. Why do cells divide?

- Cells divide to increase the number of somatic (body) cells through mitosis and cytokinesis.
This process is essential for growth and development.

2. What is apoptosis?
- Apoptosis is programmed cell death, which decreases the number of cells. It occurs through
the action of enzymes called caspases.

3. What is the cell cycle?

- The cell cycle is an orderly sequence of events that occurs from the time a cell is first formed
until it divides into two new cells. Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase.

4. What are the stages of interphase?

- G1 stage: Cell growth, doubling of organelles, accumulation of materials for DNA synthesis.
- S stage: DNA synthesis and replication, resulting in duplicated chromosomes.
- G2 stage: Synthesis of proteins needed for cell division.

5. What happens during the mitotic stage?

- During the mitotic stage, mitosis and cytokinesis occur. Sister chromatids of each
chromosome separate, forming the nuclei of the two daughter cells. Cytokinesis cleaves the
cytoplasm, completing the cell division.

6. How is the cell cycle controlled?

- The cell cycle is controlled at three checkpoints: during G1 prior to the S stage, during G2
prior to the M stage, and during the M stage prior to the end of mitosis. DNA damage can stop
the cycle at the G1 checkpoint.

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7. What is the role of caspases in apoptosis?
- Caspases are enzymes that execute apoptosis. The "initiator" caspases activate the
"executioner" caspases, which then activate enzymes that tear apart the cell and its DNA.

8. What is chromatin?
- Chromatin is a tangled mass of thin threads of DNA and associated proteins in a eukaryotic
cell that is not dividing. During cell division, chromatin condenses to form chromosomes.

9. What is the difference between diploid and haploid numbers of chromosomes?

- Diploid (2n) cells contain two chromosomes of each kind, while haploid (n) cells contain one
chromosome of each kind. Somatic cells are diploid, and gametes (sperm and eggs) are haploid.

10. What is the importance of mitosis in the life cycle of organisms?

- Mitosis allows for tissue growth and repair. Following fertilization, the zygote divides
mitotically, and mitosis continues throughout the organism's lifespan.

11. What are the four phases of mitosis?

- Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.

12. How does cytokinesis differ between animal and plant cells?
- In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms and a contractile ring splits the cell. In plant cells, a
cell plate forms during cytokinesis to divide the cell.

13. What is binary fission?

- Binary fission is the process of asexual reproduction in prokaryotes, where the cell divides
into two identical daughter cells.

14. What is meiosis?

- Meiosis is a type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, resulting in
four haploid daughter cells. It ensures genetic diversity in offspring.

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15. What are the two stages of meiosis?
- Meiosis I separates homologous pairs of chromosomes, resulting in haploid cells. Meiosis II
separates sister chromatids, producing four haploid daughter cells.

16. What are the sources of genetic recombination during meiosis?

- Genetic recombination occurs through crossing-over of nonsister chromatids and
independent assortment of homologous chromosomes.

17. How does meiosis differ from mitosis?

- Meiosis includes two divisions, producing four non-identical haploid cells, while mitosis
involves one division, producing two identical diploid cells. Meiosis occurs in reproductive cells,
while mitosis occurs in somatic cells.

18. What is the human life cycle?

- The human life cycle includes both mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis occurs for growth and
repair, while meiosis produces gametes (sperm and eggs) for reproduction.

19. What is spermatogenesis?

- Spermatogenesis is the process of meiosis in males, producing four viable haploid sperm
cells from a diploid primary spermatocyte.

20. What is oogenesis?

- Oogenesis is the process of meiosis in females, producing one haploid egg cell and up to
three polar bodies from a diploid primary oocyte.

21. What ensures genetic diversity in humans?

- Genetic diversity is ensured through independent assortment of chromosomes, crossing-over
during meiosis, and recombination of chromosomes upon fertilization.

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22. Why is apoptosis important?
- Apoptosis is crucial for removing damaged or unnecessary cells during development and
maintaining healthy tissue function.

23. What happens during G1 stage of interphase?

- During G1, the cell grows, doubles its organelles, and accumulates materials necessary for
DNA synthesis.

24. What occurs during the S stage of interphase?

- DNA synthesis and replication occur during the S stage, resulting in duplicated
chromosomes.

25. What proteins are synthesized during the G2 stage?

- Proteins necessary for cell division are synthesized during the G2 stage.

26. What happens at the G1 checkpoint?

- At the G1 checkpoint, the cell assesses DNA damage and determines if conditions are
favorable for DNA synthesis.

27. How do sister chromatids differ from homologous chromosomes?

- Sister chromatids are identical copies of a single chromosome, while homologous
chromosomes are pairs of chromosomes, one from each parent, that have similar but not identical
genetic information.

28. What occurs during prophase of mitosis?

- During prophase, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the nuclear envelope breaks
down, and the mitotic spindle begins to form.

29. What happens during metaphase of mitosis?

- During metaphase, chromosomes align at the metaphase plate in the center of the cell.

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30. Describe the events of anaphase in mitosis.
- During anaphase, sister chromatids separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by
the spindle fibers.

31. What is the role of the contractile ring in cytokinesis?

- The contractile ring, made of actin and myosin filaments, constricts the cell membrane to
divide the cytoplasm and form two daughter cells.

32. What is the significance of the cleavage furrow in animal cell cytokinesis?
- The cleavage furrow forms a constriction between the dividing cells, leading to the
separation of the two daughter cells.

33. What happens during late interphase?

- During late interphase, the cell has completed DNA replication, and centrosomes have
duplicated in preparation for mitosis.

34. What changes occur in early prophase?

- In early prophase, chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, and the mitotic spindle
begins to form.

35. What is the difference between late prophase and early prophase?
- In late prophase, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and spindle fibers attach to the
kinetochores of the chromosomes, whereas in early prophase, chromatin is just beginning to
condense.

36. What characterizes the metaphase stage of mitosis?

- Chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plane, known as the metaphase plate, during
metaphase.

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37. What is the outcome of anaphase?
- Anaphase results in the separation of sister chromatids, which are pulled to opposite poles of
the cell.

38. What occurs during telophase?

- During telophase, the chromosomes reach the poles of the cell, the nuclear envelope re-forms
around each set of chromosomes, and the cell prepares to undergo cytokinesis.

39. What is binary fission in prokaryotes?

- Binary fission is the asexual reproduction process in prokaryotes where a single cell divides
into two genetically identical daughter cells.

40. Why is meiosis important for sexual reproduction?

- Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half, ensuring that offspring have a combination
of traits that differ from either parent and maintaining the species' diploid number upon
fertilization.

41. What happens during synapsis in meiosis I?

- During synapsis, homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material through
crossing-over, leading to genetic recombination.

42. Describe the process of crossing-over.

- Crossing-over involves the exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids of
homologous chromosomes, resulting in new genetic combinations.

43. What is independent assortment?

- Independent assortment is the random distribution of homologous chromosome pairs during
metaphase I of meiosis, contributing to genetic diversity in offspring.

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44. What are the phases of meiosis I?
- The phases of meiosis I are Prophase I (pairing of homologous chromosomes), Metaphase I
(homologous pairs align at the metaphase plate), Anaphase I (homologous chromosomes
separate), and Telophase I (daughter cells become haploid).

45. How does meiosis II differ from meiosis I?

- Meiosis II is similar to mitosis, where sister chromatids separate, resulting in four haploid
daughter cells. No DNA replication occurs between meiosis I and II.

46. What occurs during telophase II of meiosis II?

- In telophase II, the haploid daughter cells form, each with a unique combination of genetic
material, completing the process of meiosis.

47. What is the role of fertilization in the human life cycle?

- Fertilization restores the diploid number of chromosomes, combining genetic material from
both parents to form a genetically unique zygote.

48. How does spermatogenesis differ from oogenesis?

- Spermatogenesis produces four viable haploid sperm cells, while oogenesis produces one
haploid egg cell and polar bodies. Spermatogenesis occurs continuously, while oogenesis has
periodic cycles and completes meiosis II only if fertilization occurs.

49. What ensures genetic diversity in sexually reproducing organisms?

- Genetic diversity is ensured through independent assortment, crossing-over during meiosis,
and the random combination of gametes during fertilization.

50. Why is mitosis essential for organisms?

- Mitosis is essential for growth, development, and repair of tissues in multicellular organisms,
maintaining genetic consistency across somatic cells.

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51. What are the major functions of the nervous system?
- The nervous system has three major functions: sensory input (receiving signals from sensory
receptors), integration (processing and interpreting sensory information), and motor output
(sending commands to muscles and glands to elicit responses).

52. What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
- The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the
brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of all the nerves
that branch out from the brain and spinal cord.

53. What is the role of the central nervous system (CNS)?

- The CNS is responsible for integrating sensory information and responding accordingly. It
acts as the control center for the body, governing thoughts, emotions, and movements.

54. What are the components of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?
- The PNS includes the sensory (afferent) division, which carries sensory signals to the CNS,
and the motor (efferent) division, which transmits commands from the CNS to the muscles and
glands.

55. What are the subdivisions of the motor division of the PNS?
- The motor division of the PNS is subdivided into the somatic nervous system, which controls
voluntary movements of skeletal muscles, and the autonomic nervous system, which regulates
involuntary functions such as heart rate and digestion.

56. What are the two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system?
- The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic nervous system, which
prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations (fight-or-flight response), and the
parasympathetic nervous system, which conserves energy and promotes rest and digestion (rest-
and-digest response).

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57. What is the function of neurons?
- Neurons are the primary cells of the nervous system that transmit electrical and chemical
signals throughout the body. They are responsible for receiving sensory input, processing
information, and sending motor commands.

58. What are the three main types of neurons based on their function?
- The three main types of neurons are sensory neurons (afferent neurons), which carry signals
from sensory receptors to the CNS; motor neurons (efferent neurons), which transmit commands
from the CNS to muscles and glands; and interneurons, which connect neurons within the CNS
and are involved in processing information.

59. What is the structure of a typical neuron?

- A typical neuron consists of a cell body (soma), which contains the nucleus and organelles;
dendrites, which receive signals from other neurons; and an axon, which transmits signals to
other neurons or effector cells.

60. What is the role of myelin sheath in neurons?

- The myelin sheath is a fatty layer that covers the axon of many neurons, providing insulation
and increasing the speed of electrical signal transmission along the axon.

61. What is a synapse?

- A synapse is a junction between two neurons or between a neuron and an effector cell, where
the transmission of electrical or chemical signals occurs.

62. What are neurotransmitters?

- Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse from one
neuron to another or from a neuron to an effector cell.

63. What is the blood-brain barrier?

- The blood-brain barrier is a selective permeability barrier that protects the brain from
harmful substances in the blood while allowing essential nutrients to pass through.

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64. What are the meninges?
- The meninges are three protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord,
consisting of the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.

65. What is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?

- Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear, colorless fluid that surrounds and cushions the brain and spinal
cord, providing mechanical protection and contributing to homeostasis.

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